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Goguryeo or Koguryo was an ancient kingdom located in the northern and central parts of the Korean peninsula, southern Manchuria, and southern Russian Maritime province. Hanja is the Korean name for Chinese characters. More specifically it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated The Revised Romanization of Korean is the official Korean language Romanization system in South Korea. McCune-Reischauer romanization is one of the two most widely used Korean language Romanization systems along with the Revised Romanization of Korean, which Pinyin, more formally Hanyu pinyin, is the most common Standard Mandarin Romanization system in use The modern Russian alphabet is a variant of the Cyrillic alphabet. Physical geography See also Geography of North Korea, Geography of South Korea Mountains cover 70 percent of the Korean Peninsula and arable plains are Manchuria ( Romanized Manchu: Manju,, Маньчжурия Mongolian: Манж is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast Primorsky Krai (Примо́рский край also known as Primorye (ru Примо́рье is a federal subject of Russia (a Krai)
Along with Baekje and Silla, Goguryeo was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE or Paekche, was a kingdom located in southwest Korea Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The Three Kingdoms of Korea ( refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula Goguryeo was an active participant in the power struggle for control of the Korean peninsula as well as associated with the foreign affairs of peer polities in China and Japan. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National This is summary of two more detailed articles Kofun period and Asuka period.
The Samguk Sagi, a 12th century CE Goryeo text, indicates that Goguryeo was founded in 37 BCE by Jumong, a prince from Buyeo, although there is archaeological and textual evidence that suggests Goguryeo culture was in existence since the 2nd century BCE around the fall of Gojoseon, an earlier kingdom that also occupied southern Manchuria and northern Korea. Samguk Sagi ( History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and The Goryeo Dynasty ( 918 - 1392) (also spelled Koryŏ was a Sovereign state established in 918 by Taejo Wang Kon. King Dongmyeong of Goguryeo (58 - 19 BCE r 37 – 19 BCE"Dongmyeongseongwang"(東明聖王 also known by his birth name Jumong, was the founding Monarch Buyeo, Puyŏ, or Fuyu was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom considered the first proper nation of the Korean people. It was a major regional power of East Asia until it was defeated by a Silla-Tang alliance in 668 CE. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by After its defeat, its territory was divided between the Tang Dynasty, Unified Silla and Balhae; some of the territory might have also been taken by the Khitan, still in tribal form at this point. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Unified Silla ( 668 CE - 935 CE or Later Silla is the name often applied to the kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Alternate meaning Bohai Sea Balhae (698 - 926 ( Bohai in Chinese, Пархэ in Russian) was an
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History
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Founding of Goguryeo (c. The history of Korea stretches from Lower Paleolithic times to the present Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. This article is about the prehistory of the Korean Peninsula, from circa 500000 BCE through 300 BCE The Jeulmun Pottery Period is an archaeological era in Korean prehistory that dates to approximately 8000-1500 B The Mumun pottery period is an Archaeological era in Korean prehistory that dates to approximately 1500-300 BC Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom considered the first proper nation of the Korean people. Jin state was an early Iron Age state which occupied some portion of the southern Korean peninsula during the 2nd and 3rd centuries BCE bordering the Korean Proto-Three Kingdoms of Korea refers to the period after the fall of Gojoseon and before the maturation of Goguryeo, Baekje, and Silla into Buyeo, Puyŏ, or Fuyu was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd Okjeo was a small tribal state which arose in the northern Korean peninsula from perhaps 2nd century BCE to 5th century CE Dongye was a state which occupied portions of the northeastern Korean peninsula from roughly 150 BCE to around 400 CE Samhan refers to the ancient confederacies of Mahan, Jinhan, and Byeonhan in central and southern Korean peninsula Mahan was a loose confederacy of statelets that existed from around the 100BCE-300CE in the southern Korean peninsula in the Chungcheong Byeonhan, also known as Byeonjin, was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms that existed from around the beginning of the Common Era to the 4th century in the Jinhan was a loose confederacy of chiefdoms that existed from around the 1st century BC to the 4th century CE in the southern Korean peninsula, to the east of the Nakdong The Three Kingdoms of Korea ( refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE or Paekche, was a kingdom located in southwest Korea Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Gaya was a confederacy of territorial polities in the Nakdong River basin of southern Korea, growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan North South States Period ( 698 CE - 936 CE refers to the period in Korean history when Silla and Balhae Unified Silla ( 668 CE - 935 CE or Later Silla is the name often applied to the kingdom of Silla, one of the Three Kingdoms of Alternate meaning Bohai Sea Balhae (698 - 926 ( Bohai in Chinese, Пархэ in Russian) was an The Later Three Kingdoms of Korea (892 - 936 consisted of Silla, Hubaekje ("Later Baekje " and Taebong (also known as Hugoguryeo The Goryeo Dynasty ( 918 - 1392) (also spelled Koryŏ was a Sovereign state established in 918 by Taejo Wang Kon. The Mongol invasions of Korea (1231 - 1273 consisted of a series of campaigns by the Mongol Empire against Korea, then known as Goryeo, from 1231 to 1259 Two Japanese invasions of Korea and subsequent battles on the Korean peninsula took place during the years 1592-1598 The First Manchu invasion of Korea occurred in 1627 when Hong Taiji led the Manchu army against Korea 's Joseon dynasty. The Korean Empire was a former small empire of Korea that lasted from the Gwangmu Restoration of 1897 until Japan 's annexation of Korea in 1910 Korea under Japanese rule refers to the period between 1910 and 1945 when Korea was forcibly annexed by the Japanese Empire. The Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea was a Government in exile based in Shanghai, China and later in Chongqing, during the The division of Korea into North Korea and South Korea stems from the 1945 Allied victory in World War II, ending Japan For the history of Korea before its division, see History of Korea. For the history of the Korea before its division, see History of Korea. The Korean War refers to a period of military conflict between North Korean and South Korean regimes with major hostilities lasting from June 25 1950 until the The Korean Dynasties are listed in the order of their fall This list includes the monarchs' romanized posthumous or Temple names and reign dates This is a Timeline of the History of Korea. Some dates prior to the 6th century CE are speculative or approximate Korea ' s military history spans back thousands of years beginning with the kingdom of Gojoseon and its repulsions of ancient China The naval history of Korea dates back to the Three Kingdoms of Korea period when simple fishing ships were used Like most other regions in the world science and technology in Korea has experienced periods of intense growth as well as long periods of stagnation Manchuria ( Romanized Manchu: Manju,, Маньчжурия Mongolian: Манж is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast Manchuria ( Romanized Manchu: Manju,, Маньчжурия Mongolian: Манж is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom considered the first proper nation of the Korean people. Yan ( was a state during the Western Zhou, Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods in China. Gija Joseon (? - 194 BC describes the period after the alleged arrival of Gija in northern (or in the northwest of Korean peninsula. