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| Name, Symbol, Number | germanium, Ge, 32 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Chemical series | metalloids | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Group, Period, Block | 14, 4, p | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Appearance | grayish white |
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| Standard atomic weight | 72.64(1) g·mol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electron configuration | [Ar] 3d10 4s2 4p2 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Electrons per shell | 2, 8, 18, 4 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Physical properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Phase | solid | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Density (near r.t.) | 5. Gallium (ˈgæliəm is a Chemical element that has the symbol Ga and Atomic number 31 Arsenic (ˈɑrsənɪk is a Chemical element that has the symbol As and Atomic number of 33 Silicon (ˈsɪlɪkən or /ˈsɪlɪkɒn/ silicium is the Chemical element that has the symbol Si and Atomic number 14 Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 This is a typical display of the periodic table of the elements and contains the symbol and Atomic number of each element Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This is a list of Chemical elements, sorted by name Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This is a list of chemical elements by symbol, including the A table of Chemical elements ordered by Atomic number and color coded according to type of element In Chemistry a group, also known as a family, is a vertical column in the Periodic table of the Chemical elements There are 18 groups in Metalloid is a term used in Chemistry when classifying the Chemical elements On the basis of their general physical and chemical properties nearly every element In Chemistry a group, also known as a family, is a vertical column in the Periodic table of the Chemical elements There are 18 groups in In the Periodic table of the elements, a period is a horizontal row of the table A block of the Periodic table of elements is a set of adjacent groups The respective highest-energy electrons in each element in a block belong to the same Atomic History Carbon, Tin, and Lead, are a few of the elements well known in the ancient world - together with Sulfur, Iron, A period 4 element is one of the Chemical elements in the fourth row (or period) of the periodic table of the elements. See also Electron configuration The atomic mass (ma is the Mass of an atom most often expressed in unified atomic mass units The atomic mass may be considered to be the total mass To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following list describes various Mass levels between 10&minus36&thinsp kg and 1053&thinspkg In Atomic physics and Quantum chemistry, electron configuration is the arrangement of Electrons in an Atom, Molecule, or other This article pertains to the chemical element For other uses see Argon (disambiguation. The electron is a fundamental Subatomic particle that was identified and assigned the negative charge in 1897 by J An electron shell may be crudely thought of as an Orbit followed by Electrons around an Atom nucleus. In the Physical sciences a phase is a Set of states of a macroscopic physical system that have relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties A solid' object is in the States of matter characterized by resistance to Deformation and changes of Volume. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different Room temperature (also referred to as ambient temperature) is a common term to denote a certain Temperature within enclosed space at which humans are accustomed 323 g·cm−3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Liquid density at m.p. | 5. The density of a material is defined as its Mass per unit Volume: \rho = \frac{m}{V} Different materials usually have different The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to Liquid. 60 g·cm−3 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Melting point | 1211. The melting point of a solid is the temperature range at which it changes state from solid to Liquid. 40 K (938. The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic 25 °C, 1720. The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. 85 °F) |
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| Boiling point | 3106 K (2833 °C, 5131 °F) |
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| Heat of fusion | 36. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 The boiling point of a liquid is the temperature at which the Vapor pressure of the liquid equals the environmental pressure surrounding the liquid The kelvin (symbol K) is a unit increment of Temperature and is one of the seven SI base units The Kelvin scale is a thermodynamic The Celsius Temperature scale was previously known as the centigrade scale. Fahrenheit is a temperature scale named after Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit (1686–1736 a German Physicist who proposed it in 1724 The standard Enthalpy of fusion (symbol \Delta{}H_{fus} also known as the heat of fusion or specific melting heat, is the amount of 94 kJ·mol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Heat of vaporization | 334 kJ·mol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Specific heat capacity | (25 °C) 23. The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material The enthalpy of vaporization, (symbol \Delta{}_{v}H also known as the heat of vaporization or heat of evaporation, is the Energy required The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material Specific heat capacity, also known simply as specific heat, is the measure of the heat energy required to increase the Temperature of a unit quantity 222 J·mol−1·K−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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| Atomic properties | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Crystal structure | Face-centered cubic | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Oxidation states | 4, 2,[1] (amphoteric oxide) |
