A geyser is a hot spring characterized by intermittent discharge of water ejected turbulently and accomplished by a vapor phase. Strokkur ( Icelandic for " churn " is a Geyser in the geothermic region beside the Hvítá River in Iceland at. Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( A hot spring is a spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermally heated Groundwater from the earth's crust. The name geyser comes from Geysir, the name of an erupting spring at Haukadalur, Iceland; that name, in turn, comes from the Icelandic verb gjósa, “to gush”. Geysir (sometimes known as The Great Geysir) in the Haukadalur valley Iceland, is the oldest known Geyser and one of the world's most Haukadalur is a name shared by three valleys in Iceland. Haukadalur Golden Circle This valley lies to the north of the Laugarvatn in the Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland (

The formation of geysers requires a favourable hydrogeology which exists in only a few places on Earth, and so they are fairly rare phenomena. Hydrogeology ( hydro- meaning water and -geology meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of Geology that deals with the distribution and There must be a volcanic heat source. Generally all geyser field sites are located near active volcanic areas. The surface water works its way down to an average depth of around 2134 m (7001 ft) where it meets up with the hot rocks. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit About 1,000 exist worldwide, with about half of these in Yellowstone National Park, U.S. A geyser's eruptive activity may change or cease due to ongoing mineral deposition within the geyser plumbing, exchange of functions with nearby hot springs, earthquake influences, and human intervention. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[1]

Erupting fountains of liquefied nitrogen have been observed on Neptune's moon Triton, as have possible signs of carbon dioxide eruptions from Mars' south polar ice cap. Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Neptune ( English|AmE] ] is the eighth and farthest Planet from the Sun in the Solar System. TemplateInfobox Planet.--> Triton (ˈtraɪtən, or as in Greek Martian "spiders" are geological formations thus far unique to the south polar region of Mars These phenomena are also often referred to as geysers. Instead of being driven by geothermal energy, they seem to rely on solar heating aided by a kind of solid-state greenhouse effect. The Greenhouse effect refers to the change in the Thermal equilibrium temperature of a planet or moon by the presence of an Atmosphere containing gas that absorbs On Triton, the nitrogen may erupt to heights of 8 kilometres (5 mi). Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14

Contents 1 Formation and working 2 Eruptions 3 General categorization 4 Biology of geysers 5 Major geyser fields and their distribution 5.1 Yellowstone National Park 5.2 Dolina Geiserov 5.3 El Tatio 5.4 Taupo Volcanic Zone 5.5 Iceland 5.6 Extinct/Dormant geyser fields 6 Misnamed geysers 7 Commercial uses of geysers 8 Nitrogen geysers on Triton 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links

Formation and working

Geysers are temporary geological features. The life span of a geyser is, at the most, only a few thousand years. Geysers are generally associated with volcanic areas. ^[2] Geysers are caused when underground chambers of water are heated to the boiling point by the volcanic rock. When heat causes the water to boil, pressure forces a superheated column of steam and water to the surface. Their formation specifically requires the combination of 3 geologic conditions that are usually found in volcanic terrain. ^[2]

• Intense heat- The heat needed for geyser formation comes from magma when it is near the surface of the earth. Magma (Plurals magmas and magmata) is molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the Earth (or any other Terrestrial planet The fact that they need heat much higher than normally found near the earth's surface is the reason they are associated with volcanoes or volcanic areas. Geysers, though rare, are found in the same geologic settings where volcanic heat sources are available.
• Water- The water a geyser ejects comes from snow and rain. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. When precipitation reaches the ground, most of it drains into rivers and streams. A small portion, perhaps 5% gets, soaked into the ground. Moving gradually through tiny cracks it finds its way into the underground tunnels that make up the plumbing of a geyser, then is shot to the surface during an eruption. Travel from the surface down through the rock and out through a geyser eruption can take up-to a time period of 500 years. ^[3]
• A plumbing system- In order for the heated water to form a geyser a plumbing system is required. This includes a reservoir to hold the water while it is being heated. Geysers are generally aligned along faults, the cracks in the earth formed by earthquakes. ^[2] The plumbing system is made up of a system of fractures, fissures, porous spaces and sometimes cavities. A fracture is the (local separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of stress. In Anatomy, fissure ( Latin fissura, Plural fissurae) is a groove natural division deep furrow cleft or tear in various parts of Constrictions in the system are essential to the building up of pressure before an eruption.