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Xiongnu ( Turkish: Doğu Hun were a confederation of nomadic tribes from Central Asia with a ruling class of unknown origin and other subjugated tribes Donghu ( literally "eastern hu" was an ancient nomadic tribe or tribal union in Northeast China Wiman Joseon (194 - 108 BC was the part of the Gojoseon period (2333 BC - 108 BC of Korean history. The Wuhuan ( were a nomadic people who inhabited northern China, in what is now the provinces of Hebei, Liaoning, Shanxi, the municipality Sushen was an ancient ethnic group or people who dwelt in the northeastern part of China and the Russian Maritime Province. Buyeo, Puyŏ, or Fuyu was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd The Xianbei ( were a significant nomadic people residing in Manchuria and eastern Mongolia, or Xianbei Shan. Cao Wei ( was one of the empires that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period The Jìn Dynasty ( 265 – 420) one of the Six Dynasties, followed the Three Kingdoms period and preceded the Southern and Northern Dynasties The Yuwen ( is a Chinese compound surname first originated from the a pre-state Clan of Xianbei ethnicity during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms The Former Yan ( 337 - 370) was a State of Xianbei ethnicity during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. The Former Qin ( 351 - 394) was a State of the Sixteen Kingdoms in China. The Later Yan ( 383 - 407 or 409) was a Murong - Xianbei state locate in north-east of current China during the era of Sixteen The Northern Yan ( 407 or 409 - 436) was a State of Han Chinese during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. The Mohe (or Malgal, Mogher) were a Tungusic people in ancient Manchuria. Shiwei (Chinese 室[[wikt 韦|韦]] is one Ethnic groups in Chinese history, who once reside at the eastern part of Mongolia and Manchuria The Khitan (or Khitai,) were a Nomadic people, located in Mongolia and modern Manchuria (Northeast China from the 4th century dominating much of it The Kumo Xi ( called the Xi since the Sui dynasty) were a Steppes people located in current Manchuria (north East China The Northern Wei Dynasty (北魏 Pinyin: běi wèi 386 - 534) also known as the Tuoba Wei (拓拔魏 Later Wei (後魏 or The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by Alternate meaning Bohai Sea Balhae (698 - 926 ( Bohai in Chinese, Пархэ in Russian) was an The Liao Dynasty ( 907 - 1125, also known as the Khitan Empire (契丹國 was an empire in northern China that ruled over the regions of Manchuria This is an article for the Jurchen Jin Dynasty (1115–1234 For other Chinese dynasties whose names are also rendered "Jin" in Pinyin, see Jin Dynasty The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai The Ming Dynasty ( or Empire of the Great Ming ( was the ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 following the collapse of the Mongol -led Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China The Far Eastern Republic (Дальневосто́чная Респу́блика ДВР romanised: Dalnevostochnaya Respublika DVR) sometimes called the The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Manchukuo (ja [[wikt満州国 満州国]] Manshūkoku lit "State of Manchuria " was a Puppet state in Manchuria and eastern Northeast China ( is a geographical region of China. It is separated from Russia largely by the Amur, Argun, and Ussuri rivers from Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Russian Far East (Да́льний Восто́к Росси́и ˈdalʲnʲɪj vʌˈstok rʌˈsʲiɪ is a term that refers to the Russian part of the Far East, i Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Korean Dynasties are listed in the order of their fall This list includes the monarchs' romanized posthumous or Temple names and reign dates King Dongmyeong of Goguryeo (58 - 19 BCE r 37 – 19 BCE"Dongmyeongseongwang"(東明聖王 also known by his birth name Jumong, was the founding Monarch King Yuri (? - 18 CE r 19 BCE - 18 CE was the second ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Daemusin of Goguryeo (4-44 r 18-44 was the third ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Minjung of Goguryeo (? - 48 r 44-48 was the fourth ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Mobon of Goguryeo (? - 53 r 48-53 was the fifth king of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Taejo of Goguryeo (47? - 165 r 53 - 146 was the sixth monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Chadae of Goguryeo (71&ndash165 r 146&ndash165 was the seventh ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Sindae of Goguryeo (89-179 r 165-179 was the eighth ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Gogukcheon of Goguryeo (? - 197 r 179-197 was the ninth Monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Sansang of Goguryeo (? - 227 r 197 - 227 was the 10th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Dongcheon of Goguryeo (209 - 248 r 227-248 was the 11th monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Jungcheon of Goguryeo (224-270 r 248-270 was the 12th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Seocheon of Goguryeo (?-292 r 270-292 was the 13th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Bongsang of Goguryeo (?-300 r 292-300 was the 14th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Micheon of Goguryeo (? - 331 r 300-331 was the 15th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Gogugwon of Goguryeo (?-371 r 331-371 was the 16th king of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Sosurim of Goguryeo (?-384 r 371-384 was the 17th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Gogugyang of Goguryeo (?-391 r 384-391 was the 18th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Jangsu of Goguryeo (394 - 491 r 413 - 491 was the 20th Monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Munjamyeong of Goguryeo (? - 519 r 491-519 was the 21st monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Anjang of Goguryeo (?-531 r 519-531 was the 22nd ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Anwon of Goguryeo (?-545 r 531-545 was the 23rd ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Yangwon of Goguryeo (?-559 r 545-559 was the 24th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Pyeongwon of Goguryeo (ruled 559&mdash590 was a 6th century Korean monarch the 25th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea King Yeong-yang of Goguryeo (?-618 r 590-618 was the 26th king of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Yeongnyu of Goguryeo (b ??? - 642 r618 — 642 was the 27th king of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Bojang of Goguryeo (?-682 r 642-668 was the 28th and last king of Goguryeo the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. 37 BCE)
According to the Samguk Sagi and the Samguk Yusa,a prince from the kingdom of Buyeo, named Jumong, fled after a power struggle with other princes of the Buyeo court [1] and founded the Goguryeo state in 37 BCE in a region called Jolbon Buyeo, usually thought to be located in the middle Yalu and T'ung-chia river basin, overlapping the current China-North Korea border. Samguk Sagi ( History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Samguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, is a collection of legends folktales and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea ( Goguryeo Buyeo, Puyŏ, or Fuyu was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd Jolbon or Jolbon Buyeo (부여 or 졸본부여 86 BCE - 37 BCE) was a continuation of Bukbuyeo under a changed state name after 86 BCE The Yalu River ( Chinese) or the Amnok River ( Korean) is a River on the border between China and North Korea. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, Some scholars believe that Goguryeo may have been founded in the 2nd century BCE. [2] In the geographic monographs of the Han Shu, the word Goguryeo or "高句麗" was first mentioned in 113 BCE as a region under the jurisdiction of the Xuantu commandery. The Book of Han ( is a classic Chinese Historical writing completed in 111 CE covering the history of Western Han from 206 BCE to Xuantu Commandery (Chinese 玄[[wikt 菟|菟]] 郡) is one of Four Commanderies of Han in northeasern China. [3] In the Old Book of Tang, it is recorded that Emperor Taizong of Tang refers to Goguryeo's history as being some 900 years old. The Book of Tang ( or the Old Book of Tang (舊唐書/旧唐书 is the first classic work about the Tang Dynasty. Emperor Taizong of Tang ( January 23, 599 &ndash July 10 649) personal name Lǐ Shìmín ( was the second emperor of the In 75 BCE, a group of Yemaek tribes (a proto-Goguryeo type people), which may have included Goguryeo, made an incursion into China's Xuantu commandery west from the Amnok River valley. Year 75 BC was a year of the pre-Julian calendar. Events By place Rome In Rome, the tribune Quintus Opimius Dongye was a state which occupied portions of the northeastern Korean peninsula from roughly 150 BCE to around 400 CE Xuantu Commandery (Chinese 玄[[wikt 菟|菟]] 郡) is one of Four Commanderies of Han in northeasern China. The Yalu River ( Chinese) or the Amnok River ( Korean) is a River on the border between China and North Korea. [4]
However, the weight of textual evidence from the Old and New Histories of Tang, the Samguk Sagi, the Nihon Shoki as well as other ancient sources would support a 37 BCE or "middle" 1st century BCE foundation date for Goguryeo. The Book of Tang ( or the Old Book of Tang (舊唐書/旧唐书 is the first classic work about the Tang Dynasty. The New Book of Tang ( is a classic work of history about the Tang Dynasty edited by Ouyang Xiu and Song Qi (宋祁 and other official scholars of the The, sometimes translated as The Chronicles of Japan, is the second oldest book of classical Japanese history. [5] Archaeological evidence would support centralized groups of Yemaek tribes in the 2nd century BCE, but there is no direct evidence that would suggest these Yemaek groups were known as or would identify themselves as Goguryeo. The first mention of Goguryeo as a group type associated with Yemaek tribes would be a reference in the Han Shu that discusses a Goguryo revolt in 12 CE, where they break away from Xuantu influence [6]. It was also during this time that the Goguryeo ruler began calling himself the title of "wang", (王) or King.
