Part of a series on Gnosticism

History of Gnosticism Early Gnosticism Syrian-Egyptic Gnosticism Gnosticism in modern times

Proto-Gnostics Philo Valentinius Cerinthus Basilides

Gnostic texts Gnostic Gospels Nag Hammadi library Codex Tchacos Bruce Codex Gnosticism and the New Testament

Related articles Gnosis Pythagoreanism Neoplatonism and Gnosticism Manichaeism Bosnian Church Esoteric Christianity Theosophy This box: view • talk • edit

Gnosticism (Greek: γνώσις gnōsis, knowledge) refers to a diverse, syncretistic religious movement consisting of various belief systems generally united in the teaching that humans are divine souls trapped in a material world created by an imperfect god, the demiurge, who is frequently identified with the Abrahamic God. The history of Gnosticism is subject to a great deal of debate and interpretation Early Gnosticism refers to a point in Gnosticism that occurred following the Fathers of Christian Gnosticism and related groups but prior to the shift to Syrian-Egyptian Gnostic Schools were ancient Gnostic sects from around the Middle East. Gnosticism includes a variety of ancient religions prevalent in the Mediterranean in the third century AD. The Church Fathers or Fathers of the Church is a term used in Catholic and Orthodox forms of Christianity to refer to the early and Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria Valentinus (also spelled Valentius) ( c 100 - c160 CE) was the best known and for a time most successful Early Christian gnostic Cerinthus ( c 100 was an Early Christian originator of a heretical sect a " Heresiarch " in the view of the Church Fathers "Basilides" redirects here For the 17th century Ethiopian Emperor see Fasilides of Ethiopia. Gnosticism used a number of Religious texts that are preserved in part or whole in ancient Manuscripts or are lost but mentioned critically in Patristic The term gnostic gospels refers to Gnostic collections of writings about the teachings of Jesus, written around the 2nd century AD. Nag Hammadi library (popularly known as The Gnostic Gospels) is a collection of early Christian Gnostic texts discovered near the The Codex Tchacos is an ancient Egyptian Coptic Papyrus containing early Christian Gnostic texts from approximately 300 A The Bruce Codex (also called the Codex Brucianus) is a gnostic manuscript acquired by the British Museum. This article discusses the relationship between Gnosticism and the New Testament. Gnosis (from one of the Greek words for Knowledge, γνώσις is the spiritual knowledge of a Saint or mystically enlightened human being Pythagoreanism is a term used for the Esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers the Pythagoreans who were much influenced Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of Hellenistic philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD, based Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating The Bosnian Church ( crkva bosanska, ecclesia bosniensis) seems to have been a Catholic monastic order that separated itself from the wider Church possibly over the Esoteric Christianity is a term which refers to an ensemble of spiritual currents which regard Christianity as a Mystery religion, and profess the existence This article is about the philosophy introduced by Helena Petrovna Blavatsky Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Syncretism consists of the attempt to reconcile disparate or contradictory beliefs often while melding practices of various schools of thought A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. The demiurge may be depicted as an embodiment of evil, or in other instances as merely imperfect and as benevolent as its inadequacy permits. This demiurge exists alongside another remote and unknowable supreme being that embodies good. For the Celtic Frost album see Monotheist (album In Theology, monotheism (from Greek grc [[wiktμόνος μόνος]] In order to free oneself from the inferior material world, one needs gnosis, or esoteric spiritual knowledge available to all through direct experience or knowledge (gnosis) of God. Gnosis (from one of the Greek words for Knowledge, γνώσις is the spiritual knowledge of a Saint or mystically enlightened human being Gnosis (from one of the Greek words for Knowledge, γνώσις is the spiritual knowledge of a Saint or mystically enlightened human being ^[1][2] Jesus of Nazareth is identified by some Gnostic sects as an embodiment of the supreme being who became incarnate to bring gnosis to the earth. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) In others he was thought to be a gnosis teacher, and yet others, nothing more than a man. Gnosis (from one of the Greek words for Knowledge, γνώσις is the spiritual knowledge of a Saint or mystically enlightened human being

Gnosticism was popular in the Mediterranean and Middle Eastern regions in the second and third centuries, though some scholars claim it was suppressed and was actually popular as early as the first century, predating Jesus Christ^[3] as a dualistic heresy in areas controlled by the Roman Empire when Christianity became its state religion in the fourth century. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. Dualism denotes a state of two parts The word's origin is the Latin duo, "two". Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially Conversion to Islam and the Albigensian Crusade greatly reduced the remaining number of Gnostics throughout the middle ages, though a few isolated communities continue to exist to the present. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Albigensian Crusade or Cathar Crusade (1209&ndash1229 was a 20-year military campaign initiated by the Roman Catholic Church to eliminate the Cathar Gnostic ideas became influential in the philosophies of various esoteric mystical movements of the late 19th and 20th centuries in Europe and North America, including some that explicitly identify themselves as revivals or even continuations of earlier gnostic groups. Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity

Contents 1 Nature and structure of Gnosticism 1.1 The main features of gnosticism 1.2 Dualism and monism 1.3 Moral and ritual practice 2 Major Gnostic movements and their texts 2.1 Persian Gnosticism 2.2 Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism 2.2.1 Syrian-Egyptic scripture 2.3 Later Gnosticism and Gnostic-influenced groups 2.4 Kabbalah 3 Important terms and concepts 3.1 Aeons 3.2 Archon 3.3 Abraxas/Abrasax 3.4 Demiurge 3.5 Gnosis 3.6 Monad (apophatic theology) 3.7 Pleroma 3.8 Sophia 4 History 4.1 The development of the Syrian-Egyptian school 4.2 The development of the Persian school 4.3 Buddhism and Gnosticism 4.4 Influence in East Asia 5 'Gnosticism' as a potentially flawed category 6 Gnosticism in modern times 7 See also 8 Footnotes 9 References 9.1 Books 9.1.1 Primary sources 9.1.2 Secondary sources 9.2 Videos 10 External links

Nature and structure of Gnosticism

The main features of gnosticism

Gnostic systems are typically marked by:

1. The notion of a remote, supreme monadic divinity - this figure is known under a variety of names, including 'Pleroma' and 'Bythos' (Greek 'deep');
2. The introduction by emanation of further divine beings, which are nevertheless identifiable as aspects of the God from which they proceeded; the progressive emanations are often conceived metaphorically as a gradual and progressive distancing from the ultimate source, which brings about an instability in the fabric of the divine nature;
3. The subsequent identification of the Fall of Man as an occurrence with its ultimate foundations within divinity itself, rather than as occurring either entirely or indeed partially through human agency; this stage in the divine emanation is usually enacted through the recurrent Gnostic figure of Sophia (Greek 'Wisdom'), whose presence in a wide variety of Gnostic texts is indicative of her central importance;
4. The introduction of a distinct creator god, who is named as in the Platonist tradition demiurgos. In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies) God is known as the Monad, the One, The Absolute Aion teleos (The Pleroma (Greek grc πλήρωμα generally refers to the totality of divine powers In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies) God is known as the Monad, the One, The Absolute Aion teleos (The The Fall of Man, or simply the Fall, in Christian doctrine refers to the transition of the first humans from a state of innocent obedience to God, Sophia (Σoφíα Greek for " Wisdom " is a central term in Hellenistic philosophy and religion, Platonism, Gnosticism used a number of Religious texts that are preserved in part or whole in ancient Manuscripts or are lost but mentioned critically in Patristic Platonism is the Philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it
   Evidence exists that the conception of the demiurge has derivation from figures in Plato's Timaeus and Republic. Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos The Republic ( Greek: / Politeía, meaning "political system" Latin: Res Publica, meaning "public business" or In the former, the demiurge is the benevolent creator of the universe from pre-existent matter, to whose limitations he is enthralled in creating the cosmos; in the latter, the description of the leontomorphic 'desire' in Socrates' model of the psyche bears a strong resemblance to descriptions of the demiurge as being in the shape of the lion. SOCRATES is the European Community action programme in the field of Education. In Psychoanalysis, the psyche (ˈsaɪki refers to the forces in an individual that influence thought, Behavior and Personality.
   Elsewhere this figure is called 'Ialdabaoth', 'Samael' (Aramaic sæmʕa-ʔel, 'blind god') or 'Saklas' (Syriac sækla, 'the foolish one'), who is sometimes ignorant of the superior God, and sometimes opposed to it; thus in the latter case he is correspondingly malevolent. Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos Aramaic is a Semitic language with See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language
   The demiurge typically creates a group of coactors named 'Archons', who preside over the material realm and, in some cases, present obstacles to the soul seeking ascent from it;
5. The estimation of the world, owing to the above, as flawed or a production of 'error' but nevertheless as good as its constituent material might allow. Archon (Gr ἄρχων pl ἄρχοντες is a Greek word that means "ruler" frequently used as the title of a specific public office This world is typically an inferior simulacrum of a higher-level reality or consciousness. Simulacrum (plural -cra also -crums from the Latin simulacrum which means "likeness similarity" is first recorded in the English language in the late The inferiority may be compared to the technical inferiority of a painting, sculpture, or other handicraft to the thing(s) of which those crafts are supposed to be a representation. Painting (pān'tīng in Art, is the practice of applying Color to a Surface (support base such as e Handicraft, also known as craftwork or simply Craft, is a type of work where useful and decorative devices are made completely by hand or using only simple tools Mimesis ( μίμησις from μιμεîσθαι) is a critical and Philosophical term that carries a wide range of meanings including In certain other cases it is also perceived as evil and constrictive, a deliberate prison for its inhabitants;
6. The explanation of this state through the use of a complex mythological-cosmological drama in which a divine element 'falls' into the material realm and lodges itself within certain human beings; from here, it may be returned to the divine realm through a process of awakening (leading towards salvation). The salvation of the individual thus mirrors a concurrent restoration of the divine nature; a central Gnostic innovation was to elevate individual redemption to the level of a cosmically significant event;
7. Knowledge of a specific kind as a central factor in this process of restoration, achieved through the mediation of a redeemer figure (Christ, or, in other cases, Seth or Sophia). Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " This article is about the Biblical Seth For the Egyptian god Seth see Set (mythology; for other meanings see Seth (disambiguation. Sophia (Σoφíα Greek for " Wisdom " is a central term in Hellenistic philosophy and religion, Platonism,

The model limits itself to describing characteristics of the Syrian-Egyptian school of Gnosticism. This is for the reason that the greatest expressions of the Persian gnostic school - Manicheanism and Mandaeanism - are typically conceived of as religious traditions in their own right; indeed, the typical usage of 'Gnosticism' is to refer to the Syrian-Egyptian schools alone, while 'Manichean' describes the movements of the Persia school. Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating Mandaeism or Mandaeanism ( Mandaic: Mandaiuta, مندائية Mandā'iyya) is a Monotheistic Religion with a strongly

The relationship between Gnosticism and Christianity during the early first and the whole of the second century is vital in helping us to further understand the main doctrines of Gnosticism, due in part to the fact that much of what we know today about gnosticism has only been preserved in the teachings of early church fathers. The age of the Gnostics was highly diverse religiously, and due to there being no fixed church authority, syncretism with pre-existing belief systems as well as new religions was often embraced. Above all, the central idea of Gnosticism (a knowledge superior to and independent of faith) made it welcome to many who were half-converted from paganism to Christianity. According to gnostics, faith was for the multitude, knowledge for the few.