Ultimately, the temperatures near the bottom of the geyser rise to a point where boiling begins; steam bubbles rise to the top of the column. As they burst through the geyser's vent, some water overflows or splashes out, reducing the weight of the column and thus the pressure on the water underneath. With this release of pressure, the superheated water flashes into steam, boiling violently throughout the column. Uses A Steam engine uses the expansion of steam in order to drive a Piston or Turbine to perform Mechanical work. The resulting froth of expanding steam and hot water then sprays out of the geyser hole. ^[2]

Eruptions

Geyser activity, like all hot spring activity, is caused by surface water gradually seeping down through the ground until it meets rock heated by magma. A hot spring is a spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermally heated Groundwater from the earth's crust. Magma (Plurals magmas and magmata) is molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the Earth (or any other Terrestrial planet The geothermally heated water then rises back toward the surface by convection through porous and fractured rocks. In Geology, geothermal refers to heat sources within the planet Convection in the most general terms refers to the movement of molecules within Fluids (i Geysers differ from non-eruptive hot springs in their subterranean structure; many consist of a small vent at the surface connected to one or more narrow tubes that lead to underground reservoirs of water. ^[3]

As the geyser fills, the water at the top of the column cools off, but because of the narrowness of the channel, convective cooling of the water in the reservoir is impossible. The cooler water above presses down on the hotter water beneath, not unlike the lid of a pressure cooker, allowing the water in the reservoir to become superheated, i. See Superheater for the device used in Steam engines In Physics, superheating (sometimes referred to as boiling retardation e. to remain liquid at temperatures well above the boiling point. Liquid is one of the principal States of matter. A liquid is a Fluid that has the particles loose and can freely form a distinct surface at the boundaries of The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the Vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid ^[3]

The rocks in the nearby region produce a material called geyserite. Geyserite is mostly silicon dioxide (SiO₂), is dissolved from the rocks and gets deposited on the walls of the geyser's plumbing system and on the surface. The Chemical compound silicon dioxide, also known as silica or silox (from the Latin " Silex " is an Oxide The deposits make the channels carrying the water up to the surface pressure-tight. This allows the pressure to be carried all the way to the top and not be leaked out into the loose gravel or soil that are normally under the geyser fields. ^[3]

Eventually the water remaining in the geyser cools back to below the boiling point and the eruption ends; heated groundwater begins seeping back into the reservoir, and the whole cycle begins again. The duration of eruptions and time between successive eruptions vary greatly from geyser to geyser; Strokkur in Iceland erupts for a few seconds every few minutes, while Grand Geyser in the U.S. erupts for up to 10 minutes every 8–12 hours. Strokkur ( Icelandic for " churn " is a Geyser in the geothermic region beside the Hvítá River in Iceland at. Grand Geyser is a fountain Geyser in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[3]

General categorization

There are two types of geysers: fountain geysers which erupt from pools of water, typically in a series of intense, even violent, bursts; and cone geysers which erupt from cones or mounds of siliceous sinter (also known as geyserite), usually in steady jets that last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. Geyserite is a form of Opaline Silica that is often found around Hot springs and Geysers Botryoidal geyserite is known as Fiorite Old Faithful, perhaps the best-known geyser at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a cone geyser. Grand Geyser, the tallest predictable geyser on earth, also at Yellowstone National Park, is an example of a fountain geyser. Grand Geyser is a fountain Geyser in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States. ^[4]

The intense transient forces inside erupting geysers are the main reason for their rarity. There are many volcanic areas in the world that have hot springs, mud pots and fumaroles, but very few with geysers. A hot spring is a spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermally heated Groundwater from the earth's crust. This is because in most places, even where other necessary conditions for geyser activity exist, the rock structure is loose, and eruptions will erode the channels and rapidly destroy any nascent geysers. ^[5]