At its founding, the Goguryeo people are believed to be a blend of Buyeo and Yemaek people, as leadership from Buyeo may have fled their kingdom and integrated with existing Yemaek chiefdoms [7]. The San Guo Zhi, in the section titled "Accounts of the Eastern Barbarians", states that Buyeo and the Yemaek people were ethnically related and spoke the same language [8]. The Records of Three Kingdoms ( is the official and authoritative historical text on the period of Three Kingdoms covering from 189 to 280,
Jumong and the foundation myth
The earliest mention of Jumong is in the 4th century C. E. Stele of Great King Gwanggaeto. The Stele of King Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo was erected in 414 by King Jangsu as a memorial to his deceased father Jumong is often said to be the Korean transcription of the hanja 朱蒙 (Jumong, 주몽), 鄒牟(Chumo, 추모), or 仲牟 (Jungmo, 중모); however, there is no real proof--Korean scholars maintain that Jumong is really from the Goguryeo language. King Dongmyeong of Goguryeo (58 - 19 BCE r 37 – 19 BCE"Dongmyeongseongwang"(東明聖王 also known by his birth name Jumong, was the founding Monarch Hanja is the Korean name for Chinese characters. More specifically it refers to those Chinese characters borrowed from Chinese and incorporated
The Stele states that Jumong was the first king and ancestor of Goguryeo and he was the son of the king of Buyeo and a daughter of the river deity Habaek [9]. The Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa paints additional detail and names Jumong's mother as Yuhwa. Jumong's biological father was said to be a man named Hae Mosu who is described as a "strong man" and "a heavenly prince. Hae Mosu was the founder and 1st Dangun of Buyeo. He is mentioned in the Hwandan Gogi, and Korean records of the 11th and 13th centuries that describe the founding " [10]. The Samguk Sagi states that Hae Mosu was a sky deity, who had seduced Yuhwa. After the murder attempts of Daeso, the crown prince of Buyeo, Jumong fled Buyeo [11]. King Daeso (대소왕 帶素王 (7 BC–22 AD was the third ruler of the ancient Korean kingdom of Dongbuyeo. The Stele and later Korean sources disagree as to which Buyeo Jumong came from. The Stele says he came from North Buyeo and the Samguk Sagi and Samguk Yusa say he came from East Buyeo. Bukbuyeo ( Hangul: 북부여 Hanja: 北夫餘 (239 BCE - 58 BCE was an ancient Korean kingdom that was located and ruled in Manchuria. Samguk Sagi ( History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and Samguk Yusa, or Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms, is a collection of legends folktales and historical accounts relating to the Three Kingdoms of Korea ( Goguryeo Dongbuyeo (86 BCE - 22 CE or 410 CE was an ancient Korean kingdom that developed from Bukbuyeo, until conquered by the early Goguryeo, which then grew into Jumong eventually made it to the Jolbon Buyeo confederacy, where he married the daughter of its ruler. Jolbon or Jolbon Buyeo (부여 or 졸본부여 86 BCE - 37 BCE) was a continuation of Bukbuyeo under a changed state name after 86 BCE He subsequently became king himself, founding Goguryeo with a small group of his followers from his native country.
Jumong's given surname was Hae (解), the name of the Buyeo rulers. According to the Samguk Yusa, Jumong changed his surname to Ko (高), in conscious reflection of his divine parentage [12]. Jumong is recorded to have conquered the tribal states of Biryu (비류국, 沸流國) in 36 BCE, Haeng-in (행인국, 荇人國) in 33 BCE, and North Okjeo in 28 BCE. Okjeo was a small tribal state which arose in the northern Korean peninsula from perhaps 2nd century BCE to 5th century CE [13]
Centralization and early expansion (mid 1st century CE)
Goguryeo developed from a league of various Yemaek tribes to an early state and rapidly expanded its power from their original basin of control in the Han river drainage. The Goguryeo homeland was said to be mountainous and lacked arable land and could barely feed its own population. Goguryeo was known for being fond of raiding their neighbors so they could expand their resource base. In the time of King Taejo of Goguryeo in 53 CE, five local tribes were reorganized into five centrally ruled districts of the kingdom. King Taejo of Goguryeo (47? - 165 r 53 - 146 was the sixth monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Foreign relations and the military were controlled by the king. Aggressive military activities may have allowed Goguryeo to exact tribute from their tribal neighbors and to even dominate them politically and economically [14].
King Taejo conquered the Okjeo tribes of Northeast Korea as well as the Eastern Ye and other tribes in Southeastern Manchuria and Northern Korea. Okjeo was a small tribal state which arose in the northern Korean peninsula from perhaps 2nd century BCE to 5th century CE Dongye was a state which occupied portions of the northeastern Korean peninsula from roughly 150 BCE to around 400 CE From the increase of resources and manpower that these subjugated tribes gave him, Goguryo attacked Han China's commanderies of Lelang, Xuantu, and Liaodong in the Korean and Liaodong peninsulas, becoming fully independent from the Han commanderies [15]. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Four Commanderies of Han (漢四郡 한사군 are Lelang, Lintun, Xuantu and Zhenfan commanderies in the western Korean peninsula Lelang was one of the Chinese Commanderies which was kept in the Korean Peninsula over 400 years until Goguryeo conquered it in 313 A
Generally, Taejo allowed the conquered tribes to retain their chieftains, but report to governors who were related to Goguryeo's royal line and were expected to provide heavy tribute. Taejo and his successors channeled these increased resources to continuing its expansion to the northwest. New laws regulated peasants and the aristocracy, as tribal leaders continued to be absorbed into the central aristocracy. Royal succession changed from fraternal to patrilineal, strengthening the royal court [16].
The expanding Goguryeo kingdom entered into direct military contact with the Liaodong commandery. Pressure from Liadong forced Goguryeo to move their capital in the Hun River valley to the Yalu River valley near Mt. Wandu. Wandu Mountain City ( Chinese: 丸[[wikt 都|都]] 山[[wikt 城|城]]) (Korean transliteration Hwando Mountain Fortress) along with [17]
Goguryeo-Wei War (244 CE)
The chaos following the fall of the Han Dynasty, the former Han commanderies had broken free of control and were ruled by various independent warlords. Surrounded by these commanderies, who were governed by aggressive warlords, Goguryeo moved to improve relations with the newly created Wei Dynasty of China and sent tribute in 220 CE. Cao Wei ( was one of the empires that competed for control of China during the Three Kingdoms period In 238 CE, Goguryeo entered into a formal alliance with the Wei to destroy the Liaodong commandery. When Liaodong was finally conquered by Wei, cooperation between Wei and Goguryeo fell apart and Goguryeo attacked the western edges of Liaodong, which incited a Wei counterattack in 244. On this occasion, Wei reached and destroyed the Goguryeo capital at Mt. Wandu. Wandu Mountain City ( Chinese: 丸[[wikt 都|都]] 山[[wikt 城|城]]) (Korean transliteration Hwando Mountain Fortress) along with It is said that the king Dongcheon of Goguryeo, with his army destroyed, fled alone and sought refuge with the Okjeo tribes in the east. King Dongcheon of Goguryeo (209 - 248 r 227-248 was the 11th monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. [18]
Revival and further expansion (300 to 390 CE)
The Wei armies thought they had destroyed Goguryeo and soon left the area. However, in only 70 years, Goguryeo rebuilt their capital at Mt. Wandu and again began to raid Liaodong, Lelang and Xuantu commandaries. As Goguryeo extended its reach into the Liaodong peninsula, the last Chinese commandery at Lelang was conquered and absorbed by Micheon of Goguryeo in 313, bringing the northern part of the Korean peninsula into the fold [19]. The Liáodōng Peninsula ( is a Peninsula in the Liáoníng province of northeastern China, historically known in the west as southern east- Manchuria King Micheon of Goguryeo (? - 331 r 300-331 was the 15th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. From that point on, until the 7th century C. E. , territorial control of the peninsula would be contested primarily by the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The Three Kingdoms of Korea ( refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula
The expansion met temporary setbacks when in 342, Former Yan, a Chinese Sixteen Kingdoms state of Xianbei ethnicity, (some Goguryeo royal family members were seized by Former Yan, and one of them, Gao Yun, briefly ruled Former Yan's successor state Northern Yan from 407 to 409) attacked Goguryeo’s capital, then at Mt. The Former Yan ( 337 - 370) was a State of Xianbei ethnicity during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. The Sixteen Kingdoms ( or less commonly the Sixteen States, were a collection of numerous short-lived sovereign states in China proper and its neighboring areas The Xianbei ( were a significant nomadic people residing in Manchuria and eastern Mongolia, or Xianbei Shan. Early life Gao Yun's ancestors were from the Goguryeo royal house The Northern Yan ( 407 or 409 - 436) was a State of Han Chinese during the era of Sixteen Kingdoms in China. Wandu, and in 371, King Geunchogo of Baekje sacked Goguryeo’s largest city, Pyongyang, and killed King Gogukwon of Goguryeo in battle. Geunchogo of Baekje (?-375 r 346-375 was the 13th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Pyongyang (pʰjʌŋjaŋ is the Capital and largest City of North Korea, located on the Taedong River, at. King Gogugwon of Goguryeo (?-371 r 331-371 was the 16th king of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. [20]
Turning to domestic stability and the unification of various conquered tribes, Sosurim of Goguryeo proclaimed new laws, embraced Buddhism as the national religion in 372, and established a national educational institute called the Taehak (태학, 太學). King Sosurim of Goguryeo (?-384 r 371-384 was the 17th ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices [21]. Due to the defeats that Goguryeo had suffered under Former Yan and Baekje, Sosurim had also instituted military reforms. [22].
