See also: Gluconeogenesis, which carries out a process wherein glucose is synthesized rather than catabolized. Gluconeogenesis (abreviated GNG) is a Metabolic pathway that results in the generation of Glucose from non- Carbohydrate carbon substrates such

Glycolysis is the sequence of reactions that converts glucose into pyruvate with the concomitant production of a relatively small amount of adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H is an alpha-keto acid. The Carboxylate Anion of pyruvic acid is known as pyruvate. Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy The word is derived from Greek γλυκύς (sweet) and λύσις (letting loose). Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly

It is the initial process of most carbohydrate catabolism, and it serves three principal functions:

1. Generation of high-energy molecules (ATP and NADH) as cellular energy sources as part of aerobic respiration and anaerobic respiration; that is, in the former process, oxygen is present, and, in the latter, oxygen is not present
2. Production of pyruvate for the citric acid cycle as part of aerobic respiration
3. Production of a variety of six- and three-carbon intermediate compounds, which may be removed at various steps in the process for other cellular purposes. Carbohydrate catabolism is the breakdown of carbohydrates into smaller units Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated NAD+, is a Coenzyme found in all living cells The compound is a dinucleotide since it consists Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in Organisms cells to convert biochemical energy from See also Fermentation (biochemistry Anaerobic respiration (anaerobiosis refers to the Oxidation of molecules in the absence of Oxygen to produce The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle ( TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely the Szent-Györgyi–Krebs cycle Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in Organisms cells to convert biochemical energy from

As the foundation of both aerobic and anaerobic respiration, glycolysis is the archetype of universal metabolic processes known and occurring (with variations) in many types of cells in nearly all organisms. Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in Organisms cells to convert biochemical energy from See also Fermentation (biochemistry Anaerobic respiration (anaerobiosis refers to the Oxidation of molecules in the absence of Oxygen to produce Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called Glycolysis, through anaerobic respiration, is the main energy source in many prokaryotes, eukaryotic cells devoid of mitochondria (e. The prokaryotes (proʊˈkærioʊts singular prokaryote /proʊˈkæriət/ are a group of Organisms that lack a Cell nucleus (= karyon or any other Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex In Cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed Organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. g. , mature erythrocytes) and eukaryotic cells under low-oxygen conditions (e. Red blood cells are the most common type of Blood cell and the Vertebrate body's principal means of delivering Oxygen to the body tissues via the Blood Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the g. , heavily-exercising muscle or fermenting yeast). Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described

In eukaryotes and prokaryotes, glycolysis takes place within the cytosol of the cell. Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex The prokaryotes (proʊˈkærioʊts singular prokaryote /proʊˈkæriət/ are a group of Organisms that lack a Cell nucleus (= karyon or any other The cytosol or intracellular fluid (or cytoplasmic matrix) is the liquid found inside cells. In plant cells, some of the glycolytic reactions are also found in the Calvin-Benson cycle, which functions inside the chloroplasts. The Calvin cycle (or Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle or carbon fixation is a series of biochemical reactions that takes place in the Stroma of Chloroplasts Chloroplasts are Organelles found in Plant cells and eukaryotic Algae that conduct Photosynthesis. The wide conservation includes the most phylogenetically deep-rooted extant organisms, and thus it is considered to be one of the most ancient metabolic pathways. ^[1]

The most common and well-known type of glycolysis is the Embden-Meyerhof pathway, initially explained by Gustav Embden and Otto Meyerhof. Gustav Georg Embden ( November 10, 1874 - July 25, 1933) was a German chemist who conducted studies on Carbohydrate Otto Fritz Meyerhof ( April 12, 1884 &ndash October 6, 1951) was a German -born Physician and Biochemist. The term can be taken to include alternative pathways, such as the Entner-Doudoroff Pathway. However, glycolysis will be used here as a synonym for the Embden-Meyerhof pathway.

Contents 1 Overview 2 Discovery 3 Sequence of reactions 3.1 Preparatory phase 3.2 Pay-off phase 3.3 Oxidative decarboxylation 4 Regulation 4.1 Hexokinase 4.2 Phosphofructokinase 4.3 Pyruvate kinase and phosphoglycerate kinase 5 Post-glycolysis processes 5.1 Aerobic respiration 5.2 Anaerobic respiration 5.3 Intermediates for other pathways 6 Glycolysis in disease 6.1 Genetic diseases 6.2 Cancer 7 Alzheimer's disease 8 Alternative nomenclature 9 See also 10 External links 11 References

Overview

The overall reaction of glycolysis is:

D-Glucose				Pyruvate
	+ 2 NAD+ + 2 ADP + 2 Pi		2		+ 2 NADH + 2 H+ + 2 ATP + 2 H2O

The products all have vital cellular uses:

• ATP provides an energy source for many cellular functions. Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H is an alpha-keto acid. The Carboxylate Anion of pyruvic acid is known as pyruvate. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated NAD+, is a Coenzyme found in all living cells The compound is a dinucleotide since it consists Adenosine diphosphate, abbreviated ADP, is a Nucleotide. It is an Ester of Pyrophosphoric acid with the Nucleoside Adenosine A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated NAD+, is a Coenzyme found in all living cells The compound is a dinucleotide since it consists Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy In Biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Variation across species Hexokinases have been found in every organism checked ranging from bacteria, Yeast, and Plants to humans and other Vertebrates Glucose 6-phosphate (also known as Robison ester) is Glucose sugar Phosphorylated on carbon 6 Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, or phosphoglucose isomerase, is an Enzyme ( that catalyzes the conversion of Glucose-6-phosphate into Fructose-6-phosphate Fructose 6-phosphate (also known as the Neuberg ester) is Fructose sugar Phosphorylated on carbon 6 (ie Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1 is the most important regulatory Enzyme ( of Glycolysis. Fructose 16-phosphate is Fructose sugar Phosphorylated on carbons 1 and 6 (ie Aldolase A is an Enzyme which catalyses one of the Aldol reactions: The substrate, Fructose 16-bisphosphate (F-16-BP is broken down into Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP is a biochemical compound involved in many reactions from the Calvin cycle in plants to the ether-lipid biosynthesis process in Leishmania Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GADP, GAP or PGAL Triose-phosphate isomerase (TPI or TIM is an Enzyme ( that catalyzes the reversible interconversion of the Triose phosphate Isomers Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GADP, GAP or PGAL Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (abbreviated as GAPDH or less commonly as G3PDH ( is an Enzyme that catalyzes the sixth step of Overview Phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM is an Enzyme that catalyzes step 8 of Glycolysis. In Enzymology, a phosphopyruvate hydratase ( is an Enzyme that catalyzes the Chemical reaction 2-phospho-D-glycerate \rightleftharpoons Enolase also known as phosphopyruvate dehydratase is a Metalloenzyme responsible for the catalysis of 2-phosphoglycerate (2-PG to Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP Phosphoenolpyruvate (synonyms phosphoenolpyruvic acid, PEP) is an important Chemical compound in Biochemistry. Reaction The reaction with pyruvate kinase pyruvate kinase PEP ----------> pyruvate / \ ADP ATP Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H is an alpha-keto acid. The Carboxylate Anion of pyruvic acid is known as pyruvate. Pyruvate dehydrogenase (E1 is the first component Enzyme of Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism used in many biochemical reactions Coenzyme A ( CoA, CoASH, or HSCoA) is a Coenzyme, notable for its role in the synthesis and oxidation of Fatty acids Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy
• NADH + H⁺ provides reducing power for other metabolic pathways or further ATP synthesis. Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide, abbreviated NAD+, is a Coenzyme found in all living cells The compound is a dinucleotide since it consists
• Pyruvate is used in the citric acid cycle in aerobic respiration to produce more ATP, or is converted to other small carbon molecules in anaerobic respiration. Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H is an alpha-keto acid. The Carboxylate Anion of pyruvic acid is known as pyruvate. The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle ( TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely the Szent-Györgyi–Krebs cycle Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in Organisms cells to convert biochemical energy from See also Fermentation (biochemistry Anaerobic respiration (anaerobiosis refers to the Oxidation of molecules in the absence of Oxygen to produce

For simple anaerobic fermentations, the metabolism of one molecule of glucose to two molecules of pyruvate has a net yield of two molecules of ATP. See also Fermentation (biochemistry Anaerobic respiration (anaerobiosis refers to the Oxidation of molecules in the absence of Oxygen to produce Fermentation is the process of deriving energy from the oxidation of organic compounds such as carbohydrates using an endogenous electron acceptor which is Most cells will then carry out further reactions to 'repay' the used NAD⁺ and produce a final product of ethanol or lactic acid. Lactic acid ( IUPAC Systematic name: 2-hydroxypropanoic acid) also known as milk acid, is a Chemical compound that plays a role Many bacteria use inorganic compounds as hydrogen acceptors to regenerate the NAD⁺.

Cells performing aerobic respiration synthesize much more ATP, but not as part of glycolysis. Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in Organisms cells to convert biochemical energy from These further aerobic reactions use pyruvate and NADH + H⁺ from glycolysis. Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H is an alpha-keto acid. The Carboxylate Anion of pyruvic acid is known as pyruvate. Eukaryotic aerobic respiration produces approximately 34 additional molecules of ATP for each glucose molecule, however most of these are produced by a vastly different mechanism to the substrate-level phosphorylation in glycolysis. Substrate-level phosphorylation is a type of Chemical reaction that results in the formation of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP by the direct transfer of a Phosphate

The lower energy production, per glucose, of anaerobic respiration relative to aerobic respiration, results in greater flux through the pathway under hypoxic (low-oxygen) conditions, unless alternative sources of anaerobically-oxidizable substrates, such as fatty acids, are found. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the

Discovery

The first formal studies of the glycolytic process were initiated in 1860 when Louis Pasteur discovered that microorganisms are responsible for fermentation, and in 1897 when Eduard Buchner found certain cell extracts can cause fermentation. Year 1860 ( MDCCLX) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year starting Louis Pasteur (27 December 1822 – 28 September 1895 a French Chemist and Microbiologist, is best known for remarkable breakthroughs in the causes and A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually Fermentation is the process of deriving energy from the oxidation of organic compounds such as carbohydrates using an endogenous electron acceptor which is Year 1897 ( MDCCCXCVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Eduard Buchner (May 20 1860 &ndash August 13 1917 was a German chemist and zymologist, the winner of the 1907 Nobel Prize in Chemistry The next major contribution was from Arthur Harden and William Young in 1905 who determined that a heat-sensitive high-molecular-weight subcellular fraction (the enzymes) and a heat-insensitive low-molecular-weight cytoplasm fraction (ADP, ATP and NAD⁺ and other cofactors) are required together for fermentation to proceed. Arthur Harden ( October 12 1865 &ndash June 17 1940) was an English Biochemist. Bill, Billy, Will, or William Young is the name of Bill Young (b The details of the pathway itself were eventually determined by 1940, with a major input from Otto Meyerhof and some years later by Luis Leloir. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Otto Fritz Meyerhof ( April 12, 1884 &ndash October 6, 1951) was a German -born Physician and Biochemist. Luis Federico Leloir ( September 6, 1906 – December 2, 1987) was an Argentine doctor and biochemist who The biggest difficulties in determining the intricacies of the pathway were due to the very short lifetime and low steady-state concentrations of the intermediates of the fast glycolytic reactions.

Sequence of reactions

These are the major reactions, through which most glucose will pass. There are additional alternative pathways and regulatory products, which are not seen here.