Most geysers form in places where there is volcanic rhyolite rock which dissolves in hot water and forms mineral deposits called siliceous sinter, or geyserite, along the inside of the plumbing systems. This page is about a volcanic rock For the ghost town see Rhyolite Nevada, and for the satellite system see Rhyolite/Aquacade. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Geyserite is a form of Opaline Silica that is often found around Hot springs and Geysers Botryoidal geyserite is known as Fiorite Over time these deposits cement the rock together tightly, strengthening the channel walls and enabling the geyser to persist; as mentioned in the previous section. ^[5]

Geysers are fragile phenomena and if conditions change, they can ‘die’. Many geysers have been destroyed by people throwing litter and debris into them; others have ceased to erupt due to dewatering by geothermal power plants. Geothermal power (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth and therme, meaning heat is energy generated by heat stored in the earth or the collection The Great Geysir of Iceland has had periods of activity and dormancy. Geysir (sometimes known as The Great Geysir) in the Haukadalur valley Iceland, is the oldest known Geyser and one of the world's most During its long dormant periods, eruptions were sometimes humanly-induced—often on special occasions—by the addition of surfactants to the water. Surfactants are wetting agents that lower the Surface tension of a liquid allowing easier spreading and lower the Interfacial tension between two liquids Inducing eruptions at Geysir is no longer done, as the forced eruptions were damaging the geyser's special plumbing system. Following an earthquake in Iceland in 2000 the geyser became somewhat more active again. An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth 's crust that creates Seismic waves Earthquakes are recorded with a Seismometer Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( Initially the geyser erupted about eight times a day. As of July 2003, Geysir erupts several times a week. ^[5]

Biology of geysers

Further information: Thermophile and Hyperthermophile

The specific colours of geysers derive from the fact that despite the apparently harsh conditions, life is often found in them (and also in other hot habitats) in the form of thermophilic prokaryotes. A thermophile is an organism &mdash a type of Extremophile &mdash which thrives at relatively high temperatures between 45 and 80 °C (113 and 176 °F A hyperthermophile is an organism that thrives in extremely hot environments— from 60 degrees Celsius (140 degrees Fahrenheit upwards The Grand Prismatic Spring in Yellowstone National Park is the largest Hot spring in the United States, and the third largest in the world next to A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. A thermophile is an organism &mdash a type of Extremophile &mdash which thrives at relatively high temperatures between 45 and 80 °C (113 and 176 °F The prokaryotes (proʊˈkærioʊts singular prokaryote /proʊˈkæriət/ are a group of Organisms that lack a Cell nucleus (= karyon or any other No known eukaryote can survive over 60 °C (140 °F). Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 ^[6]

In the 1960s, when the research of biology of geysers first appeared, scientists were generally convinced that no life can survive above around 73 °C (163 °F)—the upper limit for the survival of cyanobacteria, as the structure of key cellular proteins and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) would be destroyed. Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a phylum of Bacteria that obtain their energy Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known The optimal temperature for thermophilic bacteria was placed even lower, around 55 °C (131 °F). ^[6]

However, the observations proved that it is actually possible for life to exist at high temperatures and that some bacteria prefer even temperatures higher than boiling point of water. Water ( H2[[oxygen O]] H OH) is the most abundant Molecule on Earth 's surface composing of about 70% of the Earth's surface as Dozens of such bacteria are known nowadays. ^[7] Thermophiles prefer temperatures from 50 °C (122 °F) to 70 °C (158 °F) whilst hyperthermophiles grow better at temperatures as high as 80 °C (176 °F) to 110 °C (230 °F). A thermophile is an organism &mdash a type of Extremophile &mdash which thrives at relatively high temperatures between 45 and 80 °C (113 and 176 °F A hyperthermophile is an organism that thrives in extremely hot environments— from 60 degrees Celsius (140 degrees Fahrenheit upwards As they have heat-stable enzymes that retain their activity even at high temperatures, they have been used as a source of thermostable tools, that are important in medicine and biotechnology,^[8] for example in manufacturing antibiotics, plastics, detergents (by the use of heat-stable enzymes lipases, pullulanases and proteases), and fermentation products (for example ethanol is produced). A broader definition of a tool is an entity used to interface between two or more domains that facilitates more effective action of one domain upon the other Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the Biotechnology is Technology based on Biology, especially when used in Agriculture, Food science, and Medicine. In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa Plastic is the general common term for a wide range of synthetic or semisynthetic organic solid materials suitable for the manufacture of industrial products A detergent (as a noun is a material intended to assist Cleaning. A lipase is a Water-soluble Enzyme that Catalyzes the Hydrolysis of Ester bonds in water–insoluble Lipid Pullulanase is a specific kind of Glucanase, an amylolytic Exoenzyme, that degrades Pullulan. A protease is any Enzyme that conducts Proteolysis, that is begins protein Catabolism by Hydrolysis of the Peptide bonds that link The fact that such bacteria exist also stretches our imagination about life on other celestial bodies, both inside and outside of solar system. s are significant physical entities, associations or structures which current Science has confirmed to exist in Space. The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by Gravity. Among these, the first discovered and the most important for biotechnology is Thermus aquaticus. Thermus aquaticus is a species of Bacterium that can tolerate high temperatures one of several thermophilic bacteria that belong to the Deinococcus-Thermus ^[9]