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| Electronegativity | 2. Vapor pressure (also known as equilibrium vapor pressure or saturation vapor pressure) is the Pressure of a Vapor in equilibrium In Mineralogy and Crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of Atoms in a Crystal. The cubic crystal system (or isometric) is a Crystal system where the Unit cell is in the shape of a Cube. In Chemistry, the oxidation state is an indicator of the degree of Oxidation of an Atom in a Chemical compound. " Electronegativity " is the opposite of " Electropositivity," which describes an element's ability to donate electrons 01 (Pauling scale) | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Ionization energies (more) |
1st: 762 kJ·mol−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 2nd: 1537. The ionization potential, ionization energy or EI of an Atom or Molecule is the Energy required to remove an Electron These tables list the Ionization energy in kJ/mol necessary to remove one mole of Electrons from one mole of neutral gaseous Atoms (first energy respectively The joule per mole (symbol J·mol-1 is an SI derived unit of energy per amount of material 5 kJ·mol−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| 3rd: 3302. 1 kJ·mol−1 | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Atomic radius | 125 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Atomic radius (calc. Atomic radius, and more generally the size of an atom, is not a precisely defined Physical quantity, nor is it constant in all circumstances A picometre ( American spelling: picometer, symbol pm) is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one trillionth ) | 125 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Covalent radius | 122 pm | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Miscellaneous | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Magnetic ordering | Diamagnetic | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thermal conductivity | (300 K) 60. The covalent radius, r cov is a measure of the size of Atom which forms part of a Covalent bond. In Physics, magnetism is one of the Phenomena by which Materials exert attractive or repulsive Forces on other Materials. Diamagnetism is the property of an object which causes it to create a magnetic field in opposition of an externally applied Magnetic field, thus causing a repulsive effect In Physics, thermal conductivity, k is the property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct Heat. 2 W·m−1·K−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Thermal expansion | (25 °C) 6. When the Temperature of a substance changes the energy that is stored in the Intermolecular bonds between atoms changes 0 µm·m−1·K−1 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Speed of sound (thin rod) | (20 °C) 5400 m/s | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Mohs hardness | 6. Sound is a vibration that travels through an elastic medium as a Wave. The Mohs scale of mineral hardness characterizes the scratch resistance of various Minerals through the ability of a harder material to scratch a softer material 0 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| CAS registry number | 7440-56-4 | ||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
| Selected isotopes | |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||
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Germanium (pronounced /dʒɚˈmeɪniəm/) is a chemical element with the symbol Ge and atomic number 32. A year (from Old English gēr) is the time between two recurrences of an event related to the Orbit of the Earth around the Sun In the process of Beta decay, unstable nuclei decay by converting a Neutron in the nucleus to a Proton and emitting an Electron and an electron Selenium (səˈliniəm is a Chemical element with the Atomic number 34 represented by the chemical symbol Se, an atomic mass of 78 Recommended values for many properties of the elements together with various references are collected on these data pages A chemical element is a type of Atom that is distinguished by its Atomic number; that is by the number of Protons in its nucleus. See also List of elements by atomic number In Chemistry and Physics, the atomic number (also known as the proton This lustrous, hard, silver-white metalloid is chemically similar to tin. Metalloid is a term used in Chemistry when classifying the Chemical elements On the basis of their general physical and chemical properties nearly every element Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Germanium forms a large number of organometallic compounds and is an important semiconductor material used in transistors. Organometallic chemistry is the study of Chemical compounds containing bonds between Carbon and a Metal. A semiconductor' is a Solid material that has Electrical conductivity in between a conductor and an insulator; it can vary over that In Electronics, a transistor is a Semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals It is named after the country of Germany. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.