Preparatory phase

The first five steps are regarded as the preparatory (or investment) phase since they consume energy to convert the glucose into two three-carbon sugar phosphates (G3P). Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GADP, GAP or PGAL

The first step in glycolysis is phosphorylation of glucose by a family of enzymes called hexokinases to form glucose 6-phosphate (G6P). Variation across species Hexokinases have been found in every organism checked ranging from bacteria, Yeast, and Plants to humans and other Vertebrates Glucose 6-phosphate (also known as Robison ester) is Glucose sugar Phosphorylated on carbon 6 This reaction consumes ATP, but it acts to keep the glucose concentration low, promoting continuous transport of glucose into the cell through the plasma membrane transporters. In addition, it blocks the glucose from leaking out - the cell lacks transporters for G6P. Glucose may alternatively be from the phosphorolysis or hydrolysis of intracellular starch or glycogen. Phosphorolysis is the Cleavage of a compound in which inorganic Phosphate is the attacking group Hydrolysis is a Chemical reaction during which one or more water molecules are split into hydrogen and hydroxide ions which may go on to participate in further reactions In animals, an isozyme of hexokinase called glucokinase is also used in the liver, which has a much lower affinity for glucose (Km in the vicinity of normal glycemia), and differs in regulatory properties. Isozymes (also known as isoenzymes) are Enzymes that differ in amino acid sequence but catalyze the same chemical reaction Glucokinase ( is an Enzyme that facilitates Phosphorylation of Glucose to Glucose-6-phosphate. Glycemia or glycæmia is the concentration of Glucose in the Blood. The different substrate affinity and alternate regulation of this enzyme are a reflection of the role of the liver in maintaining blood sugar levels. Cofactors: Mg2+

D-Glucose (Glc) Hexokinase (HK) a transferase α-D-Glucose-6-phosphate (G6P)   ATP ADP

G6P is then rearranged into fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) by glucose phosphate isomerase. Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Variation across species Hexokinases have been found in every organism checked ranging from bacteria, Yeast, and Plants to humans and other Vertebrates Glucose 6-phosphate (also known as Robison ester) is Glucose sugar Phosphorylated on carbon 6 Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy Adenosine diphosphate, abbreviated ADP, is a Nucleotide. It is an Ester of Pyrophosphoric acid with the Nucleoside Adenosine Fructose 6-phosphate (also known as the Neuberg ester) is Fructose sugar Phosphorylated on carbon 6 (ie Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, or phosphoglucose isomerase, is an Enzyme ( that catalyzes the conversion of Glucose-6-phosphate into Fructose-6-phosphate Fructose can also enter the glycolytic pathway by phosphorylation at this point. Fructose (also levulose or laevulose) is a simple reducing Sugar ( Monosaccharide) found in many foods and is one of the three The change in structure is an isomerization, in which the G6P has been converted to F6P. The reaction requires an enzyme, phosphohexose isomerase, to proceed. This reaction is freely reversible under normal cell conditions. However, it is often driven forward because of a low concentration of F6P, which is constantly consumed during the next step of glycolysis. Under conditions of high F6P concentration this reaction readily runs in reverse. This phenomenon can be explained through Le Chatelier's Principle. In Chemistry, Le Chatelier's Principle, also called the Le Chatelier-Braun principle, can be used to predict the effect of a change in conditions on a Chemical

α-D-Glucose 6-phosphate (G6P) Phosphoglucose isomerase an isomerase β-D-Fructose 6-phosphate (F6P)

The energy expenditure of another ATP in this step is justified in 2 ways: The glycolytic process (up to this step) is now irreversible, and the energy supplied destabilizes the molecule. Glucose 6-phosphate (also known as Robison ester) is Glucose sugar Phosphorylated on carbon 6 Glucose-6-phosphate isomerase, or phosphoglucose isomerase, is an Enzyme ( that catalyzes the conversion of Glucose-6-phosphate into Fructose-6-phosphate In Biochemistry, an isomerase is an Enzyme that catalyses the structural rearrangement of Isomers Isomerases thus catalyze reactions of the form Fructose 6-phosphate (also known as the Neuberg ester) is Fructose sugar Phosphorylated on carbon 6 (ie Because the reaction catalyzed by Phosphofructokinase 1 (PFK-1) is energetically very favorable, it is essentially irreversible, and a different pathway must be used to do the reverse conversion during gluconeogenesis. Phosphofructokinase-1 (PFK-1 is the most important regulatory Enzyme ( of Glycolysis. Gluconeogenesis (abreviated GNG) is a Metabolic pathway that results in the generation of Glucose from non- Carbohydrate carbon substrates such This makes the reaction a key regulatory point (see below). The same reaction can also be catalysed by pyrophosphate dependent phosphofructokinase (PFP or PPi-PFK), which is found in most plants, some bacteria, archea and protists but not in animals. Pyrophosphate D-fructose-6-phosphate 1-phosphotransferase (EC 2 This enzyme uses pyrophosphate (PPi) as a phosphate donor instead of ATP. It is a reversible reaction, increasing the flexibility of glycolytic metabolism. [2] A rarer ADP-dependent PFK enzyme variant has been identified in archaean species. [3] Cofactors: Mg2+

β-D-Fructose 6-phosphate (F6P) phosphofructokinase (PFK-1) a transferase β-D-Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F1,6BP)   ATP ADP

Destabilizing the molecule in the previous reaction allows the hexose ring to be split by aldolase into two triose sugars, dihydroxyacetone phosphate, an aldose, and glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, a ketone. Fructose 6-phosphate (also known as the Neuberg ester) is Fructose sugar Phosphorylated on carbon 6 (ie "PFK" redirects here PFK (Poulet Frit Kentucky is also the name for KFC in French -speaking Quebec, Canada. Fructose 16-phosphate is Fructose sugar Phosphorylated on carbons 1 and 6 (ie Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP is a biochemical compound involved in many reactions from the Calvin cycle in plants to the ether-lipid biosynthesis process in Leishmania Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GADP, GAP or PGAL There are two classes of aldolases: class I aldolases, present in animals and plants, and class II aldolases which present in fungi and bacteria; the two classes use different mechanisms in cleaving the hexose ring.