Zenith of Goguryeo's Power (391 to 531 CE)
King Gwanggaeto the Great (R. 391 - 412 CE) was a highly energetic monarch that is remembered for his rapid military expansion of the kingdom. [23]
Gwanggaeto's exploits have been recorded on a huge memorial stele located near present day Jilin in southern Manchuria, that was erected by his son, King Jangsu. The Stele of King Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo was erected in 414 by King Jangsu as a memorial to his deceased father ( Postal map spelling: Kirin; Manchu: Girin ula is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern King Jangsu of Goguryeo (394 - 491 r 413 - 491 was the 20th Monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Gwanggaetto is said to have conquered 64 walled cities and 1,400 villages from one campaign against Buyeo alone, destroyed Later Yan and annexed Buyeo and Mohe tribes to the north, subjugated Baekje, contributed to the dissolution of the Gaya confederacy, and turned Silla into a protectorate in wars against Gaya, Baekje and Wa (Japan). Buyeo, Puyŏ, or Fuyu was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd The Later Yan ( 383 - 407 or 409) was a Murong - Xianbei state locate in north-east of current China during the era of Sixteen The Mohe (or Malgal, Mogher) were a Tungusic people in ancient Manchuria. Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE or Paekche, was a kingdom located in southwest Korea Gaya was a confederacy of territorial polities in the Nakdong River basin of southern Korea, growing out of the Byeonhan confederacy of the Samhan Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Japanese, is the oldest recorded name of Japan. Chinese Korean and Japanese scribes regularly wrote Wa or Yamato "Japan" with the In doing so, he brought about a loose unification of Korea that lasted about 50 years. By the end of his reign, Goguryeo had achieved undisputed control of southern Manchuria, and the northern and central regions of the Korean Peninsula. [24]
During this period, Goguryeo territory included three fourths of the Korean peninsula, including today's Seoul, and much of southern Manchuria and the southeastern end of Russian maritime province. Physical geography See also Geography of North Korea, Geography of South Korea Mountains cover 70 percent of the Korean Peninsula and arable plains are Seoul ( soʊl is the Capital and largest City of South Korea. Gwanggaeto instituted the reign name of "Yeongnak", thus signifying an equality with the major Chinese dynasties. [25]
King Jangsu, ascending to the throne in 413, moved the capital to Pyongyang in 427, which is evidence to the intensifying rivalries between it and the other two peninsular kingdoms of Baekje and Silla to its south. King Jangsu of Goguryeo (394 - 491 r 413 - 491 was the 20th Monarch of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Pyongyang (pʰjʌŋjaŋ is the Capital and largest City of North Korea, located on the Taedong River, at. Jangsu, like his father, continued Goguryeo's territorial expansion into Manchuria and reached the Eastern Songhua River, which marked Goguryeo's farthest reach to the north.
In the late 5th century, it absorbed Buyeo and several Mohe and Khitan tribes, competed with Northern Wei in the north, and continued its strong influence over Silla. The Northern Wei Dynasty (北魏 Pinyin: běi wèi 386 - 534) also known as the Tuoba Wei (拓拔魏 Later Wei (後魏 or
Internal strife (531 to 551 CE)
Goguryeo reached its zenith in the 6th century. After this, it began a steady decline. King Anjang was assassinated, and succeeded by his brother King Anwon, during whose reign aristocratic factionalism increased. King Anjang of Goguryeo (?-531 r 519-531 was the 22nd ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. King Anwon of Goguryeo (?-545 r 531-545 was the 23rd ruler of Goguryeo, the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. A political schism deepened as two factions advocated different princes for succession, until the eight-year-old Yang-won was finally crowned. But the power struggle was never resolved definitively, as renegade magistrates with private armies appointed de facto rulers of their areas of control.
Taking advantage of Goguryeo's internal struggle, a nomadic group called the Tuchueh attacked Goguryeo's northern castles in the 550s and conquered some of Goguryeo's northern lands. Weakening Goguryeo even more, as civil war continued among feudal lords over royal succession, Baekje and Silla allied to attack Goguryeo from the south in 551.
Conflicts of the late 6th and 7th centuries CE
In the late 6th and early 7th centuries, Goguryeo was often in conflict with the Sui and Tang Dynasties of China. Its relations with Baekje and Silla were complex and alternated between alliances and enmity. A neighbor in the northeast were the Eastern Göktürk, a khanate in northwestern China and near Mongolia, was an ally with Goguryeo and trading was done between the two states. Göktürks ( Turkish: Gök Türkler) were a Turkic people of ancient Central Asia.
Goguryeo's loss of the Han River Valley
In 551 CE, Baekje and Silla entered into an alliance to attack Goguryeo and conquer the Han River valley, an important strategic area close to the center of the peninsula and a very rich agricultural region. Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE or Paekche, was a kingdom located in southwest Korea Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. After exhausting themselves with a series of costly assaults on Goguryeo fortifications, Silla troops, arriving on the pretense of offering assistance, attacked and took possession of the entire Han River valley in 553. Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Incensed by this betrayal, Baekje's King Seong in the following year launched a retaliatory strike against Silla's western border but was captured and killed. Seong of Baekje (?-554 r 523-554 was the 26th king of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.
The war, along the middle of the Korean peninsula, had very important consequences. Physical geography See also Geography of North Korea, Geography of South Korea Mountains cover 70 percent of the Korean Peninsula and arable plains are It effectively made Baekje the weakest player on the Korean peninsula and gave Silla an important resource and population rich area as a base for expansion. Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE or Paekche, was a kingdom located in southwest Korea Physical geography See also Geography of North Korea, Geography of South Korea Mountains cover 70 percent of the Korean Peninsula and arable plains are Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Conversely, it denied Goguryeo the use of the area, which weakened the kingdom. It also gave Silla direct access to the Yellow Sea, opening up trade and diplomatic access to the Chinese dynasties and accelerating Silla's process of sinification. Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The Yellow Sea is the name given to the northern part of the East China Sea, which is a Marginal sea of the Pacific Ocean. Thus, Silla could rely less on Goguryeo for elements of civilization and could get culture and technology directly from China. Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National This increasing tilt of Silla to China would result in an alliance that would prove disastrous for Goguryeo in the late 7th century. Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National
Goguryeo-Sui Wars
Goguryeo's expansion conflicted with the Sui Dynasty and increased tensions. The Sui Dynasty ( 581 - 618 AD and in the undertaking of other construction projects including the reconstruction of the Great Wall. Goguryeo military offensives in the Liaoxi region provoked the Sui and resulted in the first of the Goguryeo-Sui Wars in 598. ( is a northeastern province of the People's Republic of China. In this campaign, as with those that followed in 612, 613, and 614, Sui was unsuccessful in overruning Goguryeo, but did gain minor concessions and promises of submission that were never fulfilled. The 613 and 614 campaigns were aborted after launch -- the 613 campaign was terminated when the Sui general Yang Xuangan rebelled against Emperor Yang of Sui, while the 614 campaign was terminated after Goguryeo offered surrender and returned Husi Zheng (斛斯政), a defecting Sui general who had fled to Goguryeo, Emperor Yang later had Husi executed. Yang Xuangan (楊玄感 (d 613 was an official of the Chinese dynasty Sui Dynasty. Background Yang Guang was born in 569 during the reign of Emperor Wu of Northern Zhou. Emperor Yang planned another attack on Goguryeo in 615, but due to Sui's deteroriating internal state he was never able to launch it. Sui was weakened due to rebellions against Emperor Yang's rule. They could not attack further because the soldiers in the Sui heartland would not send logistical support.
One of Sui's most disastrous campaigns to itself was in 612, in which Sui, according to the History of the Sui Dynasty, mobilized 30 field armies, about 1,133,800 combat troops. Pinned along Goguryeo's line of fortifications on the Liao river, a detachment of 9 armies, about 305,000 troops, bypassed the main defensive lines and headed towards the Goguryeo capital of Pyongyang to link up with Sui naval forces which contained reinforcements and supplies. However, Goguryeo was able to defeat the Sui navy, thus when the Sui's 9 armies finally reached Pyongyang, they didn't have the supplies for a lengthy siege. Sui troops retreated but General Eulji Mundeok led the Goguryeo troops to victory by luring them into an ambush outside of Pyongyang. Eulji Mundeok was a noted military leader of early 7th century Goguryeo, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. At the Battle of Salsu River, Goguryeo soldiers released water from a dam, which split the Sui army and cut off their escape route. The Battle of Salsu was an enormous battle that occurred in the year 612, during the second Goguryeo-Sui War, between the Korean kingdom of Goguryeo and Of the original 305,000 soldiers, only 2,700 escaped to Sui China.
The wars depleted the national treasury of the Sui Dynasty and after revolts and political strife, the Sui Dynasty disintegrated in 618. However the wars also exhausted Goguryeo's strength and its power declined.