Irenaeus declares (Adversus Haereses, II, 27, 1. PG, VI, 802) it subjected everything to the caprice of the individual, and made any fixed rule of faith impossible. It destroyed, as Clement puts it (Stromata. , II, 3, pp. 443-4) the efficacy of Baptism (that is, it set at naught faith, the gift conferred in that sacrament). The Gnostics professed to impart a knowledge "greater and deeper" (Iren. I, 31, 2) than the ordinary doctrine of Christians. This knowledge, to those who were capable of it, was the means of redemption; indeed, in most of the Gnostics systems it was the one and sufficient passport to perfect bliss. But it kept the resemblance of Christianity for in nearly all the Gnostic systems Christ occupied a central place. Without its Christian element, it could not have entered into such close conflict with the Church; without its mythological garb, it would have missed its popularity.

The conception of Gnosticism here has in recent times come to be challenged (see below). Despite this, the understanding presented above remains the most common and is useful in aiding meaningful discussion of the phenomena that compose Gnosticism.

Dualism and monism

Typically, Gnostic systems are loosely described as being 'dualistic' in nature, meaning they had the view the world consists of or is explicable as two fundamental entities. Within this definition, they run the gamut from the 'extreme' or 'radical dualist' systems of Manicheanism to the 'weak' or 'mitigated dualism' of classic gnostic movements; Valentinian developments arguably approach a form of monism, expressed in terms previously used in a dualistic manner. Monism is the metaphysical and Theological view that all is one that all reality is subsumed under the most fundamental category of being or existence

• Radical Dualism - or absolute Dualism which posits two co-equal divine forces. Manichaeism conceives of two previously coexistent realms of light and darkness which become embroiled in conflict, owing to the chaotic actions of the latter. Subsequently, certain elements of the light became entrapped within darkness; the purpose of material creation is to enact the slow process of extraction of these individual elements, at the end of which the kingdom of light will prevail over darkness. Manicheanism likely inherits this dualistic mythology from Zoroastrianism, in which the eternal spirit Ahura Mazda is opposed by his antithesis, Angra Mainyu; the two are engaged in a cosmic struggle, the conclusion of which will likewise see Ahura Mazda triumphant. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Ahura Mazda ( ae Ahura Mazdā) is the Avestan language name for a divinity exalted by Zoroaster as the one uncreated Creator "Ahriman" redirects here For other uses see Ahriman (disambiguation.
  The Mandaean creation myth witnesses the progressive emanations of Supreme Being of Light, with each emanation bringing about a progressive corruption resulting in the eventual emergence of Ptahil, the god of darkness who had a hand in creating and henceforward rules the material realm.
  Additionally, general Gnostic thought (specifically to be found in Iranian sects; for instance, see 'The Hymn of the Pearl') commonly included the belief that the material world corresponds to some sort of malevolent intoxication brought about by the powers of darkness to keep elements of the light trapped inside it, or literally to keep them 'in the dark', or ignorant; in a state of drunken distraction. The Hymn of the Pearl (also Hymn of the Soul, Hymn of the Robe of Glory or Hymn of Judas Thomas the Apostle) is a passage of the Apocryphal
• Mitigated Dualism - where one of the two principles is in some way inferior to the other. Such classical Gnostic movements as the Sethians conceived of the material world as being created by a lesser divinity than the true God that was the object of their devotion. The spiritual world is conceived of as being radically different from the material world, co-extensive with the true God, and the true home of certain enlightened members of humanity; thus, these systems were expressive of a feeling of acute alienation within the world, and their resultant aim was to allow the soul to escape the constraints presented by the physical realm.
• Qualified Monism - where it is arguable whether or not the second entity is divine or semi-divine. Elements of Valentinian versions of Gnostic myth suggest to some that its understanding of the universe may have been monistic rather than a dualistic one: 'Valentinian gnosticism [. . . ] differs essentially from dualism' (Elaine Pagels, The Gnostic Gospel, 1978); 'a standard element in the interpretation of Valentinianism and similar forms of Gnosticism is the recognition that they are fundamentally monistic' (William Schoedel, 'Gnostic Monism and the Gospel of Truth' in The Rediscovery of Gnosticism, Vol. Elaine Pagels, née Hiesey (born February 13, 1943) is the Harrington Spear Paine Professor of Religion at Princeton University 1: The School of Valentinus, edited by Bentley Layton, E. J. Brill, Leiden, 1980). In these myths, the malevolence of the demiurge is mitigated; his creation of a flawed materiality is not due to any moral failing on his part, but due to his honest ignorance of the superior spiritual world above him. As such, Valentinians already have more cause to treat physical reality with less contempt than might a Sethian Gnostic.
  Perhaps for this reason Valentinus appears to conceive of materiality, rather than as being a separate substance from the divine, as attributable to an error of perception. Thus it follows that the Valentinian conception of the universe may be of a fundamentally monistic nature, in which all things are aspects of the divine; our ordinary view which is limited to the material realm is owing to our errors of perception, which become symbolized mythopoetically as the demiurge's act of creation.

Moral and ritual practice

The question of Gnostic morality can only be resolved by reading the claims of their contemporaries. Numerous Christian writers accused some Gnostic teachers of claiming to eschew the physical realm, while simultaneously freely indulging their physical appetites; however there is reason to question the accuracy of these claims.

Evidence in the source texts indicates Gnostic moral behaviour as being generally ascetic in basis, expressed most fluently in their sexual and dietary practice. Ascetic redirects here You might also be looking for Acetic acid. ^[4] Many monks would deprive themselves of food, water, or necessary needs for living. This presented a problem for the heresiologists writing on gnostic movements: this mode of behavior was one which they themselves favoured and supported, so the Church Fathers, it seemed, would be required perforce to offer support to the practices of their theological opponents. In order to avoid this, a common heresiological approach was to avoid the issue completely by resorting to slanderous (and, in some cases, excessive) allegations of libertinism, or to explain Gnostic asceticism as being based on incorrect interpretations of scripture, or simply duplicitous in nature. Libertine has come to mean one devoid of any restraints especially one who ignores or even spurns religious norms accepted morals and forms of behaviour sanctioned by the larger society Epiphanius provides an example when he writes of the 'Archontics' 'Some of them ruin their bodies by dissipation, but others feign ostensible fasts and deceive simple people while they pride themselves with a sort of abstinence, under the disguise of monks' (Panarion, 40. Epiphanius (ca 310&ndash320 &ndash 403 was bishop of Salamis and metropolitan of Cyprus at the end of the 4th century AD Abstinence is a voluntary restraint from indulging a desire or appetite for certain bodily activities that are widely experienced as giving pleasure In early Christian Heresiology, the Panarion (Greek Πανάριον "Medicine Chest" also known as Adversus Haereses (Latin "Against 1. 4).

In other areas of morality, Gnostics were less rigorously ascetic, and took a more moderate approach to correct behaviour. Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora lays out a project of general asceticism in which the basis of action is the moral inclination of the individual:

External physical fasting is observed even among our followers, for it can be of some benefit to the soul if it is engaged on with reason (logos), whenever it is done neither by way of limiting others, nor out of habit, nor because of the day, as if it had been specially appointed for that purpose. grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion

– Ptolemy, Letter to Flora

This extract marks a definite shift away from the position of orthodoxy, that the correct behaviour for Christians is best administered and prescribed by the central authority of the church, as transmitted through the apostles. There were others named Ptolemy see Ptolemy (disambiguation Ptolemy the Gnostic was a disciple of the Gnostic teacher Valentinius Instead, the internalised inclination of the individual assumes paramount importance; there is the recognition that ritualistic behaviour, though well-intentioned, possesses no significance or effectiveness unless its external prescription is matched by a personal, internal motivation.

Charges of Gnostic libertinism find their source in the works of Irenaeus. Saint Irenaeus (Greek Ειρηναίος (2nd century AD - c 202 was Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, Roman Empire (now Lyons France According to this writer, Simon Magus (whom he has identified as the prototypical source of Gnosticism) founded the school of moral freedom ('amoralism'). Simon Magus ( Greek Σίμων ό μάγος also known as Simon the Sorcerer and Simon of Gitta, is the name used by early Christian writers Amorality is the quality of existence in which the concept of Morality (or Right and wrong) is invalid Irenaeus reports that Simon's argument, that those who put their trust in him and his consort Helen, need trouble themselves no further with the biblical prophets or their moral exhortations and are free 'to do what they wish', as men are saved by his (Simon's) grace, and not by their 'righteous works' (adapted from Adversus Haereses, I. On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis ( commonly called Against Heresies (Latin Adversus haereses,) is a five-volume work 23. 3).

Simon is not known for any libertinistic practice, save for his curious attachment to Helen, typically reputed to be a prostitute. There is, however, clear evidence in the Testimony of Truth that followers of Simon did, in fact, get married and beget children, so a general tendency to asceticism can likewise be ruled out. The Testimony of Truth is the third manuscript from Codex IX of the Nag Hammadi Library.

Irenaeus reports of the Valentinians, whom he characterizes as eventual inheritors of Simon, that they are lax in their dietary habits (eating food that has been 'offered to idols'), sexually promiscuous ('immoderately given over to the desires of the flesh') and guilty of taking wives under the pretence of living with them as adopted 'sisters'. In the latter case, Michael Allen Williams has argued plausibly that Irenaeus was here broadly correct in the behaviour described, but not in his apprehension of its causes. Williams argues that members of a cult might live together as 'brother' and 'sister': intimate, yet not sexually active. Over time, however, the self-denial required of such an endeavour becomes harder and harder to maintain, leading to the state of affairs Irenaeus criticizes.

Irenaeus also makes reference to the Valentinian practise of the Bridal Chamber, a ritualistic sacrament in which sexual union is seen as analogous to the activities of the paired syzygies that constitute the Valentinian Pleroma. A sacrament, as defined in Hexam's Concise Dictionary of Religion is "a Rite in which God is uniquely active In broadest terms Syzygy (ˈsɪzɪʤi is a kind of unity especially through coordination or alignment most commonly used in the Astronomical and/or Astrological Pleroma (Greek grc πλήρωμα generally refers to the totality of divine powers Though it is known that Valentinus had a more relaxed approach to sexuality than much of the orthodox church (he allowed women to hold positions of ordination in his community), it is not known whether the Bridal Chamber was a ritual involving actual intercourse, or whether human sexuality is here simply being used in a metaphorical sense.

Of the Carpocratians Irenaeus makes much the same report: they 'are so abandoned in their recklessness that they claim to have in their power and be able to practise anything whatsoever that is ungodly (irreligious) and impious . Carpocrates of Alexandria was the founder of an early Gnostic sect from the first half of the second century . . they say that conduct is only good or evil in the eyes of man' (Adversus Haereses, I. 25. 4). Once again a differentiation might be detected between a man's actions and the grace he has received through his adherence to a system of gnosis; whether this is due to a common sharing of such an attitude amongst Gnostic circles, or whether this is simply a blanket-charge used by Irenaeus is open to conjecture.

On the whole, it would seem that Gnostic behavior tended towards the ascetic. This said, the heresiological accusation of duplicity in such practises should not be taken at face value; nor should similar accusations of amoral libertinism. The Nag Hammadi library itself is full of passages which appear to encourage abstinence over indulgence. Fundamentally, however, gnostic movements appear to take the 'ancient schema of the two ways, which leaves the decision to do what is right to human endeavour and promises a reward for those who make the effort, and punishment for those who are negligent' (Kurt Rudolph, Gnosis:The Nature and History of Gnosticism, 262).