β-D-Fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F1,6BP) fructose bisphosphate aldolase (ALDO) a lyase D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GADP) dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) +

Triosephosphate isomerase rapidly interconverts dihydroxyacetone phosphate with glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GADP) that proceeds further into glycolysis. Fructose 16-phosphate is Fructose sugar Phosphorylated on carbons 1 and 6 (ie Aldolase A is an Enzyme which catalyses one of the Aldol reactions: The substrate, Fructose 16-bisphosphate (F-16-BP is broken down into In Biochemistry, a lyase is an Enzyme that catalyzes the breaking of various Chemical bonds by means other than Hydrolysis and Oxidation Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GADP, GAP or PGAL Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP is a biochemical compound involved in many reactions from the Calvin cycle in plants to the ether-lipid biosynthesis process in Leishmania Triose-phosphate isomerase (TPI or TIM is an Enzyme ( that catalyzes the reversible interconversion of the Triose phosphate Isomers Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GADP, GAP or PGAL This is advantageous, as it directs dihydroxyacetone phosphate down the same pathway as glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, simplifying regulation.

Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) triosephosphate isomerase (TPI) an isomerase D-glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GADP)

Pay-off phase

The second half of glycolysis is known as the pay-off phase, characterised by a net gain of the energy-rich molecules ATP and NADH. Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP is a biochemical compound involved in many reactions from the Calvin cycle in plants to the ether-lipid biosynthesis process in Leishmania Triose-phosphate isomerase (TPI or TIM is an Enzyme ( that catalyzes the reversible interconversion of the Triose phosphate Isomers Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GADP, GAP or PGAL Since glucose leads to two triose sugars in the preparatory phase, each reaction in the pay-off phase occurs twice per glucose molecule. This yields 2 NADH molecules and 4 ATP molecules, leading to a net gain of 2 NADH molecules and 2 ATP molecules from the glycolytic pathway per glucose.

The triose sugars are dehydrogenated and inorganic phosphate is added to them, forming 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate. Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. The hydrogen is used to reduce two molecules of NAD+, a hydrogen carrier, to give NADH + H+.

glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate (GADP) glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) an oxidoreductase D-1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPG)   NAD+ + Pi NADH + H+ NAD+ + Pi NADH + H+

This step is the enzymatic transfer of a phosphate group from 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to ADP by phosphoglycerate kinase, forming ATP and 3-phosphoglycerate. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GADP, GAP or PGAL Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (abbreviated as GAPDH or less commonly as G3PDH ( is an Enzyme that catalyzes the sixth step of In Biochemistry, an oxidoreductase is an Enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of Electrons from one molecule (the reductant, also called the hydrogen At this step, glycolysis has reached the break-even point: 2 molecules of ATP were consumed, and 2 new molecules have now been synthesized. This step, one of the two substrate-level phosphorylation steps, requires ADP; thus, when the cell has plenty of ATP (and little ADP), this reaction does not occur. Because ATP decays relatively quickly when it is not metabolized, this is an important regulatory point in the glycolytic pathway. Cofactors: Mg2+

1,3-bisphosphoglycerate (1,3BPG) phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK) a transferase 3-phosphoglycerate (3PG)   ADP ATP ADP ATP     phosphoglycerate kinase (PGK)

Phosphoglycerate mutase now forms 2-phosphoglycerate. In Biochemistry, a transferase is an Enzyme that catalyzes the transfer of a Functional group (e Overview Phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM is an Enzyme that catalyzes step 8 of Glycolysis. Notice that this enzyme is a mutase and not an isomerase. Whereas an isomerase changes the oxidation state of the carbons of the compound, a mutase does not.

3-phosphoglycerate (3PG) phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM) a mutase 2-phosphoglycerate (2PG)

Enolase next forms phosphoenolpyruvate from 2-phosphoglycerate. Overview Phosphoglycerate mutase (PGM is an Enzyme that catalyzes step 8 of Glycolysis. An Enzyme that catalyzes the shifting of a functional group from one position to another within the same molecule Enolase also known as phosphopyruvate dehydratase is a Metalloenzyme responsible for the catalysis of 2-phosphoglycerate (2-PG to Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP Phosphoenolpyruvate (synonyms phosphoenolpyruvic acid, PEP) is an important Chemical compound in Biochemistry. Cofactors: 2 Mg2+: one "conformational" ion to coordinate with the carboxylate group of the substrate, and one "catalytic" ion which participates in the dehydration.

2-phosphoglycerate (2PG) enolase (ENO) a lyase phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP)   H2O H2O     enolase (ENO)

A final substrate-level phosphorylation now forms a molecule of pyruvate and a molecule of ATP by means of the enzyme pyruvate kinase. Enolase also known as phosphopyruvate dehydratase is a Metalloenzyme responsible for the catalysis of 2-phosphoglycerate (2-PG to Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP In Biochemistry, a lyase is an Enzyme that catalyzes the breaking of various Chemical bonds by means other than Hydrolysis and Oxidation Phosphoenolpyruvate (synonyms phosphoenolpyruvic acid, PEP) is an important Chemical compound in Biochemistry. Enolase also known as phosphopyruvate dehydratase is a Metalloenzyme responsible for the catalysis of 2-phosphoglycerate (2-PG to Phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP Reaction The reaction with pyruvate kinase pyruvate kinase PEP ----------> pyruvate / \ ADP ATP This serves as an additional regulatory step, similar to the phosphoglycerate kinase step. Cofactors: Mg2+

phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) pyruvate kinase (PK) a transferase pyruvate (Pyr)   ADP ATP