Goguryeo-Tang War and Tang-Silla alliance
Goguryeo was attacked by Tang Taizong. Emperor Taizong of Tang ( January 23, 599 &ndash July 10 649) personal name Lǐ Shìmín ( was the second emperor of the The campaign was unsuccessful for the Chinese, failing to capture strategic points in numerous attacks. [26]
The Tang forged an alliance with Goguryeo's rival Silla after defeating Goguryeo's western ally, the Göktürks. Göktürks ( Turkish: Gök Türkler) were a Turkic people of ancient Central Asia. This, combined with Goguryeo's increasing political instability following the 642 murder of King Yeongnyu at the hands of the military general Yeon Gaesomun, increased tensions between Tang and Goguryeo, as Yeon took an increasingly provocative stance against Tang. For the historical Drama, see Yeon Gaesomun (TV series. Yeon Gaesomun (603 - 666 was a powerful and controversial military dictator
In 645, Tang Taizong launched another attack against Goguryeo. Goguryeo was able to repel the attack at Ansi Fortress. the central figure of the repulse was Yeon Gaesomun and Yang Manchun. Yang Manchun is the name given to the Goguryeo commander of Ansi fortress in the 640s. In the end, Tang Taizong was not able to capture Ansi, and the Tang army withdrew after suffering large losses during the siege of Ansi and running out of food supplies. After Tang Taizong's death in 649, Tang armies were again sent to conquer Goguryeo in 661 and 662, but while Yeon Gaesomun was alive, Tang was not able to conquer Goguryeo, although the Tang attacks inflicted substantial losses. [27][28]
Fall
Goguryeo's ally in the southwest, Baekje, fell to the Silla-Tang alliance in 660; the victorious allies continued their assault on Goguryeo for the next eight years. Meanwhile, in 666 (though dates vary from 664-666), Yeon Gaesomun died and civil war ensued among his three sons. [29]
Following the defection of Yeon Namsaeng, the son of Yeon Gaesomun and the surrender of numerous cities in northern Goguryeo, the Tang army bypassed the Liaodong region and captured Pyongyang, the capital of Goguryeo, while Yeon Jeong-to, the Younger brother of Yeon Gaesomun, surrendered his forces to the Silla general Kim Yushin, who was advancing from the south. Yeon Namsaeng (연남생 淵男生 (634-679 was the eldest son of the Goguryeo Dae Mangniji (대막리지 大莫離支 Yeon Gaesomun (603?-665 ( is a northeastern province of the People's Republic of China. Kim Yusin (595-673 was a General in 7th-century Silla. He led the unification of the Korean peninsula by Silla under the reign of King In November 668 Bojang, the last king of Goguryeo, Surrendered to Tang Gaozong. King Bojang of Goguryeo (?-682 r 642-668 was the 28th and last king of Goguryeo the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Background and life as Prince of Jin Li Zhi was born in 628 He was the ninth son of his father Emperor Taizong, and the third son of his mother Emperor Taizong's wife
Silla-Tang eventually vanquished the weary kingdom, which had been suffering from a series of famines and internal strife. Goguryeo finally fell in 668. [30] Goguryeo's last king Bojang was captured and taken into exile by the Tang forces. King Bojang of Goguryeo (?-682 r 642-668 was the 28th and last king of Goguryeo the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.
Silla thus unified most of the Korean peninsula in 668, but the kingdom's reliance on China's Tang Dynasty had its price. Tang set up the Protectorate General to Pacify the East, or Andong protectorate, governed by Xue Rengui, but faced increasing problems ruling the former inhabitants of Goguryeo, as well as Silla's resistance to Tang's remaining presence on the Korean Peninsula. The Protectorate-General to Pacify the East was a Military government established at Pyongyang by Tang Dynasty China in 668. Xue Rengui ( 614-683 formal name Xue Li (薛禮 but went by the Courtesy name of Rengui was one of the most famous Chinese generals during the early Tang Silla had to forcibly resist the imposition of Chinese rule over the entire peninsula, but their own strength did not extend beyond the Taedong River. The Taedong River is a large river in North Korea. It rises in the Rangrim Mountains of the country's north
In 677, Tang crowned Bojang "King of Joseon" and put him in charge of the Liaodong commandery of the Protectorate General to Pacify the East. However, King Bojang continued to ferment rebellions against Tang in an attempt to revive Goguryeo, organizing Goguryeo refugees and allying with the Mohe tribes. He was eventually exiled to Szechuan in 681, and died the following year. ( Postal map spelling: Szechwan and Szechuan) is a province in western China with its capital in Chengdu.
Revival movements
After the fall of Goguryeo in 668, many Goguryeo people rebelled against the Tang and Silla by starting Goguryeo revival movements. The Goguryeo revival movements were started in 668, upon the fall of Pyeongyang Fortress to the Silla-Tang alliance Among these were Geom Mojam, Dae Jung-sang, and several famous generals. Geom Mojam (?- 672) was the military leader of a short-lived movement to restore Goguryeo after its fall to Silla in the later 7th century CE Dae Jung-sang was the contribute of Balhae, and the father of Dae Joyeong, who was the founder of Balhae. The Tang Dynasty tried but failed to establish several commanderies to rule over the area.
The Protectorate General to Pacify the East was installed by the Tang government to rule and keep control over the former territories of the fallen Goguryeo. The Protectorate-General to Pacify the East was a Military government established at Pyongyang by Tang Dynasty China in 668. It was first put under the control of Tang General Xue Rengui, but was later replaced by King Bojang due the negative responses of the Goguryeo people. Xue Rengui ( 614-683 formal name Xue Li (薛禮 but went by the Courtesy name of Rengui was one of the most famous Chinese generals during the early Tang King Bojang of Goguryeo (?-682 r 642-668 was the 28th and last king of Goguryeo the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Bojang was sent into exile for assisting Goguryeo revival movements, but was succeeded by his descendants. Go Jang's descendants declared independence from the Tang during the time at which An Shi Rebellion and Yi Jeonggi's establishing of the Je state occurred. King Bojang of Goguryeo (?-682 r 642-668 was the 28th and last king of Goguryeo the northernmost of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The An Shi Rebellion ( took place in China during the Tang Dynasty, from December 16 755 to February 17 763. The Protectorate General to Pacify the East was renamed "Lesser Goguryeo" until its eventual absorption into Balhae under the reign of King Seon of Balhae. Dae Insu or Tae Insu (r 818-830 was the 10th king of Balhae. He restored national strength and is remembered today as the last of the great Balhae rulers
Geom Mojam and Anseung rose briefly at Hanseong, but failed, when Anseung surrendered to Silla. Geom Mojam (?- 672) was the military leader of a short-lived movement to restore Goguryeo after its fall to Silla in the later 7th century CE Anseung (안승 安勝 ( fl 668-683 alternately Ansun (안순 安舜 was thought to be either the nephew or illegitimate son of king Bojang of Goguryeo Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Go Anseung ordered the assassination of Geom Mojam, and defected to Silla, where he was given a small amount of land to rule over. Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. There, Anseung established the Kingdom of Bodeok. Bodeok was eventually demolished by King Sinmun, and Anseung was given the Silla Royal surname "Kim. Sinmun of Silla (r 681 - 692) was the thirty-first king of Silla, a Korean state that originated in the southwestern Korean peninsula and went "
Dae Jung-sang and his son Dae Joyeong, both former Goguryeo generals, regained most of Goguryeo's northern land after its downfall in 668, established the kingdom "Later Goguryeo". Dae Jung-sang was the contribute of Balhae, and the father of Dae Joyeong, who was the founder of Balhae. Later Goguryeo was renamed Great Jin, and eventually Balhae after the death of Dae Jung-sang. Alternate meaning Bohai Sea Balhae (698 - 926 ( Bohai in Chinese, Пархэ in Russian) was an Alternate meaning Bohai Sea Balhae (698 - 926 ( Bohai in Chinese, Пархэ in Russian) was an Dae Jung-sang was the contribute of Balhae, and the father of Dae Joyeong, who was the founder of Balhae. To the south of Balhae, Silla controlled the Korean peninsula south of the Taedong River, and Manchuria(present-day northeastern China) was conquered by Balhae. Alternate meaning Bohai Sea Balhae (698 - 926 ( Bohai in Chinese, Пархэ in Russian) was an Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. The Taedong River is a large river in North Korea. It rises in the Rangrim Mountains of the country's north Manchuria ( Romanized Manchu: Manju,, Маньчжурия Mongolian: Манж is a historical name given to a vast geographic region in northeast Alternate meaning Bohai Sea Balhae (698 - 926 ( Bohai in Chinese, Пархэ in Russian) was an Balhae claimed themselves the successor state to Goguryeo. Succession of states is a theory in International relations regarding the recognition and acceptance of a newly created State by other states based on
In the early 10th century, Gung-ye, a rebel general, established Taebong (also called Hu-Goguryeo ("Later Goguryeo")), which briefly rose in rebellion against Silla. Gung Ye (ruled 901 – 918) was the king of a short-lived state (901-918 (see Later Three Kingdoms) on the Korean peninsula. Taebong or Later Goguryeo was a state established by Gung Ye (궁예 弓裔 on the Korean peninsula in 901, during the Later Three Kingdoms Taebong also claimed to be a successor of Goguryeo, as did Goryeo, the state that replaced Silla to rule the unified Korean peninsula. The Goryeo Dynasty ( 918 - 1392) (also spelled Koryŏ was a Sovereign state established in 918 by Taejo Wang Kon.