Major Gnostic movements and their texts

As noted above, schools of Gnosticism can be defined according to one classification system as being a member of two broad categories. These are the 'Eastern'/'Persian' school, and a 'Syrian-Egyptic' school. The former possesses more demonstrably dualist tendencies, reflecting a strong influence from the beliefs of the Persian Zoroastrians. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Among the Syrian-Egyptian schools and the movements they spawned are a typically more Monist view. Notable exceptions include relatively modern movements which seem to include elements of both categories, namely: the Cathars, Bogomils, and Carpocratians which are included in their own section.

Persian Gnosticism

The Persian Schools are representative of what is believed to be among the oldest of the Gnostic thought forms. These movements are considered by most to be religions in their own right, and are not emanations from Christianity or Judaism. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut

• Mandaeanism is still practised in small numbers, in parts of southern Iraq and the Iranian province of Khuzestan. Mandaeism or Mandaeanism ( Mandaic: Mandaiuta, مندائية Mandā'iyya) is a Monotheistic Religion with a strongly For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Khūzestān (خوزستان is one of the 30 provinces of Iran. The name of the group derives from the term: Mandā d-Heyyi which roughly means "Knowledge of Life. " Although the exact chronological origins of this movement are not known, John the Baptist eventually would come to be a key figure in the religion. As part of the core of their beliefs is an emphasis placed on baptism. As with Manichaeism, despite certain ties with Christianity, Mandaeans do not believe in Moses, Jesus, or Mohammed. Their beliefs and practices likewise have little overlap with the religions that manifested from those religious figures and the two should not be confused. Significant amounts of original Mandaean Scripture survive in the modern era. The primary source text is known as the Genzā Rabbā and has portions identified by some scholars as being copied as early as the 2nd century CE. Ginza Rba ("The Great Treasure" in Mandaic) or Siddra Rba, "The Great Book" ( Arabic كنزا ربا) is one of many holy There is also the Qolastā, or Canonical Book of Prayer and The Book of John the Baptist (sidra ḏ-iahia). Qolusta (قلستة is the canonical Prayerbook of the Mandaeans, a present day Gnostic sect within Iraq and Iran.

• Manichaeism which represented an entire independent religious heritage, but is now mostly extinct was founded by the Prophet Mani (210-276 CE). Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating Although most of the literature/scripture of the Manichaeins was believed lost, the discovery of an original series of documents have helped to shed new light on the subject. Now housed in Cologne Germany, the Codex Manichaicus Coloniensis contains mainly biographical information on the prophet and details on his claims and teachings. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Mani (in Persian: مانی Syriac: syr-Syrc ܡܐܢܝ (c 210–276 AD was the founder of Manichaeism, an ancient Gnostic Religion Despite connections with Jesus Christ, it is not believed that the Manichaeins in any way practiced a religion with identifiable overlap with any of the various Christian sects. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed "

Syrian-Egyptian Gnosticism

The Syrian-Egyptian school derives much of its outlook from Platonist influences. Platonism is the Philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it Typically, it depicts creation in a series of emanations from a primal monadic source, finally resulting in the creation of the material universe. As a result, there is a tendency in these schools to view evil in terms of matter which is markedly inferior to goodness, evil as lacking spiritual insight and goodness, rather than to emphasize portrayals of evil as an equal force. These schools of gnosticism may be said to use the terms 'evil' and 'good' as being relative descriptive terms, as they refer to the relative plight of human existence caught between such realities and confused in its orientation, with 'evil' indicating the extremes of distance from the principle and source of goodness, without necessarily emphasizing an inherent negativity. As can be seen below, many of these movements included source material related to Christianity, with some identifying themselves as specifically Christian (albeit quite different from the so-called Orthodox or Roman Catholic forms).

Syrian-Egyptic scripture

Most of the literature from this category is known/confirmed to us in the modern age through the Library discovered at Nag Hammadi. Nag Hammadi ( Arabic نجع حمادي is a city in Upper Egypt.

• Sethian works are named after the third son of Adam and Eve, believed to be a possessor and disseminator of gnosis. These typically include:
  • The Apocryphon of John
  • The Apocalypse of Adam
  • The Reality of the Rulers, Also known as The hypostasis of the Archons
  • The Thunder-Perfect Mind
  • The Three-fold First Thought (Trimorphic Protennoia)
  • The Holy Book of the Great Invisible Spirit (also known as the (Coptic) Gospel of the Egyptians)
  • Zostrianos
  • Allogenes
  • The Three Steles of Seth

• Thomasine works are so-named after the School of St. The Hypostasis of the Archons or The Reality of the Rulers is an Exegesis on the Book of Genesis 1-4 and expresses Gnostic For the Current 93 album see Thunder Perfect Mind (album. For the Nurse With Wound album see Thunder Perfect Mind (Nurse With Wound album The ' Trimorphic Protennoia' is a Sethian Gnostic text from the New Testament apocrypha. Two versions of the formerly lost Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians (which is quite distinct from the Greek Gospel of the Egyptians) were among the codices in the Zostrianos is a Sethian Gnostic text from the New Testament apocrypha. Allogenes is a Sethian Gnostic text from the New Testament apocrypha. The Three Steles of Seth is a Sethian Gnostic text from the New Testament apocrypha. Thomas the Apostle. Thomas the Apostle, also called Judas Thomas, Doubting Thomas, or Didymus, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. See Thomasine Church (Gnostic). According to the lore of the Thomasine Church, Thomas the Apostle was referred to by Christ as his spiritual twin and as an intimate confidant The texts commonly attributed to this school are:
  • The Hymn of the Pearl, or, the Hymn of Jude Thomas the Apostle in the Country of Indians
  • The Gospel of Thomas
  • The Book of Thomas: The Contender Writing to the Perfect

• Valentinian works are named in reference to the Bishop and teacher Valentinius, also spelled Valentinus. The Hymn of the Pearl (also Hymn of the Soul, Hymn of the Robe of Glory or Hymn of Judas Thomas the Apostle) is a passage of the Apocryphal The Hymn of the Pearl (also Hymn of the Soul, Hymn of the Robe of Glory or Hymn of Judas Thomas the Apostle) is a passage of the Apocryphal The Gospel According to Thomas ( Coptic: ⲡⲉ̅ⲩ̅ⲁ̅ⲅⲅ̅ⲉⲗ̅ⲓⲟⲛ̅ ⲡⲕ̅ⲁ̅ⲧⲁ ⲑ̅ⲱ̅ⲙⲁⲥ also known as The Gospel The Book of Thomas the Contender, also known more simply as the Book of Thomas (not to be confused with the Gospel of Thomas) is one of the Valentinus (also spelled Valentius) ( c 100 - c160 CE) was the best known and for a time most successful Early Christian gnostic ca. 153 AD/CE, Valentinius developed a complex Cosmology outside of the Sethian tradition. Circa (often abbreviated c, ca, ca or cca and sometimes Italicized to show it is Latin) means "about" At one point he was close to being appointed the Bishop of Rome of what is now the Roman Catholic Church. The Bishop of Rome is the bishop of the Holy See, more often referred to in the Catholic tradition as the Pope. Works attributed to his school are listed below, and fragmentary pieces directly linked to him are noted with an asterisk:
  • The Divine Word Present in the Infant (Fragment A) *
  • On the Three Natures (Fragment B) *
  • Adam's Faculty of Speech (Fragment C) *
  • To Agathopous: Jesus' Digestive System (Fragment D) *
  • Annihilation of the Realm of Death (Fragment F) *
  • On Friends: The Source of Common Wisdom (Fragment G) *
  • Epistle on Attachments (Fragment H) *
  • Summer Harvest*
  • The Gospel of Truth*
  • Ptolemy's Version of the Gnostic Myth
  • The Prayer of the Apostle Paul
  • Ptolemy's Epistle to Flora
  • Treatise on Resurrection (Epistle to Rheginus)
  • Gospel of Philip

• Basilidian works are named for the founder of their school, Basilides (132–? CE/AD). The Gospel of Truth is one of the Gnostic texts from the New Testament apocrypha found in the Nag Hammadi codices ("NHC" The Prayer of the Apostle Paul was the first manuscript from the Jung Codex (Codex I of the Nag Hammadi Library. The Gospel of Philip is one of the Gnostic Gospels, a text of New Testament Apocrypha, dating back to around the third century but lost to modern researchers "Basilides" redirects here For the 17th century Ethiopian Emperor see Fasilides of Ethiopia. These works are mainly known to us through the criticisms of one of his opponents, Irenaeus in his work Adversus Haereses. Saint Irenaeus (Greek Ειρηναίος (2nd century AD - c 202 was Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, Roman Empire (now Lyons France The other pieces are known through the work of Clement of Alexandria:
  • The Octet of Subsistent Entities (Fragment A)
  • The Uniqueness of the World (Fragment B)
  • Election Naturally Entails Faith and Virtue (Fragment C)
  • The State of Virtue (Fragment D)
  • The Elect Transcend the World (Fragment E)
  • Reincarnation (Fragment F)
  • Human Suffering and the Goodness of Providence (Fragment G)
  • Forgivable Sins (Fragment H)

• The Gospel of Judas is the most recently discovered Gnostic text. Saint Clement of Alexandria (born Titus Flavius Clemens) (c150 - 211/216 was the first notable member of the Church of Alexandria, and one of its most The Gospel of Judas is a Gnostic gospel purported to document conversations between apostle Judas Iscariot and Jesus Christ. National Geographic has published an English translation of it, bringing it into mainstream awareness. Overview The NGS's historical mission is "to increase and diffuse geographic knowledge while promoting the conservation of the world's cultural historical and natural It portrays Judas Iscariot as the most enlightened disciple, who acted at Jesus' request when he handed Jesus over to the authorities. Judas Iscariot, יהודה איש־קריות Yəhûḏāh ʾΚ-qəriyyôṯ was according to the New Testament, one of the twelve original apostles Its reference to Barbelo and inclusion of material similar to the Apocryphon of John and other such texts, connects the text to Barbeloite and/or Sethian Gnosticism. The Gnostic term Barbēlo refers to the first Emanation of God in the various Sethian gnostic cosmogonies.