Oxidative decarboxylation

Main article: Pyruvate decarboxylation

This reaction is not technically a reaction of glycolysis, but is very common in most organisms as a link to the citric acid cycle. Phosphoenolpyruvate (synonyms phosphoenolpyruvic acid, PEP) is an important Chemical compound in Biochemistry. Reaction The reaction with pyruvate kinase pyruvate kinase PEP ----------> pyruvate / \ ADP ATP Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H is an alpha-keto acid. The Carboxylate Anion of pyruvic acid is known as pyruvate. Pyruvate decarboxylation is the biochemical reaction that uses Pyruvate to form Acetyl-CoA, releasing reducing equivalents and Carbon dioxide. The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle ( TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely the Szent-Györgyi–Krebs cycle This reaction is carried out in the mitochondria, unlike the reactions of glycolysis which are cytosolic. In Cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed Organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. The cytosol or intracellular fluid (or cytoplasmic matrix) is the liquid found inside cells. The conversion of pyruvate to acetyl CoA by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex is a key step in the liver in particular, as it removes any chance of conversion of pyruvate to glucose, or as a transmination substrate. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism used in many biochemical reactions Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC is a complex of three Enzymes that transform Pyruvate into Acetyl-CoA by a process called Pyruvate decarboxylation It commits pyruvate to entering the citric acid cycle, where it is either used as a substrate for oxidative phosphorylation, or is converted to citrate for export to the cytosol to serve as a substrate for fatty acid and isoprenoid biosynthesis. Oxidative phosphorylation is a Metabolic pathway that uses energy released by the oxidation of Nutrients to produce Adenosine triphosphate (ATP A citrate can refer either to the Conjugate base of Citric acid, (C3H5O(COO33&minus or to the Esters of citric In Chemistry, especially Biochemistry, a fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched Aliphatic tail ( chain) which The terpenoids, sometimes referred to as isoprenoids, are a large and diverse class of naturally-occurring organic chemicals similar to Terpenes derived

pyruvate (Pyr) pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDHC) acetyl CoA (Ac-CoA)   CoA + NAD+ CO2 + NADH + H+

Regulation

See also: Gluconeogenesis

The flux through the glycolytic pathway is adjusted in response to conditions both inside and outside the cell. Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H is an alpha-keto acid. The Carboxylate Anion of pyruvic acid is known as pyruvate. Pyruvate dehydrogenase (E1 is the first component Enzyme of Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism used in many biochemical reactions Gluconeogenesis (abreviated GNG) is a Metabolic pathway that results in the generation of Glucose from non- Carbohydrate carbon substrates such Flux, or metabolic flux is the rate of turnover of Molecules through a Metabolic pathway or an Enzyme. The rate in liver is regulated to meet major cellular needs: (1) the production of ATP, (2) the provision of building blocks for biosynthetic reactions, and (3) to lower blood glucose, one of the major functions of the liver. When blood sugar falls, glycolysis is halted in liver to allow the reverse process, gluconeogenesis. Gluconeogenesis (abreviated GNG) is a Metabolic pathway that results in the generation of Glucose from non- Carbohydrate carbon substrates such In glycolysis, the reactions catalyzed by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase are effectively irreversible in most organisms. In metabolic pathways, such enzymes are potential sites of control, and all three enzymes serve this purpose in glycolysis.

There are several different ways to regulate the activity of an enzyme. An immediate form of control is feedback via allosteric effectors or by covalent modification. Feedback is a circular causal Process whereby some proportion of a system's output is returned (fed back to the Input. In Biochemistry, allosteric regulation is the regulation of an Enzyme or other Protein by binding an effector molecule at the protein's allosteric A slower form of control is transcriptional regulation that controls the amounts of these important enzymes. Transcriptional regulation is the change in gene expression levels by altering transcription rates

Hexokinase

Hexokinase is inhibited by glucose-6-phosphate (G6P), the product it forms through the ATP-driven phosphorylation. Variation across species Hexokinases have been found in every organism checked ranging from bacteria, Yeast, and Plants to humans and other Vertebrates This is necessary to prevent an accumulation of G6P in the cell when flux through the glycolytic pathway is low. Glucose will enter the cell, but, since the hexokinase has reduced activity, it can diffuse back into the blood through the glucose transporter in the plasma membrane.

In animals, regulation of blood glucose levels by the liver is a vital part of homeostasis. Homeostasis (from Greek: ὅμος hómos, "equal" and ιστημι istēmi, "to stand" lit In liver cells, extra G6P may be converted to G1P for conversion to glycogen, or it is alternatively converted by glycolysis to acetyl-CoA and then citrate. Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism used in many biochemical reactions A citrate can refer either to the Conjugate base of Citric acid, (C3H5O(COO33&minus or to the Esters of citric Excess citrate is exported to the cytosol, where ATP citrate lyase will regenerate acetyl-CoA and OAA. A citrate can refer either to the Conjugate base of Citric acid, (C3H5O(COO33&minus or to the Esters of citric ATP citrate lyase is an Enzyme that represents an important step in Fatty acid biosynthesis. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism used in many biochemical reactions The acetyl-CoA is then used for fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis, two important ways of utilizing excess glucose when its concentration is high in blood. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism used in many biochemical reactions Liver contains both hexokinase and glucokinase; the latter catalyses the phosphorylation of glucose to G6P and is not inhibited by G6P. Variation across species Hexokinases have been found in every organism checked ranging from bacteria, Yeast, and Plants to humans and other Vertebrates Glucokinase ( is an Enzyme that facilitates Phosphorylation of Glucose to Glucose-6-phosphate. Thus it allows glucose to be converted into glycogen, fatty acids, and cholesterol even when hexokinase activity is low. ^[4] This is important when blood glucose levels are high. During hypoglycemia, the glycogen can be converted back to G6P and then converted to glucose by a liver-specific enzyme glucose 6-phosphatase. Hypoglycemia or hypoglycaemia is the medical term for a pathologic state produced by a lower than normal level of Glucose ( sugar) in the blood Glucose 6-phosphatase (Glc-6-Pase is an Enzyme that hydrolyzes Glucose-6-phosphate resulting in the creation of a phosphate group and free glucose This reverse reaction is an important role of liver cells to maintain blood sugars levels during fasting. This is critical for brain function, since the brain utilizes glucose as an energy source under most conditions.