Major geyser fields and their distribution

Geysers are quite rare, requiring a combination of water, heat, and fortuitous plumbing. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. In Physics, heat, symbolized by Q, is Energy transferred from one body or system to another due to a difference in Temperature Plumbing, from the Latin plumbum for Lead, is the skilled trade of working with pipes, tubing and Plumbing fixtures for The combination exists in few places on Earth. ^[10][11]

Yellowstone National Park

Main article: Yellowstone National Park

Yellowstone is the largest geyser locale, containing thousands of hot springs, and approximately 300 to 500 geysers. It is home to half of the world's total number of geysers in its nine geyser basins. It is located in Wyoming, United States. The State of Wyoming ( is a sparsely populated state in the western region of the United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[12] Yellowstone includes the tallest active geyser (Steamboat Geyser in Norris Geyser Basin), as well as the renowned Old Faithful Geyser, Beehive Geyser, Giantess Geyser, Lion Geyser, Plume Geyser, Aurum Geyser, Castle Geyser, Sawmill Geyser, Grand Geyser, Oblong Geyser, Giant Geyser, Daisy Geyser, Grotto Geyser, Fan & Mortar Geysers, & Riverside Geyser, all in the Upper Geyser Basin which alone contains nearly 180 geysers. Steamboat Geyser, in Yellowstone National Park 's Norris Geyser Basin, is the world's tallest currently-active Geyser. The geothermal areas of Yellowstone include several Geyser basins in Yellowstone National Park as well as other geothermal features such as Hot Beehive Geyser is a Geyser in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States. Castle Geyser is a Geyser in Yellowstone National Park. The geyser has a 10-12 hour eruption cycle Grand Geyser is a fountain Geyser in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States. Giant Geyser is a cone-type Geyser in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States. Daisy Geyser is a Geyser in the Upper Geyser Basin of Yellowstone National Park in the United States. Riverside Geyser is a Geyser in Yellowstone National Park in the U The geothermal areas of Yellowstone include several Geyser basins in Yellowstone National Park as well as other geothermal features such as Hot ^[11]

Dolina Geiserov

Main article: Dolina Geiserov

Dolina Geiserov is one of the geysers in the Valley of Geysers in the Kamchatka Peninsula of Russia. Also see Geyser Valley trail of the Olympic Peninsula in Washington state Also see Geyser Valley trail of the Olympic Peninsula in Washington state Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The area was discovered and explored by T. I. Ustinova in 1941. Approximately 200 geysers exist in the area along with many hot-water springs and perpetual spouters. The area was formed due to vigorous volcanic activity. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the The peculiar way of eruptions are an important feature of these geysers. Most of the geysers erupt at angles, and only very few have the geyser cones that exist at many other of the world's geyser fields. ^[11] On June 3, 2007 a massive mudflow influenced two thirds of the valley. Events 350 - Roman usurper Nepotianus, of the Constantinian dynasty, proclaims himself Roman Emperor, entering Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Mudslide redirects here it is also the name of a cocktail. A mudflow or mudslide is the most rapid (up to 80 km/h / 50 mph ^[13] It was then reported that a thermal lake was forming above the valley. ^[14] Few days later, waters were observed to have receded somewhat, exposing some of the submerged features. Velikan Geyser, one of the field's largest, was not buried in the slide and has recently been observed to be active. ^[15]