Later Gnosticism and Gnostic-influenced groups

• Other schools and related movements; these are presented in chronological order:
  

  The circular, harmonic cross was an emblem used most notably by the Cathars, a medieval group that related to Gnosticism
  • Simon Magus and Marcion of Sinope both had Gnostic tendencies, but such familiar ideas that they presented were as-yet unformed; they might thus be described as pseudo- or proto-Gnostics. The sun cross, a Cross inside a Circle, is one of the oldest and most widespread of symbols An emblem is a pictorial Image, abstract or representational that epitomizes a Concept — e Simon Magus ( Greek Σίμων ό μάγος also known as Simon the Sorcerer and Simon of Gitta, is the name used by early Christian writers Marcion (Μαρκίων (ca 110 - 160) was a Christian Theologian who was excommunicated by the Early Christian church Both developed a sizeable following. Simon Magus' pupil Menander of Antioch could potentially be included within this grouping. Marcion is popularly labelled a gnostic, however most scholars do not consider him a gnostic at all, for example, the Encyclopædia Britannica article on Marcion clearly states: "In Marcion's own view, therefore, the founding of his church — to which he was first driven by opposition — amounts to a reformation of Christendom through a return to the gospel of Christ and to Paul; nothing was to be accepted beyond that. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc Christendom usually refers to Christianity as a territorial phenomenon This of itself shows that it is a mistake to reckon Marcion among the Gnostics. A dualist he certainly was, but he was not a Gnostic - Depending of course on one's definition of 'Gnostic'. Dualism denotes a state of two parts The word's origin is the Latin duo, "two". "
  • Cerinthus (c 100), the founder of a heretical school with gnostic elements. Cerinthus ( c 100 was an Early Christian originator of a heretical sect a " Heresiarch " in the view of the Church Fathers Like a Gnostic, Cerinthus depicted Christ as a heavenly spirit separate from the man Jesus, and he cited the demiurge as creating the material world. Unlike the Gnostics, Cerinthus taught Christians to observe the Jewish law; his demiurge was holy, not lowly; and he taught the Second Coming. His gnosis was a secret teaching attributed to an apostle. Some scholars believe that the First Epistle of John was written as a response to Cerinthus. ^[5]
  • The Ophites, so-named because they worshipped the serpent of Genesis as the bestower of knowledge. The Ophites or Ophians (from Greek ὄφιανοι > ὄφις = Snake) any of numerous Gnostic sects in Syria and Egypt
  • The Cainites, as the term implies, worshipped Cain, as well as Esau, Korah, and the Sodomites. The Cainites, or Cainians, were a Gnostic and Antinomian sect who were known to worship Cain as the first victim of the Demiurge Esau (ˈisɔ ( Hebrew, Standard Hebrew Esav, Tiberian Hebrew ʿĒśāw) is the brother of Jacob (whom God renamed Korah or Kórach ( Hebrew: קֹרַח, Standard Qóraḥ Tiberian Qōraḥ "Baldness ice hail There is little evidence concerning the nature of this group; however, it is surmisable that they believed that indulgence in sin was the key to salvation because since the body is evil, one must defile it through immoral activity (see libertinism). Libertine has come to mean one devoid of any restraints especially one who ignores or even spurns religious norms accepted morals and forms of behaviour sanctioned by the larger society The name Cainite is used as the name of a religious movement, and not in the usual Biblical sense of people descended from Cain. According to Biblical text, which is our only source of knowledge about the man Cain, all descendants of Cain perished in Noah's Flood, as only Noah's family survived, deriving from the line of Seth. The story of a Great Flood (also known as the Deluge) sent by a Deity or deities to destroy Civilization as an act of Divine retribution is a
  • The Carpocratians
  • The Borborites
  • The Bogomils
  • The Paulicans
  • The Cathars (Cathari, Albigenses or Albigensians) are typically seen as being imitative of Gnosticism; whether or not the Cathari possessed direct historical influence from ancient Gnosticism is disputed. Carpocrates of Alexandria was the founder of an early Gnostic sect from the first half of the second century According to the book Panarion, by Epiphanius of Salamis, and Theodoret 's Haereticarum Fabularum Compendium, the Borborites were a Bogomilism (Богомилство is the Gnostic dualistic Sect, the Synthesis of Armenian Paulicianism and the Bulgarian Slavonic Paulicians (Պավլիկյաններ were a Gnostic and Manichaean Christian group which flourished between 650 and 872 in Anatolia, Though the basic conceptions of Gnostic cosmology are to be found in Cathar beliefs (most distinctly in their notion of a lesser, Satanic, creator god), they did not apparently place any special relevance upon knowledge (gnosis) as an effective salvific force. Satan, ( Standard Hebrew Satan'el, English accuser) is a term that originates from the Abrahamic faiths, being traditionally For the relationship between these medieval heresies and earlier Gnostic forms, see historical discussion above.

Kabbalah

Gnostic ideas found a Jewish variation in the mystical study of Kabbalah. Kabbalah (קַבָּלָה lit "receiving" is a discipline and school of thought discussing the mystical aspect of Judaism. The Kabbalists took many core Gnostic ideas and used them to dramatically reinterpret earlier Jewish sources according to this new foreign influence. See Gershom Scholem's Origins of the Kabbalah for further discussion. The Kabbalists originated in Provence which was at that time also the center of the Gnostic Cathars. Provence ( Provençal Occitan: Provença in classical norm or Prouvènço in Mistralian norm is a region of southeastern France It is thus believed that Cathar Gnostics persuaded Jews to Gnostic ideas, leading to the development of Kabbalah. Another influence on Kabbalah was probably that of the Muslim Ismailis. For the Egyptian city see Ismaïlia. The Ismāʿīlī ( Urdu: إسماعیلی Ismāʿīlī, Arabic: الإسماعيليون (By contrast, however, followers of Kabbalah dates its origins as early as the Garden of Eden. )

Kabbalah, however, does not employ the terminology or labels of gentile Gnosticism, but grounds the same or similar concepts in the language of the Torah (first five books of the Holy Bible). Nevertheless, during the time periods when Gnosticism was drawing large numbers of followers from various religions, creating Gnostic versions of those religions, many Jews also developed a mystical version of Judaism remarkably similar to Gnostic beliefs.

While Kabbalah shares several themes with Gnosticism, such as a multiplicity of heavenly levels and archetypes and the importance of mystical knowledge of these, it does not reflect the distinctive Gnostic belief that the material world and the Hebrew Bible are the work of an inferior and malevolent deity. Rather than describing Kabbalah as a form of Gnosticism, it would be more accurate to describe both Kabbalah and Gnosticism as members of a family of Neoplatonic/Neopythagorean Oriental mystical traditions, which would also include Sufism. Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف

Important terms and concepts

Main article: List of gnostic terms

Aeons

Main article: Aeon

In many Gnostic systems, the various emanations of the God, who is also known by such names as the One, the Monad, Aion teleos (The Perfect Aeon), Bythos (Depth or profundity, Greek Βυθος), Proarkhe (Before the Beginning, Greek προαρχη), E Arkhe (The Beginning, Greek ἡ ἀρχή), are called aeons. The following is a list of vocabulary that many books on gnosticism will assume the reader is familiar with See also Gnosticism#Important terms and concepts The word aeon, also spelled eon or æon, means "age" "forever" or "for Eternity " Emanationism is Platonic monism and an idea in the Cosmology or Cosmogony of certain religious or philosophical systems God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies) God is known as the Monad, the One, The Absolute Aion teleos (The In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies) God is known as the Monad, the One, The Absolute Aion teleos (The This first being is also an æon and has an inner being within itself, known as Ennoia (Thought), Charis (Grace), or Sige (Greek Σιγη, Silence). The split perfect being conceives the second aeon, Caen (Power), within itself. Along with the male Caen comes the female æon Akhana (Truth, Love).

The aeons often came in male/female pairs called syzygies, and were numerous (20-30). Two of the most commonly listed æons were Jesus and Sophia. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Sophia (Σoφíα Greek for " Wisdom " is a central term in Hellenistic philosophy and religion, Platonism, The aeons constitute the pleroma, the "region of light". Pleroma (Greek grc πλήρωμα generally refers to the totality of divine powers The lowest regions of the pleroma are closest to the darkness; that is, the physical world.

When an æon named Sophia emanated without her partner aeon, the result was the Demiurge, or half-creator (Occasionally referred to as Ialdaboth in Gnostic texts), a creature that should never have come into existence. Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos This creature does not belong to the pleroma, and the One emanates two savior æons, Christ and the Holy Spirit to save man from the Demiurge. Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is one of the three entities of the Holy Trinity which make up the single substance Christ then took the form of the man, Jesus, in order to be able to teach man how to achieve gnosis; that is, return to the pleroma. Gnosis (from one of the Greek words for Knowledge, γνώσις is the spiritual knowledge of a Saint or mystically enlightened human being

These systems, however, are only a sample of the various interpretations that exist. The roles of familiar beings such as Jesus Christ, Sophia, and the Demiurge usually share the same general themes between systems but may have somewhat different functions or identities ascribed to them.

Archon

Main article: Archon

In late antiquity some variants of Gnosticism used the term Archon to refer to several servants of the Demiurge, the "creator god" that stood between spiritual humanity and a transcendent God that could only be reached through gnosis. Archon (Gr ἄρχων pl ἄρχοντες is a Greek word that means "ruler" frequently used as the title of a specific public office Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos A creator deity is a Deity in a Creation myth responsible for the creation of the World (or Universe) In this context they may be seen as having the roles of the angels and demons of the Old Testament. In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon.

The Orphics accepted the existence of seven archons: Iadabaoth or Ialdabaoth (who created the six others), Iao, Sabaoth, Adonaios, Elaios, Astaphanos and Horaios (Origen, Contra Celsum, VI. Orphism (more rarely Orphicism) is the name given to a set of religious beliefs and practices in the ancient Greek and Thracian world associated with literature Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos In Judaism, the name of God is more than a distinguishing title Origen ( Greek: Ōrigénēs, or Origen Adamantius, ca 185–ca Contra Celsus, or (in correct classical Latin Contra Celsum, is the title of a major work by the Church Father Origen of Alexandria, refuting the anti-Christian 31). Ialdabaoth had a head of a lion, just like Mithraic Kronos (Chronos) and Vedic Narasimha, a form of Vishnu. The Mithraic Mysteries or Mysteries of Mithras (also Mithraism) was a Roman mystery religion which became popular among the military in the late In Greek mythology, Chronos ( Ancient Greek:) in pre-Socratic philosophical works is said to be the personification of Time. This article discusses the historical religious practices in the Vedic time period see Hinduism and Indian religions for details Narasimha ( IAST Narasiṃha Sanskrit नरसिंह (other spellings are Narasingh, Narasinga) is an Avatara of Vishnu For other meanings see Vishnu (disambiguation. Vishnu ( IAST viṣṇu Devanagari विष्णु (honorific

Abraxas/Abrasax

Main article: Abraxas

The Egyptian Gnostic Basilideans referred to a figure called Abraxas who was at the head of 365 spiritual beings (Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, I. The Basilideans were a Gnostic Sect founded by Basilides of Alexandria in the 2nd century. Saint Irenaeus (Greek Ειρηναίος (2nd century AD - c 202 was Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, Roman Empire (now Lyons France On the Detection and Overthrow of the So-Called Gnosis ( commonly called Against Heresies (Latin Adversus haereses,) is a five-volume work 24); it is unclear what to make of Irenaeus' use of the term 'Archon', which may simply mean 'ruler' in this context. The role and function of Abraxas for Basilideans is not clear.

The word Abraxas was engraved on certain antique stones, called on that account Abraxas stones, which may have been used as amulets or charms by Gnostic sects. The word Abraxas (or Abrasax or Abracax) was engraved on certain antique stones called on that account Abraxas stones, which were used "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation. An amulet ( the Elder|Pliny]] meaning "an object that protects a person from trouble" a close cousin of the talisman (from Arabic In popular culture, Abraxas is sometimes considered the name of a god who incorporated both Good and Evil (God and Demiurge) in one entity, and therefore representing the monotheistic God, singular, but (unlike, for example, the Christian God) not omni-benevolent (See Hesse's Demian, and Jung's Seven Sermons to the Dead). God, as a male Deity, contrasts with female deities or " goddesses " In Religion, Ethics, and Philosophy, the phrase good and evil refers to the location of objects desires and Behaviors on a two-way Evil, in many cultures is used to describe acts or thoughts which are contrary to some particular religion Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Omnibenevolence is defined by the Oxford English Dictionary as "unlimited or infinite Benevolence " Opinions abound on Abraxas, who in recent centuries has been claimed to be both an Egyptian god and a demon, sometimes even being associated with the dual nature of Satan/Lucifer. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Satan, ( Standard Hebrew Satan'el, English accuser) is a term that originates from the Abrahamic faiths, being traditionally Lucifer is a name frequently given to Satan in Christian belief The word abracadabra may be related to Abraxas. Abracadabra (sometimes spelled Abrakadabra) is a word used as an Incantation.