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Notable characteristics
Germanium is a hard, grayish-white element that has a metallic luster and the same crystal structure as diamond. In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in Germanium is a semiconductor. A semiconductor' is a Solid material that has Electrical conductivity in between a conductor and an insulator; it can vary over that In its pure state, this metalloid is crystalline, brittle, and retains its lustre in air at room temperature. In Materials science, a crystal is a Solid in which the constituent Atoms Molecules or Ions are packed in a regularly ordered repeating Lustre (or luster) is a description of the way light interacts with the surface of a Crystal, rock, or Mineral. Zone refining techniques have led to the production of crystalline germanium for semiconductors that have an impurity of only one part in 1010. Zone melting is a method of separation by melting in which a molten zone traverses a long Ingot of impure metal or chemical A semiconductor' is a Solid material that has Electrical conductivity in between a conductor and an insulator; it can vary over that Along with silicon, gallium, bismuth, antimony, and water, it is one of the few substances that expands as it solidifies (i. Silicon (ˈsɪlɪkən or /ˈsɪlɪkɒn/ silicium is the Chemical element that has the symbol Si and Atomic number 14 Gallium (ˈgæliəm is a Chemical element that has the symbol Ga and Atomic number 31 Bismuth (ˈbɪzməθ is a Chemical element that has the symbol Bi and Atomic number 83 Antimony (IPA (Received Pronunciation, /ˈæntɪmoʊni/ (US is a Chemical element with the symbol Sb (stibium meaning "mark" and Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. e. freezes) from its molten state. For freezing as a method of food preservation see Frozen food. Germanium releases high energy electrons if bombarded with alpha particles and is used in combination with radon for the nuclear batteries patented by Bruce Perreault.
History
In 1871, germanium (Latin Germania for Germany) was one of the elements that Dmitri Mendeleev predicted to exist as a missing analogue of the silicon group (Mendeleev called it "ekasilicon"). Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev (sometimes spelled Mendeleyev; Дми́трий Ива́нович Менделе́ев) ( &ndash) was a Russian chemist and Professor Dmitri Mendeleev published the first Periodic Table of the Atomic Elements in 1869 based on properties which appeared with some regularity as he laid out the elements For other uses see Analog (disambiguation. In Chemistry, analogs or analogues are compounds in which one or Silicon (ˈsɪlɪkən or /ˈsɪlɪkɒn/ silicium is the Chemical element that has the symbol Si and Atomic number 14 Professor Dmitri Mendeleev published the first Periodic Table of the Atomic Elements in 1869 based on properties which appeared with some regularity as he laid out the elements The existence of this element was proven by Clemens Winkler in 1886. Clemens Alexander Winkler ( December 26, 1838 - October 8, 1904) was a German chemist who discovered the element Germanium in Year 1886 ( MDCCCLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common This discovery was an important confirmation of Mendeleev's idea of element periodicity.
| Property | Ekasilicon | Germanium |
|---|---|---|
| atomic mass (amu) | 72 | 72. 64 |
| density (g/cm³) | 5. 5 | 5. 35 |
| boiling point (°C) | high | 947 |
| color | grey | grey |
The development of the germanium transistor opened the door to countless applications of solid state electronics. Solid-state Electronic components devices and systems are based entirely on the Semiconductor, such as Transistors Microprocessor chips and From 1950 through the early 1970s, this area provided an increasing market for germanium, but then high purity silicon began replacing germanium in transistors, diodes, and rectifiers. Year 1950 ( MCML) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This article is about the Decade 1970-1979 For the Year 1970 see 1970. Silicon (ˈsɪlɪkən or /ˈsɪlɪkɒn/ silicium is the Chemical element that has the symbol Si and Atomic number 14 Dioden2jpg|thumb|right|150px|Figure 2 Various semiconductor diodes A rectifier is an electrical device that converts Alternating current (AC to Direct current (DC a process known as rectification. Silicon has superior electrical properties, but requires much higher purity samples—a purity which could not be commercially achieved in the early days. Meanwhile, demand for germanium in fiber optics communication networks, infrared night vision systems, and polymerization catalysts increased dramatically. An optical fiber (or fibre) is a Glass or Plastic fiber that carries Light along its length Night vision is the ability to see in a dark environment Whether by biological or technological means night vision is made possible by a combination of two approaches sufficient In Polymer chemistry, polymerization is a process of reacting Monomer Molecules together in a Chemical reaction to form three-dimensional networks Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a Chemical reaction is increased by means of a Chemical substance known as a catalyst These end uses represented 85% of worldwide germanium consumption for 2000. 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Germanium differs from silicon in that the supply of silicon is only limited by production capacity, while that for germanium is limited by the shortage of exploitable sources.