El Tatio

Main article: El Tatio

The name "El Tatio" roughly translates as "the grandfather". El Tatio Geyser Field (locally known as Los Géiseres del Tatio is located within the Andes Mountains of northern Chile at 4200 meters above mean El Tatio is located in the high valleys on the Andes surrounded by many active Volcanoes in Chile, South America at around 4,200 meters above mean sea level. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the South America is a Continent of the Americas, situated entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a The valley is home to approximately 80 geysers at present. It became the largest geyser field in the Southern Hemisphere after the destruction of many of the New Zealand geysers, and is the third largest geyser field in the world. Southern Hemisphere is the half of a Planet that is South of the Equator —the word hemisphere literally means 'half ball' New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island The salient feature of these geysers is that the height of their eruptions is very low, tallest being only six meters high. The average geyser eruption height at El Tatio is about 0. 75 m (2 ft)^[11][16]

Taupo Volcanic Zone

Main article: Taupo Volcanic Zone

The Taupo Volcanic Zone is located on the North Island in New Zealand. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit The Taupo Volcanic Zone is a highly active volcanic area in the North Island of New Zealand. The North Island is one of the two main islands of New Zealand, the other being the South Island. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island It is 350 kilometres (217 mi) long by 50 kilometres (31 mi) wide and lies over a subduction zone in the earth's crust. In Geology, a subduction zone is an area on Earth where two tectonic plates meet and move towards one another with one sliding underneath the other Mount Ruapehu marks its southwestern end, while the submarine Whakatane volcano (85 kilometres beyond White Island) is considered its northeastern limit. Mount Ruapehu, or just Ruapehu, is an active Stratovolcano at the southern end of the Taupo Volcanic Zone in New Zealand. White Island can refer to In Europe: ( White Island) Eilean Bàn, Scotland ( White Island) Kvitøya, Norway ^[17] Many geysers in this zone were destroyed due to Geothermal developments and a hydroelectric reservoir, but several dozen geysers still exist. In the beginning of the twentieth century, the largest geyser ever known, the Waimangu Geyser existed in this zone. The Waimangu Geyser, located near Rotorua in New Zealand, was the most powerful Geyser in the world when it was active between 1900 and 1904 It began erupting in 1900 and erupted periodically for four years until a landslide changed the local water table. A landslide is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement such as rock falls deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows which can occur The water table is the level at which the ground water pressure is equal to Atmospheric pressure. Eruptions of Waimangu would typically reach 160 m (525 ft) and some superbursts are known to have reached 500 m (1640 ft). The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit ^[11] Recent scientific work indicates that the earth's crust below the zone may be as little as 5 kilometres (3 mi) thick. Beneath this lies a film of magma 50 kilometres (31 mi) wide and 160 kilometres (99 mi) long. Magma (Plurals magmas and magmata) is molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the Earth (or any other Terrestrial planet ^[18]

Iceland

Main article: Iceland

Iceland is an island country off the western coast of Europe in the Atlantic Ocean. Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( Geysers and hot springs are distributed all over the island. The geyser, or the local name geysir are located in Haukadalur. Haukadalur is a name shared by three valleys in Iceland. Haukadalur Golden Circle This valley lies to the north of the Laugarvatn in the Geysers are known to have existed in at least a dozen other areas on the island. The "Great Geysir", which first erupted in the 14th century, gave rise to the word "geyser". It used to erupt every 60 minutes until the early 1900s when it became dormant. Earthquakes in June 2000 subsequently reawakened the giant and it now erupts approximately every 8 to 10 hours and may reach up to 61 m (200 ft). The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit ^[11][19]