The above information relates to interpretations of ancient amulets and to reports of Christian heresy hunters which are not always clear.

Actual ancient Gnostic texts from the Nag Hammadi Library, such as the Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians, refer to Abrasax as an Aeon dwelling with Sophia and other Aeons of the Spiritual Fullness in the light of the luminary Eleleth. Two versions of the formerly lost Coptic Gospel of the Egyptians (which is quite distinct from the Greek Gospel of the Egyptians) were among the codices in the In several texts, the luminary Eleleth is the last of the luminaries (Spiritual Lights) that come forward, and it is the Aeon Sophia, associated with Eleleth, who encounters darkness and becomes involved in the chain of events that leads to the Demiurge and Archon's rule of this world, and the salvage effort that ensues. As such, the role of Aeons of Eleleth, including Abrasax, Sophia, and others, pertains to this outer border of the Divine Fullness that encounters the ignorance of the world of Lack and interacts to rectify the error of ignorance in the world of materiality.

Words like or similar to Abraxas or Abrasax also appear in the Greek Magical Papyri. The Greek Magical Papyri (papyri is plural of Papyrus) (commonly abbreviated to PGM from the Latin title Papyri Graecae Magicae) is a collective term for a collection There are similarities and differences between such figures in reports about Basiledes' teaching, in the larger magical traditions of the Graeco-Roman world, in the classic ancient Gnostic texts such as the Gospel of the Egyptians, and in later magical and esoteric writings.

The Swiss Psychologist Carl Jung wrote a short Gnostic treatise in 1916 called The Seven Sermons to the Dead, which called Abraxas a God higher than the Christian God and Devil, that combines all opposites into one Being.

Demiurge

Main article: Demiurge

The term Demiurge refers to an entity (usually seen as evil) responsible for the creation of the physical universe and the physical aspect of humanity. In Religion and Esotericism, the term " physical universe " or " material universe " is used to distinguish the physical Human nature is the concept that there are a set of logical characteristics including ways of thinking feeling and acting that all 'normal' human beings have in common

The term occurs in a number of other religious and philosophical systems, most notably Platonism. Platonism is the Philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it While always suggestive of a creator god, the moral judgements regarding the demiurge vary wildly, from a benign grand architect to an evil subvertor of God's will. A creator deity is a Deity in a Creation myth responsible for the creation of the World (or Universe) The Great Architect of the Universe (also Grand Architect of the Universe or Supreme Architect of the Universe) is a conception of God discussed by many

Like Plato, Gnosticism presents a distinction between the highest, unknowable "alien God" and the demiurgic "creator" of the material. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece However, in contrast to Plato, several systems of Gnostic thought present the Demiurge as antagonistic to the will of the Supreme God: his act of creation either in unconscious imitation of the divine model, and thus is fundamentally flawed, or else formed with the malevolent intention of entrapping aspects of the divine in materiality. Thus, in such systems, the Demiurge acts as a solution to the problem of evil. In the Philosophy of religion and Theology, the problem of evil is the problem of reconciling the existence of Evil or Suffering in the world In the Apocryphon of John (several versions of which are found in the Nag Hammadi library), the Demiurge has the name "Yaltabaoth", and proclaims himself as God:

"Now the archon who is weak has three names. Nag Hammadi library (popularly known as The Gnostic Gospels) is a collection of early Christian Gnostic texts discovered near the Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos Archon (Gr ἄρχων pl ἄρχοντες is a Greek word that means "ruler" frequently used as the title of a specific public office The first name is Yaltabaoth, the second is Saklas, and the third is Samael. Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos Samael (סמאל (also Sammael) is an important Archangel in Talmudic and post-Talmudic lore as well as Christian tradition and demonology a figure who And he is impious in his arrogance which is in him. For he said, 'I am God and there is no other God beside me,' for he is ignorant of his strength, the place from which he had come. "

Gnostic myth recounts that Sophia (Greek, literally meaning "wisdom"), the Demiurge's mother and a partial aspect of the divine Pleroma or "Fullness", desired to create something apart from the divine totality, and without the receipt of divine assent. Gnosticism (γνώσις gnōsis, Knowledge) refers to a diverse Syncretistic Religious movement consisting of various Belief systems Sophia (Σoφíα Greek for " Wisdom " is a central term in Hellenistic philosophy and religion, Platonism, Pleroma (Greek grc πλήρωμα generally refers to the totality of divine powers In this abortive act of separate creation, she gave birth to the monstrous Demiurge and, being ashamed of her deed, she wrapped him in a cloud and created a throne for him within it. The Demiurge, isolated, did not behold his mother, nor anyone else, and thus concluded that only he himself existed, being ignorant of the superior levels of reality that were his birth-place.

The Gnostic myths describing these events are full of intricate nuances portraying the declination of aspects of the divine into human form; this process occurs through the agency of the Demiurge who, having stolen a portion of power from his mother, sets about a work of creation in unconscious imitation of the superior Pleromatic realm. Thus Sophia's power becomes enclosed within the material forms of humanity, themselves entrapped within the material universe: the goal of Gnostic movements was typically the awakening of this spark, which permitted a return by the subject to the superior, non-material realities which were its primal source. (See Sethian Gnosticism. The Sethians were a group of ancient Gnostics who date their existence to before Christianity )

"Samael" may equate to the Judaic Angel of Death, and corresponds to the Christian demon of that name, as well as Satan. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut In English Death is often given the name the " Grim Reaper " and shown as a skeletal figure carrying a large Scythe, and wearing a midnight black gown robe Samael (סמאל (also Sammael) is an important Archangel in Talmudic and post-Talmudic lore as well as Christian tradition and demonology a figure who Satan, ( Standard Hebrew Satan'el, English accuser) is a term that originates from the Abrahamic faiths, being traditionally Literally, it can mean "Blind God" or "God of the Blind" in Aramaic (Syriac sæmʕa-ʔel). Aramaic is a Semitic language with See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language Another alternative title for Yaldabaoth, "Saklas", is Aramaic for "fool" (Syriac sækla "the foolish one").

Some Gnostic philosophers identify the Demiurge with Yahweh, the God of the Old Testament, in opposition and contrast to the God of the New Testament. For information about Yahweh see God in Abrahamic religions, which provides useful links God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. Still others equated the being with Satan. Satan, ( Standard Hebrew Satan'el, English accuser) is a term that originates from the Abrahamic faiths, being traditionally Catharism apparently inherited their idea of Satan as the creator of the evil world directly or indirectly from Gnosticism.

Gnosis

Main article: Gnosis

The word 'Gnosticism' is a modern construction, though based on an antiquated linguistic expression: it comes from the Greek word meaning 'knowledge', gnosis (γνῶσις). Gnosis (from one of the Greek words for Knowledge, γνώσις is the spiritual knowledge of a Saint or mystically enlightened human being Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly However, gnosis itself refers to a very specialised form of knowledge, deriving both from the exact meaning of the original Greek term and its usage in Platonist philosophy. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language

Unlike modern English, ancient Greek was capable of discerning between several different forms of knowing. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States These different forms may be described in English as being propositional knowledge, indicative of knowledge acquired indirectly through the reports of others or otherwise by inference (such as "I know of George Bush" or "I know Berlin is in Germany"), and empirical knowledge acquired by direct participation or acquaintance (such as "I know George Bush personally" or "I know Berlin, having visited"). Descriptive knowledge, also declarative knowledge or propositional knowledge, is the species of Knowledge that is by its very nature expressed in A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence

Gnosis (γνῶσις) refers to knowledge of the second kind. Therefore, in a religious context, to be 'Gnostic' should be understood as being reliant not on knowledge in a general sense, but as being specially receptive to mystical or esoteric experiences of direct participation with the divine. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Mysticism (from the Greek grc μυστικός mystikos, an initiate of a Mystery religion) is the pursuit of communion with identity Indeed, in most Gnostic systems the sufficient cause of salvation is this 'knowledge of' ('acquaintance with') the divine. In Theology, salvation can mean three related things being saved from or Liberation from something such as Suffering or the punishment of This is commonly identified with a process of inward 'knowing' or self-exploration, comparable to that encouraged by Plotinus (ca. Plotinus ( Greek:) (ca AD 204–270 was a major philosopher of the ancient world who is widely considered the founder of Neoplatonism (along with his Circa (often abbreviated c, ca, ca or cca and sometimes Italicized to show it is Latin) means "about" 205–270 AD). However, as may be seen, the term 'gnostic' also had precedent usage in several ancient philosophical traditions, which must also be weighed in considering the very subtle implications of its appellation to a set of ancient religious groups. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language

According to depth psychologist Carl Jung he believed Gnosis was equivalent to his Theory of Individuation. Individuation (Latin principium individuationis) is a concept which appears in numerous fields and may be encountered in work by Gilbert Simondon, Bernard Stiegler Gnosis is believed to be the key to higher and altered states of consciousness.

Monad (apophatic theology)

Main article: Monad (Gnosticism)

In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies), God is known as the Monad, the One, The Absolute, Aion teleos (The Perfect Æon), Bythos (Depth or Profundity, Βυθος), Proarkhe (Before the Beginning, προαρχη), and E Arkhe (The Beginning, η αρχη). In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies) God is known as the Monad, the One, The Absolute Aion teleos (The Gnosticism (γνώσις gnōsis, Knowledge) refers to a diverse Syncretistic Religious movement consisting of various Belief systems God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. The Absolute is the concept of an absolute unconditional reality which transcends limited conditional everyday existence The word aeon, also spelled eon or æon, means "age" "forever" or "for Eternity " God is the high source of the pleroma, the region of light. Pleroma (Greek grc πλήρωμα generally refers to the totality of divine powers The various emanations of God are called æons. The word aeon, also spelled eon or æon, means "age" "forever" or "for Eternity "

Within certain variations of Gnosticism, especially those inspired by Monoimus, the Monad was the highest God which created lesser gods, or elements (similar to æons). Monoimus (lived somewhere between 150 - 210 was an Arab gnostic (Arabic name probably Mun'im منعم who was known only from one account in Theodoret God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. See also List of deities A deity is a Postulated Preternatural or Supernatural Being, who is always

According to Hippolytus, this view was inspired by the Pythagoreans, who called the first thing that came into existence the Monad, which begat the dyad, which begat the numbers, which begat the point, begetting lines, etc. For places named after the saint see Saint-Hippolyte Saint Hippolytus of Rome (c Pythagoreanism is a term used for the Esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers the Pythagoreans who were much influenced A number is an Abstract object, tokens of which are Symbols used in Counting and measuring. In Geometry, Topology and related branches of mathematics a spatial point describes a specific point within a given space that consists of neither Volume This was also clarified in the writings of Plato, Aristotle and Plotinus. Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Plotinus ( Greek:) (ca AD 204–270 was a major philosopher of the ancient world who is widely considered the founder of Neoplatonism (along with his This teaching being largely Neopythagorean via Numenius as well. Pythagoreanism is a term used for the Esoteric and metaphysical beliefs held by Pythagoras and his followers the Pythagoreans who were much influenced Numenius of Apamea was a Greek philosopher who lived in Apamea in Syria and flourished during the latter half of the 2nd century AD

This Monad is the spiritual source of everything which emanates the pleroma, and could be contrasted to the dark Demiurge (Yaldabaoth) that controls matter. The term supernatural or supranatural ( Latin: super, supra "above" + natura "nature" pertains to entities events Emanationism is Platonic monism and an idea in the Cosmology or Cosmogony of certain religious or philosophical systems Pleroma (Greek grc πλήρωμα generally refers to the totality of divine powers Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos Matter is commonly defined as being anything that has mass and that takes up space.