Military
The military of Goguryeo has been known to be powerful, especially during the rule of King Gwanggaeto the Great. The military history of Goguryeo involved wars with several Chinese dynasties. However, we do not know much of it or its exact number as there are not many records left. A Tang treatise of 668 records a total of 675,000 displaced personnel and 176 military garrisons after the surrender of King Bojang.
Every man in Goguryeo was required to serve in the military, or could avoid conscription by paying extra grain tax.
Goguryeo had a significant amount of cavalry and mounted archers, and infantry were known to have horned helmets. They also had spikes attached to the bottom soles of their boots.
Military Equipment
The main projectile weapons used in Goguryeo was the bow. The bows were modified to be more composite and increase throwing ability on par with crossbows. A crossbow is a Weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles often called bolts To a lesser extent, stone-throwing machines and crossbows were also used. Polearms, used against the cavalry and in open order, were mostly spears. The Cavalry (from French cavalerie) is the second oldest of the Combat Arms, and as Soldiers or Warriors who fought mounted on Two types of swords were used by Goguryeo warriors. The first was a shorter double-edged variant mostly used for throwing. The other was longer single-edged varint. The helmets were similar to helmets used by Central Asian peoples, decorated with wings, leathers and horsetails. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south The shield was the main protection, which covered most of the soldier's body. These calvalry were called Gaemamusa (개마무사, 鎧馬武士) and were similar to tanks in the age of the three kingdoms.
Fortifications
The most common form of the Goguryeo fortress was one made in the shape of the moon, located between a river and its tributary. Ditches and ground walls between the shores formed an extra defense line. The walls were made from huge stone blocks fixed with clay, and even Chinese artillery had difficulty to break through them. Walls were surrounded by a ditch to prevent an underground attack, and equipped with guard towers. All fortresses had sources of water and enough equipment for a protracted siege. If rivers and mountains were absent, extra defense lines were added.
Military Organization
Two hunts per year, led by the king himself, maneuvers exercises, hunt-maneuvers and parades were conducted to give the Goguryeo solider a high level of individual training.
There were five armies in the capital, mostly cavalry that were personally led by the king, numbering approximately 12,500. Military units varied in number from 21,000 to 36,000 soldiers, were located in the provinces, and were led by the governors. Military colonies near the boundaries consisted mostly of soldiers and peasants. There were also private armies held by aristocrats. This system allowed Goguryeo to maintain and utilize an army of 50,000 without added expense, and 300,000 through large mobilization in special cases.
Goguryeo units were divided according to major weapons: spearmen, axemen, archers composed of those on foot and horseback, and heavy cavalry that included armored and heavy spear divisions. Other groups like the catapult units, wall-climbers, and storm units were part of the special units and were added to the common. The advantage of this functional division is highly specialized combat units, while the disadvantage is that it was impossible for one unit to make complex, tactical actions.
Military Strategy
The military formation had the general and his staff with guards in the middle of the army. The archers were defended by axemen. In front of the general were the main infantry forces, and on the flanks were rows of heavy cavalry ready to counterattack in case of a flank attack by the enemy. In the very front and rear was the light cavalry, used for intelligence, pursuit, and for weakening the enemy's strike. Around the main troops were small groups of heavy cavalrymen and infantry. Each unit was prepared to defend the other by providing mutual support.
Goguryeo implemented a strategy of active defense based on cities. Besides the walled cities and fortified camps, this active defense system used small units of light cavalry to continuously harass the enemy, de-blockade units and strong reserves, consisting of the best soldiers, to strike hard at the end.
Goguryeo also employed military intelligence and special tactics as an important part of the strategy. Goguryeo was good at disinformation, such as sending only stone spearheads as tribute to the Chinese court when they were in the Iron Age. Goguryeo had developed its system of espionage. One of the most famous spies, Baekseok, mentioned in the Samguk yusa, was able to infiltrate the Hwarangs of Silla. The Hwarang were an elite group of male youth in Silla, an ancient Korean kingdom that lasted until the 10th century
Culture
The culture of Goguryeo was shaped by its climate, religion, and the tense society that people dealt with due to the numerous wars Goguryeo waged. Not much is known about Goguryeo culture, as many records have been lost.
Lifestyle
The inhabitants of Goguryeo wore a predecessor of the modern hanbok, just as the other cultures of the three kingdoms. Hanbok ( South Korea) or Chosŏn-ot ( North Korea) is the traditional Korean dress There are murals and artifacts that depict dancers wearing elaborate white dresses.
Festivals and pastimes
Common pastimes among Goguryeo people were drinking, singing, or dancing. Games such as wrestling attracted curious spectators.
Every October, the Dongmaeng Festival was held. The Dongmaeng Festival was practiced to worship the gods. The ceremonies were followed by huge celebratory feasts, games, and other activities. Often, the king performed rites to his ancestors.
Hunting was a male activity and also served as an appropriate means to train young men for the military. Hunting parties rode on horses and hunted deer and other game with bows-and-arrows. Archery contests also occurred. Horse riding was popular and Goguryeo developed strong military skills, as the cavalry was strong.
Religion
Goguryeo people worshipped ancestors and considered them to be supernatural. [31] Jumong, the founder of Goguryeo, was worshipped and respected among the people. King Dongmyeong of Goguryeo (58 - 19 BCE r 37 – 19 BCE"Dongmyeongseongwang"(東明聖王 also known by his birth name Jumong, was the founding Monarch At the annual Dongmaeng Festival, a religious rite was performed for Jumong, ancestors, and gods.
Mythical beasts and animals were also considered to be sacred in Goguryeo. The phoenix and dragon were both worshipped upon, while the Samjogo, the three-legged crow that represented the sun, was considered the most powerful of the three. The three-legged (or " Tripedal " bird is a creature found in various mythologies of Asia, Asia Minor, and North Africa Paintings of mythical beasts exist in Goguryeo king tombs today.
They also believed in the 'sashin', who were 4 mythical animals. Chung-lyong(blue dragon)guarded the east, baek-ho(white tiger)guarded the west, ju-jak(red pheonix(bird))guarded the south, and hyun-moo(black turtle(sometimes with snakes for a tail))guarded the north.
Buddhism was first introduced to Goguryeo in 372 [32] The government recognized and encouraged the teachings of Buddhism and many monasteries and shrines were created during Goguryeo's rule, making Goguryeo the first kingdom in the region to adopt Buddhism. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices However, Buddhism was much more popular in Silla and Baekje, which Goguryeo passed Buddhism to. Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE or Paekche, was a kingdom located in southwest Korea [33]
Cultural impact
Goguryeo art, preserved largely in tomb paintings, is noted for the vigour of its imagery. Goguryeo art is the art of Goguryeo, an ancient kingdom ( 37 BC &ndash 668) which occupied large areas of present-day China and Korea Finely detailed art can be seen in Goguryeo tombs and other murals. Many of the art pieces has an original style of painting.
Cultural legacies of Goguryeo may be found in modern Korean culture, for example, ondol, Goguryeo's floor heating system, and hanbok(Brown 2006, p. An Ondol, also called Gudeul, in Korean traditional architecture is Underfloor heating Hanbok ( South Korea) or Chosŏn-ot ( North Korea) is the traditional Korean dress 18).