Phosphofructokinase

Phosphofructokinase is an important control point in the glycolytic pathway, since it is one of the irreversible steps and has key allosteric effectors, AMP and fructose 1,6-bisphosphate (F1,6BP). "PFK" redirects here PFK (Poulet Frit Kentucky is also the name for KFC in French -speaking Quebec, Canada. Fructose 16-phosphate is Fructose sugar Phosphorylated on carbons 1 and 6 (ie

Fructose 2,6-bisphosphate (F2,6BP) is a very potent activator of phosphofructokinase (PFK-1) that is synthesised when F6P is phosphorylated by a second phosphofructokinase (PFK2). Fructose 26-bisphosphate (or fructose 26-diphosphate) abbreviated Fru-26- P 2 is a metabolite which Allosterically affects the activity of Phosphofructokinase-2 ( PFK2) is one activity of a bifunctional Enzyme ( the other of which is Fructose 26-bisphosphatase (FBPase2 In liver, when blood sugar is low and glucagon elevates cAMP, PFK2 is phosphorylated by protein kinase A. Glucagon is an important Hormone involved in Carbohydrate metabolism. Phosphofructokinase-2 ( PFK2) is one activity of a bifunctional Enzyme ( the other of which is Fructose 26-bisphosphatase (FBPase2 The phosphorylation inactivates PFK2, and another domain on this protein becomes active as fructose 2,6-bisphosphatase, which converts F2,6BP back to F6P. Phosphofructokinase-2 ( PFK2) is one activity of a bifunctional Enzyme ( the other of which is Fructose 26-bisphosphatase (FBPase2 Fructose-26-bisphosphatase is an Enzyme that catalyzes the following reaction Fructose-26-bisphosphate + H2O ---> Fructose-6-phosphate + Both glucagon and epinephrine cause high levels of cAMP in the liver. Glucagon is an important Hormone involved in Carbohydrate metabolism. The result of lower levels of liver fructose-2,6-bisphosphate is a decrease in activity of phosphofructokinase and an increase in activity of fructose 1,6-bisphosphatase, so that gluconeogenesis (essentially "glycolysis in reverse") is favored. "PFK" redirects here PFK (Poulet Frit Kentucky is also the name for KFC in French -speaking Quebec, Canada. Fructose bisphosphatase ( is an Enzyme in the Liver, that converts Fructose-16-bisphosphate to Fructose-6-phosphate in Gluconeogenesis This is consistent with the role of the liver in such situations, since the response of the liver to these hormones is to release glucose to the blood.

ATP competes with AMP for the allosteric effector site on the PFK enzyme. Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy ATP concentrations in cells are much higher than AMP, typically 100-fold higher,^[5] but the concentration of ATP does not change more than about 10% under physiological conditions, whereas a 10% drop in ATP results in a 6-fold increase in AMP. Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy ^[6] Thus, the relevance of ATP as an allosteric effector is questionable. Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy An increase in AMP is a consequence of a decrease in energy charge in the cell. From Stryer "Many reactions in Metabolism are controlled by the energy status of the cell

Citrate inhibits phosphofructokinase when tested in vitro by enhancing the inhibitory effect of ATP. A citrate can refer either to the Conjugate base of Citric acid, (C3H5O(COO33&minus or to the Esters of citric However, it is doubtful that this is a meaningful effect in vivo, because citrate in the cytosol is mainly utilized for conversion to acetyl-CoA for fatty acid and cholesterol synthesis. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism used in many biochemical reactions In Chemistry, especially Biochemistry, a fatty acid is a Carboxylic acid often with a long unbranched Aliphatic tail ( chain) which Cholesterol is a Lipid found in the Cell membranes and transported in the Blood plasma of all Animals It is an essential component of mammalian

Pyruvate kinase and phosphoglycerate kinase

Pyruvate kinase and phosphoglycerate kinase catalyze the two substrate-level phosphorylation steps, and produce ATP from ADP. Reaction The reaction with pyruvate kinase pyruvate kinase PEP ----------> pyruvate / \ ADP ATP Substrate-level phosphorylation is a type of Chemical reaction that results in the formation of Adenosine triphosphate (ATP by the direct transfer of a Phosphate While both of these reactions are exergonic, phosphoglycerate kinase is less exergonic (-18. 8 kJ/mol) than pyruvate kinase. Reaction The reaction with pyruvate kinase pyruvate kinase PEP ----------> pyruvate / \ ADP ATP Phosphoglycerate kinase helps to "pull along" the endergonic glyceraldehyde phosphate dehydrogenase, and in fact, these enzymes are reversible and also function in gluconeogenesis. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (abbreviated as GAPDH or less commonly as G3PDH ( is an Enzyme that catalyzes the sixth step of In contrast, the strongly exergonic pyruvate kinase is irreversible and thus a prime candidate for regulation. Reaction The reaction with pyruvate kinase pyruvate kinase PEP ----------> pyruvate / \ ADP ATP

Post-glycolysis processes

The ultimate fate of pyruvate and NADH produced in glycolysis depends upon the organism and the conditions, most notably the presence or absence of oxygen and other external electron acceptors. In addition, not all carbon entering the pathway leaves as pyruvate and may be extracted at earlier stages to provide carbon compounds for other pathways.