The Sethian cosmogony as most famously contained in the Apocryphon ('Secret book') of John describes an unknown God, very similar to the orthodox apophatic theology, although very different from the orthodox credal teachings that there is one such god who is identified also as creator of heaven and earth. The Sethians were a group of ancient Gnostics who date their existence to before Christianity God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. The word orthodox, from Greek orthodoxos "having the right opinion" from orthos ("right true straight" + doxa ("opinion In describing the nature of a creator god associated with Biblical texts, orthodox theologians often attempt to define God through a series of explicit positive statements, themselves universal but in the divine taken to their superlative degrees: he is omniscient, omnipotent and truly benevolent. Omniscience (ɒm'nɪsɪəns (or Omniscient Point-of-View in writing is the capacity to know everything infinitely or at least everything that can be known about a character Omnipotence ( Omni Potens: "all Power " is unlimited power The Sethian conception of the most hidden transcendent God is, by contrast, defined through negative theology: he is immovable, invisible, intangible, ineffable; commonly, 'he' is seen as being hermaphroditic, a potent symbol for being, as it were, 'all-containing'. Negative theology - also known as the Via Negativa ( Latin for "Negative Way" and Apophatic theology - is a Theology that A hermaphrodite is an organism having both male and female reproductive organs In the Apocryphon of John, this god is good in that it bestows goodness. After the apophatic statements, the process of the Divine in action are used to describe the effect of such a god.

An apophatic approach to discussing the Divine is found throughout gnosticism, Vendantic hinduism, and Platonic and Aristotelian theology as well. It is also found in some Judaic sources.

Pleroma

Main article: Pleroma

Pleroma (Greek πληρωμα) generally refers to the totality of God's powers. Pleroma (Greek grc πλήρωμα generally refers to the totality of divine powers The term means fullness, and is used in Christian theological contexts: both in Gnosticism generally, and in Colossians 2. The Epistle to the Colossians is a book of the Bible New Testament. 9.

Gnosticism holds that the world is controlled by evil archons, one of whom is the demiurge, the deity of the Old Testament who holds the human spirit captive. Archon (Gr ἄρχων pl ἄρχοντες is a Greek word that means "ruler" frequently used as the title of a specific public office In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon.

The heavenly pleroma is the center of divine life, a region of light "above" (the term is not to be understood spatially) our world, occupied by spiritual beings such as aeons (eternal beings) and sometimes archons. The word aeon, also spelled eon or æon, means "age" "forever" or "for Eternity " Archon (Gr ἄρχων pl ἄρχοντες is a Greek word that means "ruler" frequently used as the title of a specific public office Jesus is interpreted as an intermediary aeon who was sent from the pleroma, with whose aid humanity can recover the lost knowledge of the divine origins of humanity. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) The term is thus a central element of Gnostic cosmology. Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study

Pleroma is also used in the general Greek language and is used by the Greek Orthodox church in this general form since the word appears under the book of Colossians. Proponents of the view that Paul was actually a gnostic, such as Elaine Pagels of Princeton University, view the reference in Colossians as something that was to be interpreted in the gnostic sense. This article discusses the relationship between Gnosticism and the New Testament. Elaine Pagels, née Hiesey (born February 13, 1943) is the Harrington Spear Paine Professor of Religion at Princeton University Princeton University is a private Coeducational research university located in Princeton, New Jersey.

Sophia

Main article: Sophia (wisdom)

In Gnostic tradition, the term Sophia (Σoφíα, Greek for "wisdom") refers to the final and lowest emanation of God. Sophia (Σoφíα Greek for " Wisdom " is a central term in Hellenistic philosophy and religion, Platonism, Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly

In most if not all versions of the gnostic myth, Sophia births the demiurge, who in turn brings about the creation of materiality. Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos The positive or negative depiction of materiality thus resides a great deal on mythic depictions of Sophia's actions. She is occasionally referred to by the Hebrew equivalent of Achamoth (this is a feature of Ptolemy's version of the Valentinian gnostic myth). There were others named Ptolemy see Ptolemy (disambiguation Ptolemy the Gnostic was a disciple of the Gnostic teacher Valentinius Valentinus (also spelled Valentius) ( c 100 - c160 CE) was the best known and for a time most successful Early Christian gnostic Jewish Gnosticism with a focus on Sophia was active by 90^[6]

Almost all gnostic systems of the Syrian or Egyptian type taught that the universe began with an original, unknowable God, referred to as the Parent or Bythos, as the Monad by Monoimus, or the first Aeon by still other traditions. Gnosticism (γνώσις gnōsis, Knowledge) refers to a diverse Syncretistic Religious movement consisting of various Belief systems Gnosticism (γνώσις gnōsis, Knowledge) refers to a diverse Syncretistic Religious movement consisting of various Belief systems God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies) God is known as the Monad, the One, The Absolute Aion teleos (The In many Gnostic systems (and heresiologies) God is known as the Monad, the One, The Absolute Aion teleos (The Monoimus (lived somewhere between 150 - 210 was an Arab gnostic (Arabic name probably Mun'im منعم who was known only from one account in Theodoret The word aeon, also spelled eon or æon, means "age" "forever" or "for Eternity " From this initial unitary beginning, the One spontaneously emanated further Aeons, pairs of progressively 'lesser' beings in sequence. Emanationism is Platonic monism and an idea in the Cosmology or Cosmogony of certain religious or philosophical systems The word aeon, also spelled eon or æon, means "age" "forever" or "for Eternity " The lowest of these pairs were Sophia and Christ. Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " The Aeons together made up the Pleroma, or fullness, of God, and thus should not be seen as distinct from the divine, but symbolic abstractions of the divine nature.

History

Main article: History of Gnosticism

The development of the Syrian-Egyptian school

Bentley Layton has sketched out a relationship between the various gnostic movements in his introduction to The Gnostic Scriptures (SCM Press, London, 1987). The history of Gnosticism is subject to a great deal of debate and interpretation Bentley Layton (born 1941 is Professor of Religious Studies (Ancient Christianity and Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations (Coptic at Yale University (since In this model, 'Classical Gnosticism' and 'The School of Thomas' antedated and influenced the development of Valentinus, who was to found his own school of Gnosticism in both Alexandria and Rome, whom Layton called 'the great [Gnostic] reformer' and 'the focal point' of Gnostic development. Valentinus may refer to Pope Valentine Saint Valentine Valentinus (Gnostic Basilius Valentinus Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 While in Alexandria, where he was born, Valentinus probably would have had contact with the Gnostic teacher Basilides, and may have been influenced by him. "Basilides" redirects here For the 17th century Ethiopian Emperor see Fasilides of Ethiopia.

Valentinianism flourished throughout the early centuries of the common era: while Valentinus himself lived from ca. Valentinianism is a Gnostic movement that was founded by Valentinus in the second century CE. Circa (often abbreviated c, ca, ca or cca and sometimes Italicized to show it is Latin) means "about" 100–180 AD/CE, a list of sectarians or heretics, composed in 388 AD/CE, against whom Emperor Constantine intended legislation includes Valentinus (and, presumably, his inheritors). The school is also known to have been extremely popular: several varieties of their central myth are known, and we know of 'reports from outsiders from which the intellectual liveliness of the group is evident' (Markschies, Gnosis: An Introduction, 94). It is known that Valentinus' students, in further evidence of their intellectual activity, elaborated upon the teachings and materials they received from him (though the exact extent of their changes remains unknown), for example, in the version of the Valentinian myth brought to us through Ptolemy. There were others named Ptolemy see Ptolemy (disambiguation Ptolemy the Gnostic was a disciple of the Gnostic teacher Valentinius

Valentinianism might be described as the most elaborate and philosophically 'dense' form of the Syrian-Egyptian schools of Gnosticism, though it should be acknowledged that this in no way debarred other schools from attracting followers: Basilides' own school was popular also, and survived in Egypt until the 4th century. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics.

Simone Petrement, in A Separate God, in arguing for a Christian origin of Gnosticism, places Valentinus after Basilides, but before the Sethians. It is her assertion that Valentinus represented a moderation of the anti-Judaism of the earlier Hellenized teachers; the demiurge, widely regarded to be a mythological depiction of the Old Testament God of the Hebrews, is depicted as more ignorant than evil. (See below. )

The development of the Persian school

An alternate heritage is offered by Kurt Rudolph in his book Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of Gnosticism (Koehler and Amelang, Leipzig, 1977), to explain the lineage of Persian Gnostic schools. This sort of fix restores section edit linkpoints to where they belong The decline of Manicheism that occurred in Persia in the 5th century AD/CE was too late to prevent the spread of the movement into the east and the west. Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating In the west, the teachings of the school moved into Syria, Northern Arabia, Egypt and North Africa (where Augustine was a member of school from 373-382); from Syria it progressed still farther, into Palestine, Asia Minor and Armenia. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Armenia (Հայաստան transliterated: Hayastan,) officially the Republic of Armenia (Հայաստանի Հանրապետություն Hayastani There is evidence for Manicheans in Rome and Dalmatia in the 4th century, and also in Gaul and Spain. Dalmatia ( Croatian: Dalmacija, see names in other languages) is a region on the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea, situated mostly in modern Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The influence of Manicheanism was attacked by imperial elects and polemical writings, but the religion remained prevalent until the 6th century, and still exerted influence in the emergence of the Paulicians, Bogomils and Cathari in the Middle Ages, until it was ultimately stamped out as a heresy by the Catholic Church. Paulicians (Պավլիկյաններ were a Gnostic and Manichaean Christian group which flourished between 650 and 872 in Anatolia, Bogomilism (Богомилство is the Gnostic dualistic Sect, the Synthesis of Armenian Paulicianism and the Bulgarian Slavonic

In the east, Rudolph relates, Manicheanism was able to bloom, given that the religious monopoly position previously held by Christianity and Zoroastrianism had been broken by nascent Islam. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. In the early years of the Arab conquest, Manicheanism again found followers in Persia (mostly amongst educated circles), but flourished most in Central Asia, to which it had spread through Iran. Central Asia is a region of Asia from the Caspian Sea in the west to central China in the east and from southern Russia in the north to northern Pakistan in the south Here, in 762, Manicheanism became the state religion of the Uyghur Empire. The Uyghur