Extinct/Dormant geyser fields

There used to be two large geysers fields in Nevada—Beowawe and Steamboat Springs—but they were destroyed by the installation of nearby geothermal power plants. Nevada ( is a state located in the western region of the United States of America. Beowawe (beɪoˈwɑːwiː bay-o-WAH-wee is an unincorporated area and Ghost town in Eureka County, in northeastern Nevada in the western United States Steamboat Springs is a small Volcanic field of Rhyolitic Lava domes and flows in western Nevada, USA, located south of Reno At the plants, geothermal drilling reduced the available heat and lowered the local water table to the point that geyser activity could no longer be sustained. The water table is the level at which the ground water pressure is equal to Atmospheric pressure. ^[11]

Many of New Zealand’s geysers have been destroyed by humans in the last century. Several New Zealand geysers have also become dormant or extinct by natural means. The main remaining field is Whakarewarewa at Rotorua. Whakarewarewa (reduced version of Te Whakarewarewatanga O Te Ope Taua A Wahiao, meaning The uprising of the warriors (war party of Wahiao, often abbreviated to Rotorua is a city on the southern shore of Lake Rotorua in the Bay of Plenty region of the North Island of New Zealand, and Rotorua ^[20] Two thirds of the geysers at Orakei Korako were flooded by the Ohakuri hydroelectric dam in 1961. The Hidden Valley Orakei Korako ( Māori for “The Place of Adorning” is a highly active geothermal area most notable for its series of fault-stepped The Wairakei field was lost to a geothermal power plant in 1958. Wairakei is the name of a power station small settlement and a geothermal area a few kilometres north of Taupo, in the centre of the North Island The Taupo Spa field was lost when the Waikato River level was deliberately altered in the 1950s. The Waikato River is the longest River in New Zealand. In the North Island, it runs for 425 Kilometres from the eastern slopes of Mount The Rotomahana field was destroyed by the Mount Tarawera eruption in 1886. Lake Rotomahana is a small Lake in northern New Zealand, located 25 kilometres to the east of Rotorua. Mount Tarawera is a volcanic Mountain 241 kilometres southeast of Rotorua in the North Island of New Zealand.

Misnamed geysers

There are various other types of geysers which are different in nature compared to the normal steam-driven geysers. These geysers not only differ in their style of eruption but also in the cause that makes them erupt. Such geysers are not true geysers but are yet referred as one as they all emit water under pressure.

Artificial geysers

In a number of places where there is geothermal activity, wells have been drilled and fitted with impermeable casements that allow them to erupt like geysers. Even though the vents of such geysers are artificial, it is tapped into a natural hydrothermal system. Though these are so-called artificial geysers, technically known as erupting geothermal wells, are not true geysers. Little Old Faithful Geyser, in Calistoga, California, is probably an example of it. Calistoga is a city in Napa County, California, United States. The geyser erupts from the casing of the a well drilled in the late 1800s. According to Dr. John Rinehart in his book A Guide to Geyser Gazing (1976 p. 49), a man had drilled into the geyser in search for water. He had actually "simply opened up a dead geyser". ^[21]

Cold-water geysers

Cold-water geysers' eruption is similar to their hot water counterparts, except that CO₂ bubbles drive the eruption instead of steam. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single In cold-water geysers, CO₂-laden water lies in a confined aquifer, in which water and CO₂ are trapped by less permeable overlying strata. This water and CO₂ can escape this strata only weak regions like faults, joints, or drilled wells. A drilled borehole provides an escape for the pressurized water and CO₂ to reach the surface. The magnitude and frequency of such eruptions depend on various factors such as plumbing depth, CO₂ concentrations, aquifer yield etc. The column of water exerts enough pressure on the gaseous CO₂ so that it remains in the water in small bubbles. When the pressure decreases due to formation of a fissure, the CO₂ bubbles expand. This expansion dispaces the water and causes the eruption. The appearance of cold-water geysers may be quite similar to their steam-driven counterparts; however, often CO₂-laden water is more white and frothy. ^[22] The best known of these is probably Crystal Geyser, near Green River, Utah. Crystal Geyser is located on the east bank of the Green River approximately 4 Green River is a city in Emery and Grand Counties in the US state of Utah. . ^[23] There are also two cold-water geysers in Germany: Brubbel and Geysir Andernach.