Legacy
Remains of walled towns, fortresses, palaces, tombs, and artifacts have been found in North Korea and Manchuria, including ancient paintings in a Goguryeo tomb complex in Pyongyang. North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, The Complex of Goguryeo Tombs lies in North Korea. In July 2004 it became the first UNESCO World Heritage site in the country Pyongyang (pʰjʌŋjaŋ is the Capital and largest City of North Korea, located on the Taedong River, at. Some ruins are also still visible in present-day China, for example at Wǔ Nǚ Shān, suspected to be the site of Jolbon fortress, near Huanren in Liaoning province on the present border with North Korea. Wu Nu Shan ( which means the Mountain of Five Women is a mountain of historical and cultural significance located in the north of the town of Huanren in Huanren Huanren ( Chinese: 桓仁 Pinyin: Huánrén is a town and the county seat of Huanren Manchu Autonomous County, Liaoning Province Ji'an is also home to a large collection of Goguryeo era tombs, including what Chinese scholars consider to be the tombs of kings Gwanggaeto and his son Jangsu, as well as perhaps the best-known Goguryeo artifact, the Gwanggaeto Stele, which is one of the primary sources for pre-fifth century Goguryeo history. The Stele of King Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo was erected in 414 by King Jangsu as a memorial to his deceased father
World Heritage Site
UNESCO added Complex of Goguryeo Tombs in present-day North Korea and Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom in present-day China to the World Heritage Sites in 2004. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 The Complex of Goguryeo Tombs lies in North Korea. In July 2004 it became the first UNESCO World Heritage site in the country North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, Capital Cities and Tombs of the Ancient Koguryo Kingdom is a World Heritage Site (identification number 1135 located in the People's China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National A UNESCO World Heritage Site is a site (such as a Forest, Mountain, Lake, Desert, Monument, Building, complex
Name
The modern English name "Korea" derives from the Goryeo Dynasty (918-1392), which itself took one of the various names which Goguryeo had used in diplomatic language with its neighbours. The Goryeo Dynasty ( 918 - 1392) (also spelled Koryŏ was a Sovereign state established in 918 by Taejo Wang Kon. Goguryeo is also referred to as Goryeo after 520 AD in Chinese and Japanese historical and diplomatic sources.
Language
- See also: Korean language
Detail of a rubbing of the Gwanggaeto Stele (414 AD), one of the few surviving records made by Goguryeo, written in Classical Chinese. The Goguryeo language was spoken in the ancient kingdom of Goguryeo (37 BC – AD 668 one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. This article is mainly about the spoken Korean language See Hangul for details on the native Korean writing system The Stele of King Gwanggaeto of Goguryeo was erected in 414 by King Jangsu as a memorial to his deceased father Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of Written Chinese based on the Grammar and Vocabulary of ancient Chinese
The American linguist Christopher Beckwith has also noted similarities in certain vocabulary with Old Japanese (Beckwith August 2003). Christopher I Beckwith (born 1945 is a professor of Central Eurasian Studies at Indiana University in Bloomington Indiana. Old Japanese is the old stage of the Japanese language. The stage in and before Nara period is called. Some linguists propose the so-called "Buyeo languages" family that includes the languages of Buyeo, Goguryeo, Baekje, and Old Japanese. Buyeo or Fuyu dialects ( Buyeo or Puyŏ in Korean, Fúyú (扶餘 in Chinese) are a hypothetical Language Buyeo, Puyŏ, or Fuyu was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd Chinese records suggest that the languages of Goguryeo, Buyeo, East Okjeo, and Gojoseon were similar, while Goguryeo language differed significantly from that of Malgal (Mohe). Okjeo was a small tribal state which arose in the northern Korean peninsula from perhaps 2nd century BCE to 5th century CE Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom considered the first proper nation of the Korean people. The Mohe (or Malgal, Mogher) were a Tungusic people in ancient Manchuria.
Along with many other kingdoms in east Asia, Goguryeo used Chinese characters and wrote in Classical Chinese. A Chinese character, also known as a Han character ( is a Logogram used in writing Chinese (hanzi Japanese ( Classical Chinese or Literary Chinese is a traditional style of Written Chinese based on the Grammar and Vocabulary of ancient Chinese The Goguryeo language is unknown except for a small number of words, which mostly suggests that it was similar to the language of Silla and influenced by the Tungusic languages. The Tungusic languages (also known as Manchu-Tungus Tungus are spoken in Eastern Siberia and Manchuria. Supporters of the Altaic language family often classify the Goguryeo language as a member of that language family. Altaic, according to its proponents is a language family that includes 66 Languages ref> Altaic languages spoken by about 348 million people mostly in and around Most Korean linguists believe that the Goguryeo language was closest to the Altaic languages out of the Three Kingdoms that followed Gojoseon. The Three Kingdoms of Korea ( refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula Gojoseon was an ancient Korean kingdom considered the first proper nation of the Korean people.
Striking similarities between Baekje and Goguryeo can also be found, which is consistent with the legends that describe Baekje being founded by the sons of Goguryeo's founder. Baekje (18 BCE – 660 CE or Paekche, was a kingdom located in southwest Korea The Goguryeo names for government posts are mostly similar to those of Baekje and Silla.
Some words of Goguryeo origin can be found in the old Korean language (early 10th-late 14th centuries) but most were replaced by Silla-originated ones before long.
Modern politics
Goguryeo has been conventionally viewed as one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, and is described as Korean by most non-Chinese sources. The Goguryeo controversies refers to the disputes between China and Korea on the history of Goguryeo, an ancient kingdom located mostly in the present The Northeast Project ( which is short for the Northeast Borderland History and the Chain of Events Research Project ( was a 20-million-yuan (2 The Three Kingdoms of Korea ( refer to the ancient Korean kingdoms of Goguryeo, Baekje and Silla, which dominated the Korean peninsula (Britannica Unknown Year, Encarta 2007, CIA World Factbook 2007, and Columbia Encyclopedia 2005)
Chinese characterization of Goguryeo as a regional power of China in modern times has spawned heated disputes with both North Korea and South Korea, whose citizens view the ancient kingdom with pride. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES North Korea is the commonly used short form name for the Democratic People's Republic of Korea (or DPRK) a State located in East Asia, South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː At heart of the Goguryeo controversy is whether Goguryeo was a part of the greater Chinese nation, or an independent Korean kingdom.
China views Goguryeo as a part of the regional history of China rather than of being solely or uniquely Korean. Chinese historian Sun Jinji in 1986 suggested that Goguryeo is separate from the history of the Three Kingdoms in the Korean Peninsula. He argued that “the people of Buyeo and Goguryeo had the same lineage as the Chinese in the Northeast region, while the Korean people were a part of the Silla lineage. Buyeo, Puyŏ, or Fuyu was an ancient Korean kingdom located from today's Manchuria to northern North Korea, from around the 2nd Silla (57 BC – 935 AD was one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. ”(Sun 1986, Yonson 2006) This view has since been supported by many other prominent Chinese historians. However, Chinese scholars are not all of one voice on this issue. There are also many Chinese historians who acknowledge Goguryeo history as being shared by both Korea and China within “a framework of the dual elements of a single history” (一史两用论, yishi liangyong lun). (Sun 2004a). More recently, the Chinese Academy of Social Sciences (CASS) generated new controversy through its Northeast Project study of China's three Northeast provinces. The Chinese Academy of Social Sciences ( CASS)( is the premier academic research organization in the fields of philosophy and social sciences of China it is also the most The Northeast Project ( which is short for the Northeast Borderland History and the Chain of Events Research Project ( was a 20-million-yuan (2 Northeast China ( is a geographical region of China. It is separated from Russia largely by the Amur, Argun, and Ussuri rivers from The Chinese argument for Goguryeo’s historical heritage in the Northeast Project is based on two main points: the first is that the Goguryeo state grew out of the Han Chinese commandary of Xuantu; and also the Chinese consider Goguryeo and Barhae to be founded by the Mohe (Malgal) peoples, a purported ancestor of modern day Manchus, who ruled China's Qing Dynasty. The Han Dynasty ( 206 BC–220 AD followed the Qin Dynasty and preceded the Three Kingdoms in China. The Mohe (or Malgal, Mogher) were a Tungusic people in ancient Manchuria. The Manchu people ( Manchu: Manju;, Mongolian: Манж Russian: Маньчжуры are a Tungusic people who originated in Not to be confused with Qin Dynasty, the first dynasty of Imperial China (Sun 2004b, Yonson 2006) The conclusions of the CASS study have created tensions in China-South Korea relations.