Buddhism and Gnosticism

Early 3rd century–4th century Christian writers such as Hippolytus and Epiphanius write about a Scythianus, who visited India around 50 CE from where he brought "the doctrine of the Two Principles". A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth For places named after the saint see Saint-Hippolyte Saint Hippolytus of Rome (c Epiphanius (ca 310&ndash320 &ndash 403 was bishop of Salamis and metropolitan of Cyprus at the end of the 4th century AD Scythianus was a supposed Alexandrian religious teacher who visited India around 50 CE According to Cyril of Jerusalem, Scythianus' pupil Terebinthus presented himself as a "Buddha" ("He called himself Buddas"). Saint Cyril of Jerusalem (Κύριλλος Α΄ Ἱεροσολύμων was a distinguished theologian of the early Church (ca Terebinthus (also Terebinthus of Turbo) was the supposed pupil of Scythianus, during the 1st-2nd century CE according to the early Christian writer Cyril of Terebinthus went to Palestine and Judaea ("becoming known and condemned"), and ultimately settled in Babylon, where he transmitted his teachings to Mani, thereby creating the foundation of Manichaeism:

"But Terebinthus, his disciple in this wicked error, inherited his money and books and heresy, and came to Palestine, and becoming known and condemned in Judæa he resolved to pass into Persia: but lest he should be recognised there also by his name he changed it and called himself Buddas. Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. Judea or Judæa ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard Yəhuda Tiberian Yəhûḏāh, "praised Babylon was a City-state of ancient Mesopotamia, the remains of which can be found in present-day Al Hillah, Babil Province, Iraq Mani (in Persian: مانی Syriac: syr-Syrc ܡܐܢܝ (c 210–276 AD was the founder of Manichaeism, an ancient Gnostic Religion Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating "

—Cyril of Jerusalem, "Catechetical lecture 6"

In the 3rd century, the Syrian writer and Christian Gnostic theologian Bar Daisan described his exchanges with the religious missions of holy men from India (Greek: Σαρμαναίοι, Sramanas), passing through Syria on their way to Elagabalus or another Severan dynasty Roman Emperor. Saint Cyril of Jerusalem (Κύριλλος Α΄ Ἱεροσολύμων was a distinguished theologian of the early Church (ca Bardaisan (ܒܪܕܝܨܢ Bardaiṣān; 154–222 also Latinized as Bardesanes) was a Syriac Gnostic, founder of the Bardaisanites Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Elagabalus (c 203 &ndash March 11 222) also known as Heliogabalus or Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, was a Roman Emperor of the The Severan dynasty was a Roman imperial Dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 193 and 235. The Roman Emperor was the ruler of the Roman State during the imperial period (starting at about 27 BC His accounts were quoted by Porphyry (De abstin. Porphyry of Tyre ( Greek:, c AD 233&ndashc 309 was a Phoenician Neoplatonic philosopher , iv, 17) and Stobaeus (Eccles. Joannes Stobaeus ( Greek: Στοβαῖος so called from his native place Stobi in North Macedonia (Roman province, was the compiler of a valuable series , iii, 56, 141).

Finally, from the 3rd century to the 12th century, some Gnostic religions such as Manichaeism, which combined Christian, Hebrew and Buddhist influences (Mani, the founder of the religion, resided for some time in Kushan lands), spread throughout the Old World, to Gaul and Great Britain in the West, and to China in the East. Mani (in Persian: مانی Syriac: syr-Syrc ܡܐܢܝ (c 210–276 AD was the founder of Manichaeism, an ancient Gnostic Religion The Kushan Empire (c 1st &ndash 3rd centuries) was a Bactrian state that at its cultural zenith Circa 105 &ndash 250 The Old World consists of those parts of Earth known to Europeans Asians and Africans in the 15th century Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Some leading Christian theologians such as Augustine of Hippo were Manichaeans before converting to orthodox Christianity.

Such exchanges, many more of which may have gone unrecorded, suggest that Buddhism may have had some influence on early Christianity: "Scholars have often considered the possibility that Buddhism influenced the early development of Christianity. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings They have drawn attention to many parallels concerning the births, lives, doctrines, and deaths of the Buddha and Jesus" (Bentley, "Old World Encounters").

Influence in East Asia

Early missionaries, including Manicheans, Zoroastrians, and Nestorians, traveled and proselytized along the Silk Road east to Chang'an, the Tang Dynasty capital of China. Manichaeism (in Modern Persian fa-Arab آیین مانی Āyin e Māni; Chinese zh 摩尼教 was one of the major Gnostic Religions originating Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings Nestorius Nestorius (c  386 &ndashc  451) was a pupil of Theodore of Mopsuestia in Antioch in Syria (modern The Silk Road, or Silk Routes, are an extensive interconnected network of Trade routes across the Asian continent connecting East South and Western Asia with the Chang'an ( is an ancient Capital of more than ten dynasties in Chinese history. The Tang Dynasty ( Middle Chinese: dhɑng (June 18 618&ndashJune 4 907 was an imperial dynasty of China preceded by the Sui Dynasty and followed by The first introduction of Christianity, under the Chinese name Jĭngjiào (景教, literally "bright/luminous religion"), was from Nestorianism or the Assyrian Church of the East. See also Christianity in China First Centuries Some Christian tradition suggests that St The Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East (ܥܕܬܐ ܩܕܝܫܬܐ ܘܫܠܝܚܝܬܐ ܩܬܘܠܝܩܝ ܕܡܕܢܚܐ ܕܐܬܘܪ̈ܝܐ ‘Ittā Qaddishtā wa-Shlikhāitā Qattoliqi In 635, when Nestorian missionaries arrived in Chang'an, the Emperor assigned his famous Prime Minister Fang Xuanling (房玄齡) to hold a grand welcome ceremony. Chinese Nestorianism was popular in the late 8th century, but never became a widely-practice mainstream religion in China. In 845, Emperor Wuzong of Tang ordered the Great Persecution of Buddhism, which affected other foreign religions, weakened Nestorianism and practically destroyed Manichaeism and Zoroastrianism in China. Emperor Tang Wuzong (ca 810 – 846 born Li Yan, was the fifteenth emperor of the Tang dynasty of China, reigning from 840 to 846

Chinese Nestorianism revived during the 13th-14th century Yuan Dynasty, but was replaced by Roman Catholicism in 16th-17th centuries. The Yuan Dynasty ( Pinyin: Yuáncháo Dai Ön Ulus (Дай Юан Улс was a ruling Dynasty founded by the Mongol leader Kublai Rudolph reported that despite the suppression, Manichean traditions are reputed to have survived until the 17th century (based on the reports of Portuguese sailors). Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula.

'Gnosticism' as a potentially flawed category

In 1966 in Messina, Italy, a conference was held concerning systems of gnosis. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Among its several aims were the need to establish a program to translate the recently-acquired Nag Hammadi library (see above) and the need to arrive at an agreement concerning an accurate definition of 'Gnosticism'. This was in answer to the tendency, prevalent since the eighteenth century, to use the term 'gnostic' less as its origins implied, but rather as an interpretive category for contemporary philosophical and religious movements. For example, in 1835, New Testament scholar Ferdinand Christian Baur constructed a developmental model of Gnosticism that culminates in the religious philosophy of Hegel; one might compare literary critic Harold Bloom's recent attempts to identify Gnostic elements in contemporary American religion, or Eric Voegelin's analysis of totalitarian impulses through the interpretive lens of Gnosticism. Ferdinand Christian Baur ( June 21, 1792 - December 2, 1860) was a German theologian and leader of the Tübingen school Literary criticism is the study discussion evaluation and interpretation of Literature. Harold Bloom' (born July 11, 1930) is a Literary critic. Bloom defended 19th-century Romantic poets at a time when their reputations The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Eric Voegelin, born Erich Hermann Wilhelm Vögelin ( January 3, 1901 &ndash January 19, 1985) was a Political philosopher. Totalitarianism (or totalitarian rule) is a concept used to describe Political systems where a State regulates nearly every aspect of public and private

The 'cautious proposal' reached by the conference concerning Gnosticism is described by Markschies:

In the concluding document of Messina the proposal was 'by the simultaneous application of historical and typological methods' to designate 'a particular group of systems of the second century after Christ' as 'gnosticism', and to use 'gnosis' to define a conception of knowledge transcending the times which was described as 'knowledge of divine mysteries for an élite'.

– Markschies, Gnosis: An Introduction, p. 13

In essence, it had been decided that 'Gnosticism' would become a historically-specific term, restricted to mean the Gnostic movements prevalent in the 3rd century, while 'gnosis' would be an universal term, denoting a system of knowledge retained 'for a privileged élite. ' However, this effort towards providing clarity in fact created more conceptual confusion, as the historical term 'Gnosticism' was an entirely modern construction, while the new universal term 'gnosis' was a historical term: 'something was being called "gnosticism" that the ancient theologians had called "gnosis" . . . [A] concept of gnosis had been created by Messina that was almost unusable in a historical sense' (Markschies, Gnosis: An Introduction, 14-15). In antiquity, all agreed that knowledge was centrally important to life, but few were agreed as to what exactly constituted knowledge; the unitary conception that the Messina proposal presupposed did not exist.

These flaws have meant that the problems concerning an exact definition of Gnosticism persist. It remains current convention to use 'Gnosticism' in a historical sense, and 'gnosis' universally. Leaving aside the issues with the latter noted above, the usage of 'Gnosticism' to designate a category of religions in the 3rd century has recently been questioned as well. Of note is the work of Michael Allen Williams in Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for the Dismantling of a Dubious Category, in which the author examines the terms by which gnosticism as a category is defined, and then closely compares these suppositions with the contents of actual Gnostic texts (the newly-recovered Nag Hammadi library was of central importance to his thesis). Rethinking "Gnosticism" An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category (ISBN 0-691-00542-7 is a 1999 book by Michael Allen Williams

Williams argues that the conceptual foundations on which the category of Gnosticism rests are the remains of the agenda of the heresiologists. Too much emphasis has been laid on perceptions of dualism, body-and-matter hatred, and anticosmism, without these suppositions being properly tested. In essence, the interpretive definition of Gnosticism that was created by the antagonistic efforts of the heresiologists has been taken up by modern scholarship and reflected in a categorical definition, even though the means now exist to verify its accuracy. Attempting to do so, Williams contests, reveals the dubious nature of categorical 'Gnosticism', and he concludes that the term needs replacing in order to more accurately reflect those movements it comprises. Williams' observations have provoked debate; however, to date his suggested replacement term 'the Biblical demiurgical tradition' has not become widely used.