Aerobic respiration

Main article: Aerobic respiration

In aerobic organisms, pyruvate is converted to acetyl-CoA, within the mitochondria, where it is fully oxidized to carbon dioxide and water by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (oxidative decarboxylation) and the set of enzymes of the citric acid cycle. Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in Organisms cells to convert biochemical energy from An aerobic organism or aerobe is an Organism that has an Oxygen based Metabolism. Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism used in many biochemical reactions In Cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed Organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC is a complex of three Enzymes that transform Pyruvate into Acetyl-CoA by a process called Pyruvate decarboxylation The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle ( TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely the Szent-Györgyi–Krebs cycle There are five separate activities catalyzed by the pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, which is highly regulated because this step irreversibly converts a glucose precursor into acetyl-CoA. Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDC is a complex of three Enzymes that transform Pyruvate into Acetyl-CoA by a process called Pyruvate decarboxylation Acetyl-CoA is an important molecule in metabolism used in many biochemical reactions The NADH produced is ultimately oxidized by the electron transport chain, using oxygen as final electron acceptor to produce a large amount of ATP via the action of the ATP synthase complex, a process known as oxidative phosphorylation. An electron transport chain couples a chemical reaction between an electron donor (such as NADH) and an electron acceptor (such as O2) to the transfer An ATP synthase ( is a general term for an Enzyme that can synthesize Adenosine triphosphate (ATP from Adenosine diphosphate (ADP and inorganic Oxidative phosphorylation is a Metabolic pathway that uses energy released by the oxidation of Nutrients to produce Adenosine triphosphate (ATP A net of only two molecules of ATP per glucose are produced by substrate-level phosphorylation during the citric acid cycle. Adenosine-5'-triphosphate ( ATP) is a multifunctional Nucleotide that is most important as a " molecular currency" of intracellular Energy

Anaerobic respiration

Main article: Anaerobic respiration

In animals, including humans, metabolism is primarily aerobic. See also Fermentation (biochemistry Anaerobic respiration (anaerobiosis refers to the Oxidation of molecules in the absence of Oxygen to produce Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus However, under hypoxic (or partially-anaerobic) conditions, for example, in overworked muscles that are starved of oxygen or in infarcted heart muscle cells, pyruvate is converted to lactate by anaerobic respiration (also known as fermentation). Lactic acid ( IUPAC Systematic name: 2-hydroxypropanoic acid) also known as milk acid, is a Chemical compound that plays a role See also Fermentation (biochemistry Anaerobic respiration (anaerobiosis refers to the Oxidation of molecules in the absence of Oxygen to produce Fermentation is the process of deriving energy from the oxidation of organic compounds such as carbohydrates using an endogenous electron acceptor which is This is a solution to maintaining the metabolic flux through glycolysis in response to an anaerobic or severely-hypoxic environment. In many tissues, this is a cellular last resort for energy, and most animal tissue cannot maintain anaerobic respiration for an extended length of time. Many single cellular organisms use anaerobic respiration only as an energy source.

Glycolysis is insufficient for anaerobic respiration, as it does not regenerate NAD⁺ from the NADH + H⁺ it produces. See also Fermentation (biochemistry Anaerobic respiration (anaerobiosis refers to the Oxidation of molecules in the absence of Oxygen to produce It is therefore critical for an anaerobic or hypoxic cell to carry out the additional steps of lactate or alcohol production to regenerate NAD⁺ that is required for glycolysis to proceed. Lactic acid ( IUPAC Systematic name: 2-hydroxypropanoic acid) also known as milk acid, is a Chemical compound that plays a role In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon This is important for normal cellular function, as glycolysis is the only source of ATP in anaerobic or severely-hypoxic conditions.

There are several types of anaerobic respiration wherein pyruvate and NADH are anaerobically metabolized to yield any of a variety of products with an organic molecule acting as the final hydrogen acceptor. For example, the bacteria involved in making yogurt simply reduce pyruvate to lactic acid, whereas yeast produces ethanol and carbon dioxide. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Lactic acid ( IUPAC Systematic name: 2-hydroxypropanoic acid) also known as milk acid, is a Chemical compound that plays a role Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Anaerobic bacteria are capable of using a wide variety of compounds, other than oxygen, as terminal electron acceptors in respiration: nitrogenous compounds (such as nitrates and nitrites), sulfur compounds (such as sulfates, sulfites, sulfur dioxide, and elemental sulfur), carbon dioxide, iron compounds, manganese compounds, cobalt compounds, and uranium compounds.

Intermediates for other pathways

This article concentrates on the catabolic role of glycolysis with regard to converting potential chemical energy to usable chemical energy during the oxidation of glucose to pyruvate. For the related metabolic process see Anabolism. Catabolism is the set of Metabolic pathways which break down molecules into However, many of the metabolites in the glycolytic pathway are also used by anabolic pathways, and, as a consequence, flux through the pathway is critical to maintain a supply of carbon skeletons for biosynthesis. Anabolism is the set of Metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units

These metabolic pathways are all strongly reliant on glycolysis as a source of metabolites:

• Gluconeogenesis
• Lipid metabolism
• Pentose phosphate pathway
• Citric acid cycle, which in turn leads to:

• Amino acid synthesis
• Nucleotide synthesis
• Tetrapyrrole synthesis

From an energy perspective, NADH is either recycled to NAD+ during anaerobic conditions, to maintain the flux through the glycolytic pathway, or used during aerobic conditions to produce more ATP by oxidative phosphorylation. Gluconeogenesis (abreviated GNG) is a Metabolic pathway that results in the generation of Glucose from non- Carbohydrate carbon substrates such Lipid metabolism refers to the processes that involve the creation and degradation of Lipids The types of lipids involved include Bile salts * The pentose phosphate pathway (also called Phosphogluconate Pathway or HexoseMonophosphate Shunt shunt is a process that serves to generate NADPH and the synthesis of pentose The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle ( TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely the Szent-Györgyi–Krebs cycle For the non-biological synthesis of amino acids see Strecker amino acid synthesis Amino acid synthesis is the set of Biochemical processes ( Metabolic Oxidative phosphorylation is a Metabolic pathway that uses energy released by the oxidation of Nutrients to produce Adenosine triphosphate (ATP From an anabolic metabolism perspective, the NADH has a role to drive synthetic reactions, doing so by directly or indirectly reducing the pool of NADP+ in the cell to NADPH, which is another important reducing agent for biosynthetic pathways in a cell. Anabolism is the set of Metabolic pathways that construct molecules from smaller units

Glycolysis in disease

Genetic diseases

Glycolytic mutations are generally rare due to importance of the metabolic pathway, however some mutations are seen.