In his email to Koreanstudies mailing list, Mark Byington, when completing a postdoctoral program at the Korea Institute, an autonomous non-departmental entity[34] located at Harvard University, has suggested China's official position to be "flimsy", historically speaking, though notes it "accords with current practice in the PRC" in describing "a very vaguely defined greater Chinese nation of the remote past", and that their position is "one that must exist in order to fall into line with current Chinese views of the Chinese past" (Byington 2004a). A postdoctoral fellow (colloquially " post-doc " is a temporary research position held by a person who has completed his or her doctoral studies Zhonghua minzu ( Traditional Chinese: 中華民族 ( Simplified Chinese: 中华民族 Pinyin: Zhōnghuá Mínzú sometimes translated as
See also
Notes
- ^ 'Mark E. The history of Korea stretches from Lower Paleolithic times to the present Korea ' s military history spans back thousands of years beginning with the kingdom of Gojoseon and its repulsions of ancient China This is a list of articles on Korea -related people places things and concepts Cheolli Jangseong (lit "Thousand Li Wall" in Korean history. Byington, "A History of the Puyo State, its History and Legacy" 2003 PhD dissertation for the department of East Asian History, Harvard University, p. 234'
- ^ 'Daniel Kane, postdoctoral student, Korean History Department, University of Hawaii, personal web site http://www2.hawaii.edu/~dkane/Puyo.htm
- ^ 'Christopher I. Beckwith, "Koguryo, The Language Of Japan's Continental Relatives", 2004 Brill Academic Publishers, page 33'
- ^ 'Mark E. Byington, "A History of the Puyo State, it's History and Legacy", p. 194'
- ^ See, e. g. , Samguk Sagi, vol. Samguk Sagi ( History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and 13. [1]
- ^ 'Mark E. Byington, "A History of the Puyo State, it's History and Legacy", p. 233'
- ^ Rhee, Song nai (1992) Secondary State Formation: The Case of Koguryo State. In Pacific Northeast Asia in Prehistory: Hunter-fisher-gatherers, Farmers, and Sociopolitical Elites, edited by C. Melvin Aikens and Song Nai Rhee, pp. 191-196. WSU Press, Pullman ISBN 0-87422-092-0.
- ^ De Bary, Theodore and Peter H. Lee, "Sources of Korean Tradition", p. 7-11
- ^ De Bary, Theodore and Peter H. Lee, Editors, "Sources of Korean Tradition", p. 24-25
- ^ Ilyon, "Samguk Yusa", Yonsei University Press, p. 45
- ^ Ilyon, "Samguk Yusa", p. 46
- ^ Ilyon, "Samguk Yusa", p. 46-47
- ^ (MyGoguryeo Unknown year)
- ^ 'Gina L. Barnes', "State Formation in Korea", 2001 Curzon Press, page 22'
- ^ 'Ki-Baik Lee', "A New History of Korea", 1984 Harvard University Press, page 24'
- ^ 'Ki-Baik Lee', "A New History of Korea", 1984 Harvard University Press, page 36'
- ^ 'Gina L. Barnes', "State Formation in Korea", 2001 Curzon Press, page 22-23'
- ^ 'Gina L. Barnes', "State Formation in Korea", 2001 Curzon Press, page 23'
- ^ 'Ki-Baik Lee', "A New History of Korea", 1984 Harvard University Press, page 20
- ^ (MyGoguryeo Unknown year)
- ^ 'Ki-Baik Lee', "A New History of Korea", 1984 Harvard University Press, page 38
- ^ 'William E. Henthorn', "A History of Korea", 1971 Macmillan Publishing Co. , page 34
- ^ 'William E. Henthorn', "A History of Korea", 1971 Macmillan Publishing Co. , page 34
- ^ De Bary, Theodore and Peter H. Lee, "Sources of Korean Tradition", p. 25-26
- ^ 'Ki-Baik Lee', "A New History of Korea", 1984 Harvard University Press, page 36
- ^ (MyGoguryeo Unknown year)
- ^ Zizhi Tongjian, vols. The Zizhi Tongjian ( was a pioneering reference work in Chinese historiography. 198, 199, 200, 201
- ^ Samguk Sagi, vol. Samguk Sagi ( History of the Three Kingdoms) is a historical record of the Three Kingdoms of Korea: Goguryeo, Baekje and 22. [2]
- ^ (Byington 2004b)
- ^ (Byington 2004b)
- ^ The Pride History of Korea
- ^ (ScienceView Unknown year).
- ^ (ScienceView Unknown year)
- ^ About the Korea Institute. Korea Institute. Retrieved on 2007-05-28. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling
References
- Byeon, Tae-seop (1999), 韓國史通論(Outline of Korean history), 4th ed. , Unknown Publisher, ISBN 89-445-9101-6
- US Library of Congress, Unknown Author (Unknown Year), South Korea:The Three Kingdom Periods, Unknown Publisher, <http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd/cstdy:@field(DOCID+kr0014)>
- Metropolitan Museum, Unknown Author (Unknown Year), Korea, 1-500 A.D) Korea, 1-500AD, Unknown Publisher, <http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/ht/05/eak/ht05eak.htm Korea, 1-500 A. D)>
- Yonson, Ahn (2006), Korea China Textbook War. What's It All About?, History News Network, <http://hnn.us/articles/21617.html>
- Ramzy, Austin (Unknown Year), Rewriting History, Time Magazine, <http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,501040823-682338,00.html>
- Klingner, Bruce (2004), China Shock for South Korea, Asia Time, <http://www.atimes.com/atimes/korea/FI11Dg03.html>
- Shin, Hyoung-Sik (2003), History of Koguryo, Ewha Womans University Press, South Korea, <http://dprk-cn.com/en/history/koguryo/>
- Lee, Wha (Unknown Year), Forgotten Glory of Koguryo, Kimsoft. com, <http://www.kimsoft.com/KOREA/kogu.htm>
- Brown, John (2006), China, Japan, Korea. Culture and Custom, BookSurge Publishing, ISBN 1419648934, <http://books.google.com/books?vid=ISBN1419648934&id=3r-3YH3t45cC&pg=RA1-PA81&lpg=RA1-PA81&ots=HkePGwTvGa&dq=goguryeo+hanbok&sig=ON0Cf8QIGlCaAdfa179I-WYK1j4#PPP1,M1>
- Beckwith, Christopher I. (August 2003), Ancient Koguryo, Old Koguryo, and the Relationship of Japanese to Korean, Michigan State University, <http://www.msu.edu/~jk13/Abs.Beckwith.pdf>. Retrieved on 12 March 2006
[Note: The work "Sasse, Werner. 1976. Das Glossar Kogury o˙-pang o˙n im Kyerim-yusa" cited in this article actually is "Werner Sasse, Das Glossar Koryo-pangon im Kyerim-yusa" :-)]
- Britannica, Unknown Author (Unknown Year), Koguryo, Britannica Encyclopedia, <http://www.britannica.com/ebc/article-9369333>
- Encarta, Unknown Author (2007), Koguryo, MSN, <http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/search.aspx?q=koguryo>. Retrieved on 12 March 2007
- Columbia Encyclopedia, Unknown Author (2005), Korea, Bartleby. com, <http://www.bartleby.com/65/ko/Korea.html>. Retrieved on 12 March 2007
- CIA World Factbook (2007), Korea, South, CIA, <https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ks.html>. Retrieved on 27 April 2007
- Sun, Jinji (2004a), Dongbei minzu yuanliu (The Ethnic Origin of the Northeast), Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe
- Sun, Jinji (1986), Zhongguo Gaogoulishi yanjiu kaifang fanrong de liunian (Six Years of Opening and Prosperity of Koguryo History Research), Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe
- Sun, Jinji (2004b), Renmin jiaoyu chubanshe lishixi (History Department of People’s Education Press), Zhongguo lishi (Chinese History) II, Heilongjiang Renmin Chubanshe
- MyGoguryeo, Unknown (Unknown Year), The Pride History of Korea, MyGoguryeo. net (WWW), <http://www.mygoguryeo.net/history01.htm>
- Byington, Mark (2004a), Koguryo Part of China?, Koreanstudies mailing list (WWW), <http://koreaweb.ws/pipermail/koreanstudies_koreaweb.ws/2004-January/004054.html>
- Byington, Mark (2004b), The War of Words Between South Korea and China Over An Ancient Kingdom: Why Both Sides Are Misguided, History News Network (WWW), <http://koreaweb.ws/pipermail/koreanstudies_koreaweb.ws/2004-January/004054.html>
- ScienceView, Unknown Author (Unknown Year), Cultural Development of the Three Kingdoms, ScienceView (WWW), <http://scienceview.berkeley.edu/VI/handbooks_history.html>
- Rhee, Song nai (1992) Secondary State Formation: The Case of Koguryo State. In Pacific Northeast Asia in Prehistory: Hunter-fisher-gatherers, Farmers, and Sociopolitical Elites, edited by C. Melvin Aikens and Song Nai Rhee, pp. 191–196. WSU Press, Pullman ISBN 0-87422-092-0.
- Asmolov, V. Konstantin. (1992). The System of Military Activity of Koguryo, Korea Journal, v. 32. 2, 103–116, 1992.
External links
- (English) Encyclopaedia Britannica
- (English) Encarta
- (English) Columbia Encyclopedia
- (Korean) Information about the ancient kingdom
- (English) Goguryeo of Korea
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