Gnosticism in modern times

Main article: Gnosticism in modern times

A number of 19th century thinkers such as William Blake, Schopenhauer,^[7] Albert Pike, Madame Blavatsky, studied Gnostic thought extensively and were influenced by it, and even figures like Herman Melville and W. B. Yeats were more tangentially influenced. Gnosticism includes a variety of ancient religions prevalent in the Mediterranean in the third century AD. William Blake (28 November 1757 – 12 August 1827 was an English poet, painter, and Printmaker. Albert Pike (December 29 1809–April 2 1891 was an attorney, soldier writer and Freemason. Elena Petrovna Gan (Елена Петровна Ган also Hélène, Yekaterinoslav, Ukraine, Russian Empire — May 8 1891 London) better Herman Melville (August 1 1819 &ndash September 28 1891 was an American novelist Short story writer Essayist and poet ^[8] Jules Doinel "re-established" a Gnostic church in France in 1890 which altered its form as it passed through various direct successors (Fabre des Essarts as Tau Synésius and Joanny Bricaud as Tau Jean II most notably), and which, although small, is still active today. Jules-Benoît Stanislas Doinel du Val-Michel ( December 8, 1842 &mdash March 16 or 17 1903 also simply Jules Doinel, was the founder of the ^[9]

Early 20th century thinkers who heavily studied and were influenced by Gnosticism include Carl Jung (who supported Gnosticism), Eric Voegelin (who opposed it), Jorge Luis Borges (who included it in many of his short stories), and Aleister Crowley, with figures such as Hermann Hesse being more moderatedly influenced. Eric Voegelin, born Erich Hermann Wilhelm Vögelin ( January 3, 1901 &ndash January 19, 1985) was a Political philosopher. Aleister Crowley, born Edward Alexander Crowley (ˈkroʊli (12 October 1875 – 1 December 1947 was a British Occultist Writer, mountaineer Hermann Hesse (ˈhɛʀman ˈhɛsə ( 2 July, 1877 — 9 August, 1962) was a German - Swiss poet novelist and painter Rene Guenon founded the gnostic review, Le Gnose in 1909 (before moving to a more "Perennialist" position). René Guénon ( November 15 1886 – January 7 1951) was a French author and intellectual who remains an influential figure in the The Traditionalist School of thought also known as Integral Traditionalism (in the sense of Integralism) or Perennialism (in the sense of Perennial Several of the Thelemite organizations tracing themselves to Crowley's thought, think of themselves as Gnostic organizations today, such as Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica and Ordo Templi Orientis. Thelema is a philosophy of life based on the rule or law "Do what thou wilt Ecclesia Gnostica Catholica ( EGC) or the Gnostic Catholic Church, is the ecclesiastical arm of Ordo Templi Orientis (OTO an international fraternal Ordo Templi Orientis (OTO ( Order of the Temple of the East, or the Order of Oriental Templars) is an international fraternal and Religious

The discovery and translation of the Nag Hammadi library after 1945 had a huge impact on Gnosticism since World War II. Nag Hammadi library (popularly known as The Gnostic Gospels) is a collection of early Christian Gnostic texts discovered near the Thinkers who were heavily influenced by Gnosticism in this period include Hans Jonas, Philip K. Dick and Harold Bloom, with Albert Camus and Allen Ginsberg being more moderately influenced. Hans Jonas ( May 10 1903 - February 5 1993) was a German -born philosopher who was from 1955 to 1976 Alvin Johnson Professor of Philosophy Philip Kindred Dick (December 16 – March 2) was an American Science fiction Novelist and Short story Writer. Harold Bloom' (born July 11, 1930) is a Literary critic. Bloom defended 19th-century Romantic poets at a time when their reputations Albert Camus ( (7 November 1913 – 4 January 1960 was an Algerian born French Author, philosopher, and journalist who won the Nobel prize Irwin Allen Ginsberg (ˈgɪnzbɝg (June 3 1926 &ndash April 5 1997 was an American Poet. ^[8] A number of ecclesiastical bodies which think of themselves as Gnostic have been set up or re-founded since World War II as well, including the Society of Novus Spiritus, Ecclesia Gnostica, the Thomasine Church, the Apostolic Johannite Church, the Alexandrian Gnostic Church, the North American College of Gnostic Bishops, and the International Gnostic Movement of Samael Aun Weor. Sylvia Browne (born Sylvia Celeste Shoemaker October 19, 1936) is a best-selling American Author on the subject of Spirituality The Ecclesia Gnostica ( Latin for The Gnostic Church) is a gnostic church organized in England and since 1959 in the The Alexandrian Gnostic Church is a modern sacramental gnostic community Samael Aun Weor ( March 6, 1917 - December 24, 1977) was a spiritual teacher Occultist esotericist and author Celia Green has written on Gnostic Christianity in relation to her own philosophy^[10] . Celia Elizabeth Green (born 26 November 1935 in East Ham, London) is a British writer on Philosophical skepticism, twentieth-century

Also there are Gnostic Churches and Organisations based in the United Kingdom due to popularity of the Gnostic Scriptures since the Da Vinci Code by Dan Brown. The Da Vinci Code is a controversial mystery / detective Novel by US author Dan Brown, published in 2003 by Doubleday Dan Brown (born June 22 1964 is an American Author of Thriller fiction, best known for the 2003 bestselling novel The Da Vinci Code ^[11]

See also

Footnotes

References

Books

Primary sources

• Layton, Bentley (1987). Bentley Layton (born 1941 is Professor of Religious Studies (Ancient Christianity and Professor of Near Eastern Languages and Civilizations (Coptic at Yale University (since The Gnostic Scriptures. SCM Press, 526 pages. ISBN 0-334-02022-0.  
• Robinson, James (1978). James M Robinson (born 1924 is Professor Emeritus of Religion Claremont Graduate University, Claremont California. The Nag Hammadi Library in English, 549 pages. ISBN 0-06-066934-9.  
• Plotinus (1989). Plotinus ( Greek:) (ca AD 204–270 was a major philosopher of the ancient world who is widely considered the founder of Neoplatonism (along with his The Enneads. The Six Enneads, sometimes abbreviated to The Enneads or Enneads, is the collection of writings of Plotinus, edited and Harvard University Press.   (in 7 volumes), vol. 1: ISBN 0-674-99484-1
• The Gnostic Bible, Ed. Willis Barstone

Secondary sources

• Aland, Barbara (1978). Festschrift für Hans Jonas. In Academia, a Festschrift (/ˈfɛstˌʃrɪft/ Plural, Festschriften, /ˈfɛstˌʃrɪf Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. ISBN 3-525-58111-4.  
• Anderson, Robert A. (2006). Church of God? or the Temples of Satan - A Reference Book of Spiritual Understanding & Gnosis. TGS Publishers. ISBN 0-9786249-6-3.  
• Burstein, Dan (2006). Secrets of Mary Magdalene. CDS Books. ISBN 1-59315-205-1.  
• Freke, Timothy; Gandy, Peter (1999). The Hermetica: The Lost Wisdom of the Pharaohs. Tarcher. ISBN 0-87477-950-2.  
• Freke, Timothy; Gandy, Peter (2002). Jesus and the Lost Goddess : The Secret Teachings of the Original Christians. Three Rivers Press. ISBN 0-00-710071-X.  
• Green, Henry (1985). Economic and Social Origins of Gnosticism. Scholars P. ,U. S. . ISBN 0-89130-843-1.  
• Haardt, Robert (1967). Die Gnosis: Wesen und Zeugnisse. Otto-Müller-Verlag, Salzburg, 352 pages.  , translated as Haardt, Robert (1971). Gnosis: Character and Testimony. Brill, Leiden.  
• Hoeller, Stephan A. (2002). Stephan A Hoeller, (1931 -) is a Writer, Scholar and religious leader Gnosticism - New Light on the Ancient Tradition of Inner Knowing, 257 pages. ISBN 0-8356-0816-6.  
• Jones, Peter (1992). The Gnostic Empire Strikes Back: An Old Heresy for the New Age. Presbyterian & Reformed, 112 pages. ISBN 0-87552-285-8.  
• Jonas, Hans. Hans Jonas ( May 10 1903 - February 5 1993) was a German -born philosopher who was from 1955 to 1976 Alvin Johnson Professor of Philosophy Gnosis und spätantiker Geist vol. 2:1-2, Von der Mythologie zur mystischen Philosophie. ISBN 3-525-53841-3.  
• King, Charles William (1887). Charles William King ( September 5, 1818 - March 25, 1888) was a British Victorian writer and collector of Gems The Gnostics and Their Remains.  
• King, Karen L. (2003). Karen Leigh King (born 1954 is an American academic working in the field of Early Christianity and Gnosticism. What is Gnosticism?. Harvard University Press, 343 pages. ISBN 0-674-01071-X.  
• Klimkeit, Hans-Joachim (1993). Gnosis on the Silk Road: Gnostic Texts from Central Asia. Harper, San Francisco. ISBN 0-06-064586-5.  
• Layton, Bentley (1995). "Prolegomena to the study of ancient gnosticism", in edited by L. Michael White, O. Larry Yarbrough: The Social World of the First Christians: Essays in Honor of Wayne A. Meeks. Fortress Press, Minneapolis. ISBN 0-8006-2585-4.  
• Layton, Bentley (ed. ) (1981). The Rediscovery of Gnosticism: Sethian Gnosticism. E. J. Brill.  
• Longfellow, Ki (2007). Ki Longfellow (born as Pamela Longfellow) is an American Novelist and Playwright. The Secret Magdalene. Random House, New York, 458 pages. ISBN 0-9759255-3-9.  
• Markschies, Christoph (2000). Gnosis: An Introduction. T & T Clark, 145 pages. ISBN 0-567-08945-2.  
• Mins, Denis (1994). Irenaeus. Geoffrey Chapman.  
• Pagels, Elaine (1979). Elaine Pagels, née Hiesey (born February 13, 1943) is the Harrington Spear Paine Professor of Religion at Princeton University The Gnostic Gospels, 182 pages. ISBN 0-679-72453-2.  
• Pagels, Elaine (1989). Elaine Pagels, née Hiesey (born February 13, 1943) is the Harrington Spear Paine Professor of Religion at Princeton University The Johannine Gospel in Gnostic Exegesis, 128 pages. ISBN 1-55540-334-4.  
• Petrement, Simone (1990), A Separate God: The Origins and Teachings of Gnosticsim, Harper and Row ISBN 0-06-066421-5
• Puma, Jeremy (2005). Running Towards the Bomb: Gnosticism and the End of Civilisation. Geosynchronous Lamps. ISBN 1-4116-4523-5.  
• Rudolph, Kurt (1987). Gnosis: The Nature & Structure of Gnosticism. Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-067018-5.  
• Walker, Benjamin (1990). Benjamin Walker ( November 25, 1913) is the truncated pen name of George Benjamin Walker who also writes under the pseudonym Jivan Bhakar Benjamin Walker ( November 25, 1913) is the truncated pen name of George Benjamin Walker who also writes under the pseudonym Jivan Bhakar Gnosticism: Its History and Influence. Harper Collins. ISBN 1-85274-057-4.  
• Wapnick, Kenneth (1989). Love Does Not Condemn: The World, the Flesh, and the Devil According to Platonism, Christianity, Gnosticism, and A Course in Miracles. Foundation for A Course in Miracles, 614 pages. ISBN 0-933291-07-8.  
• Wilberg, Peter (2003) From New Age to New Gnosis - On the Contemporary Significance of a New Gnostic Spirituality, ISBN 1-904519-07-5
• Williams, Michael (1996). Rethinking Gnosticism: An Argument for Dismantling a Dubious Category. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-01127-3.  

Videos

• The Naked Truth: Exposing the Deceptions About the Origins of Modern Religions (1995).

External links

• Religious Tolerance - A survey of Gnosticism
• Sacred Wisdom - Gnosticism and Christian Esotericism
• Early Christian Writings - primary texts
• The Gnostic Society Library
• Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Gnosticism
• Introduction to Gnosticism
• Jewish Encyclopedia: Gnosticism
• Proto-Gnostic elements in the Gospel according to John
• Gnostic version of the Bible and more on Gnostics
• Catholic Encyclopedia: Gnosticism
• Dark Mirrors of Heaven: Gnostic Cosmogony
• Gnosticism at the Open Directory Project

The Open Directory Project ( ODP) also known as dmoz (from directory

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