A perpetual spouter is a natural hot spring that spouts water constantly without stopping for recharge. Some of these are incorrectly called geysers, but because they are not periodic in nature they are not considered true geysers. ^[24]

Commercial uses of geysers

Geysers are used for various activities such as electricity generation, heating and tourism. Tourism is Travel for Recreational or Leisure purposes The World Tourism Organization defines tourists as people who "travel Many geothermal reserves are found all around the world. Geysers in Iceland are one of the most commercially viable geyser location in the world. Since 1920's hot water directed from the geysers have been used to heat greenhouses and used to grow food that could not have been cultivated in Iceland's inhospitable climate. ^[25] Steam and hot water from the geysers has also been used for heating homes since 1943 in Iceland. In 1979 the U. S. Department of Energy (DOE) actively promoted development of geothermal energy in the Geysers-Calistoga Known Geothermal Resource Area (KGRA) through a variety of research programs and the Geothermal Loan Guarantee Program and was thus obligated by law to assess its potential environmental impacts. ^[26]

Nitrogen geysers on Triton

Main article: Cryovolcano

One of the great surprises of the Voyager 2 flyby of Neptune in 1989 was the discovery of geysers on its moon, Triton. A cryovolcano is literally an Icy Volcano. Cryovolcanoes form on Icy moons and possibly on other low- Temperature Astronomical objects Voyager 2 is an unmanned Interplanetary Spacecraft launched on August 20, 1977. Neptune ( English|AmE] ] is the eighth and farthest Planet from the Sun in the Solar System. TemplateInfobox Planet.--> Triton (ˈtraɪtən, or as in Greek Astronomers noticed dark plumes rising to some 8 km above the surface,and depositing material up to 150 km downstream. ,^[27]

All the geysers observed were located between 50° and 57°S, the part of Triton's surface close to the subsolar point. The subsolar point on a Planet is where its Sun is perceived to be directly overhead (in Zenith) This indicates that solar heating, although very weak at Triton's great distance from the Sun, probably plays a crucial role. It is thought that the surface of Triton probably consists of a semi-transparent layer of frozen nitrogen white in colour, which creates a kind of greenhouse effect, heating the frozen material beneath it until it breaks the surface in an eruption. In Optics, transparency (also called pellucidity) is the Material property of allowing Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 The Greenhouse effect refers to the change in the Thermal equilibrium temperature of a planet or moon by the presence of an Atmosphere containing gas that absorbs A temperature increase of just 4 K above the ambient surface temperature of 37 K could drive eruptions to the heights observed. The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic But more likely these eruptions are caused by tidal forces. The tidal force is a secondary effect of the Force of Gravity and is responsible for the Tides It arises because the gravitational acceleration experienced ^[28]

Geothermal energy may also be important. Unusually for a major satellite, Triton orbits Neptune in a retrograde orbit—that is, in the opposite direction to Neptune's rotation. Direct motion is the motion of a Planetary body in a direction similar to that of other bodies within its system and is sometimes called prograde motion. This generates tidal forces which are causing Triton's orbit to decay, so that in several billion years time it will reach its Roche limit^[29] with Neptune. Determining the Roche limit The Roche limit depends on the rigidity of the satellite The tidal forces may also generate heat inside Triton, in the same way as Jupiter's gravity generates tidal forces on Io which drive its extreme volcanic activity. TemplateInfobox Planet.--> Io (ˈaɪoʊ, or as Greek ^[28]

Each eruption of a Triton geyser may last up to a year, and during this time about 0. 1 cubic kilometres (100,000,000,000 l) of material may be deposited downwind. CM3 redirects here If you were looking for the 3rd game in the Cooking Mama series abbreviated as CM3 see here. The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of Volume. Voyager's images of Triton's southern hemisphere show many streaks of dark material laid down by geyser activity. ^[28]

Notes

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External links

• Geysers and How They Work by Yellowstone National Park
• Geyser Observation and Study Association (GOSA)
• Geysers of Yellowstone: Online Videos and Descriptions
• About Geysers by Alan Glennon
• Cold Water Geysers by Alan Glennon
• Geysers, The UnMuseum
• Johnston's Archive Geyser Resources
• The Geology of the Icelandic geysers by Dr. Helgi Torfason, geologist
• Geysers and the Earth's Plumbing Systems by Meg Streepey

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