Cancer

Malignant rapidly-growing tumor cells typically have glycolytic rates that are up to 200 times higher than those of their normal tissues of origin. See also Cancer A tumor or tumour is the name for a swelling or lesion formed by an abnormal growth of cells (termed neoplastic There are two common explanations. The classical explanation is that there is poor blood supply to tumors causing local depletion of oxygen. There is also evidence that attributes some of these high aerobic glycolytic rates to an overexpressed form of mitochondrially-bound hexokinase^[7] responsible for driving the high glycolytic activity. Variation across species Hexokinases have been found in every organism checked ranging from bacteria, Yeast, and Plants to humans and other Vertebrates This phenomenon was first described in 1930 by Otto Warburg, and hence it is referred to as the Warburg effect. Otto Warburg (1859-1938 was a botanist and industrial agriculture expert and an active member of the World Zionist Organization, which worked toward the re-establishment of The phrase "Warburg effect" is used for two unrelated observations in Biochemistry, one in Plant physiology and the other in Oncology, both due Warburg hypothesis claims that cancer is primarily caused by dysfunctionality in mitochondrial metabolism, rather than because of uncontrolled growth of cells. Warburg's hypothesis was postulated by the Nobel laureate Otto Heinrich Warburg in 1924 There is ongoing research to affect mitochondrial metabolism and treat cancer by starving cancerous cells in various new ways, including a ketogenic diet.

This high glycolysis rate has important medical applications, as high aerobic glycolysis by malignant tumors is utilized clinically to diagnose and monitor treatment responses of cancers by imaging uptake of 2-¹⁸F-2-deoxyglucose (a radioactive modified hexokinase substrate) with positron emission tomography (PET). Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Fluorodeoxyglucose is a Glucose analog. Its full chemical name is 2-fluoro-2-deoxy-D-glucose, commonly abbreviated to FDG Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. Positron emission tomography ( PET) is a Nuclear medicine imaging technique which produces a three-dimensional image or map of functional processes in the ^[8][9]

Alzheimer's disease

Disfunctioning glycolysis or glucose metablism in fronto-temporo-parietal and cingulate cortices has been associated with the Alzheimer's disease ^[10], probably due to the decreased amyloid β (1-42) (Aβ42) and increased tau, phosphorylated tau in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) ^[11]

Alternative nomenclature

Some of the metabolites in glycolysis have alternative names and nomenclature. Alzheimer's disease ( AD) also called Alzheimer disease or simply Alzheimer's, is the most common form of Dementia. Tau proteins are Microtubule-associated proteins that are abundant in Neurons in the Central nervous system and are less common elsewhere Cerebrospinal fluid ( CSF) Liquor cerebrospinalis, is a clear Bodily fluid that occupies the Subarachnoid space and the Ventricular system In part, this is because some of them are common to other pathways, such as the Calvin cycle. The Calvin cycle (or Calvin-Benson-Bassham cycle or carbon fixation is a series of biochemical reactions that takes place in the Stroma of Chloroplasts

	This article		Alternative names	Alternative nomenclature
1	glucose	Glc	dextrose
3	fructose 6-phosphate	F6P
4	fructose 1,6-bisphosphate	F1,6BP	fructose 1,6-diphosphate	FBP, FDP, F1,6DP
5	dihydroxyacetone phosphate	DHAP	glycerone phosphate
6	glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate	GADP	3-phosphoglyceraldehyde	PGAL, G3P, GALP,GAP
7	1,3-bisphosphoglycerate	1,3BPG	glycerate 1,3-bisphosphate, glycerate 1,3-diphosphate, 1,3-diphosphoglycerate	PGAP, BPG, DPG
8	3-phosphoglycerate	3PG	glycerate 3-phosphate	PGA, GP
9	2-phosphoglycerate	2PG	glycerate 2-phosphate
10	phosphoenolpyruvate	PEP
11	pyruvate	Pyr	pyruvic acid

See also

• Pentose phosphate pathway
• Gluconeogenesis
• Fermentation (biochemistry)
• Pyruvate decarboxylation
• Citric acid cycle

External links

• The Glycolytic enzymes in Glycolysis at Protein Data Bank
• Glycolytic cycle with animations at wdv. Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Fructose 6-phosphate (also known as the Neuberg ester) is Fructose sugar Phosphorylated on carbon 6 (ie Fructose 16-phosphate is Fructose sugar Phosphorylated on carbons 1 and 6 (ie Dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP is a biochemical compound involved in many reactions from the Calvin cycle in plants to the ether-lipid biosynthesis process in Leishmania Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate, also known as triose phosphate or 3-phosphoglyceraldehyde and abbreviated as G3P, GADP, GAP or PGAL Phosphoenolpyruvate (synonyms phosphoenolpyruvic acid, PEP) is an important Chemical compound in Biochemistry. Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H is an alpha-keto acid. The Carboxylate Anion of pyruvic acid is known as pyruvate. The pentose phosphate pathway (also called Phosphogluconate Pathway or HexoseMonophosphate Shunt shunt is a process that serves to generate NADPH and the synthesis of pentose Gluconeogenesis (abreviated GNG) is a Metabolic pathway that results in the generation of Glucose from non- Carbohydrate carbon substrates such Fermentation is the process of deriving energy from the oxidation of organic compounds such as carbohydrates using an endogenous electron acceptor which is Pyruvate decarboxylation is the biochemical reaction that uses Pyruvate to form Acetyl-CoA, releasing reducing equivalents and Carbon dioxide. The citric acid cycle, also known as the tricarboxylic acid cycle ( TCA cycle) or the Krebs cycle, (or rarely the Szent-Györgyi–Krebs cycle The Protein Data Bank ( PDB) is a repository for 3-D structural data of Proteins and Nucleic acids These data typically obtained by X-ray crystallography com
• Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology at biochemweb. org
• notes on glycolysis at rahulgladwin. com
• The chemical logic behind glycolysis at ufp. pt
• Expasy biochemical pathways poster at ExPASy
• Mnemonic at medicalmnemonics.com 317 5468

References

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