Applications
One of the leading uses for germanium is as a replacement for silica in the stationary phase in chromatography. GeO2 is an isostructural analogue of SiO2 and is compatible with the silica network present in the silica stationary phase.
Unlike most semiconductors, germanium has a small band gap, allowing it to efficiently respond to infrared light. In Solid state physics and related applied fields a band gap, also called an energy gap or bandgap, is an energy range in a solid where no electron states Infrared ( IR) radiation is Electromagnetic radiation whose Wavelength is longer than that of Visible light, but shorter than that of It is therefore used in infrared spectroscopes and other optical equipment which require extremely sensitive infrared detectors. A spectrometer is an Optical instrument used to measure properties of Light over a specific portion of the Electromagnetic spectrum, typically used Its oxide's index of refraction and dispersion properties make germanium useful in wide-angle camera lenses and in microscope objective lenses. The refractive index (or index of Refraction) of a medium is a measure for how much the speed of light (or other waves such as sound waves is reduced inside the medium A camera is a device used to capture images either as still Photographs or as sequences of moving images ( Movies or Videos. A microscope ( Greek: ( micron) = small + ( skopein) = to look or see is an instrument for viewing objects that are
Germanium transistors are still used in some effects pedals by musicians who wish to reproduce the distinctive tonal character of the "fuzz"-tone from the early rock and roll era, most notably the Dallas Arbiter Fuzz Face. An effects pedal (or a " Stomp Box " is an electronic Effects unit housed in a small metal or plastic chassis used by musicians usually Electric A fuzzbox (or fuzz box) is a type of Effects pedal comprising an amplifier and a clipping circuit which generates a distorted version of the Rock and roll (also known as rock 'n' roll) is a form of Music that evolved in the United States in the late 1940s and early 1950s with roots in mostly African Dallas Arbiter is a company formed by the merger of John E Dallas and Sons musical instrument company and Arbiter Electronics The Fuzz Face is an Effects pedal used mainly by electric guitarists and by some bass players Vintage effects pedals known to contain germanium transistors have shown marked increases in collector value for this reason alone.
Germanium is a highly important infra-red optical material and can be readily cut and polished into lenses and windows. Infrared ( IR) radiation is Electromagnetic radiation whose Wavelength is longer than that of Visible light, but shorter than that of It is used particularly as the front optic in thermal imaging cameras working in the 8 to 14 micron wavelength range for passive thermal imaging and for hot-spot detection in military and fire fighting applications. The material has a very high refractive index (4. The refractive index (or index of Refraction) of a medium is a measure for how much the speed of light (or other waves such as sound waves is reduced inside the medium 0) and so needs to be anti-reflection coated. Particularly, a very hard special antireflection coating of diamond-like carbon (DLC), refractive index 2. Diamond-like carbon (DLC exists in seven different forms of Amorphous carbon materials that display some of the unique properties of natural Diamond. 0, is a good match and produces a diamond-hard surface that can withstand much environmental rough treatment.
The alloy silicon germanide (commonly referred to as "silicon-germanium", or SiGe) is rapidly becoming an important semiconductor material, for use in high speed integrated circuits. SiGe (ˈsɪɡɪː ˈsaɪdʒɪ or silicon-germanium, is a general term for the Alloy Si1-xGex which consists of any molar ratio of Silicon Circuits utilising the properties of Si-SiGe junctions can be much faster than those using silicon alone.
Other uses:
- Alloying agent (see below)
- Phosphor in fluorescent lamps
- High purity germanium single crystal detectors can precisely identify radiation sources, e. An alloy is a Solid solution or Homogeneous mixture of two or more elements, at least one of which is a Metal, which itself has A fluorescent lamp or fluorescent tube is a Gas-discharge lamp that uses Electricity to excite mercury Vapor. g. , for airport security
- Germanium substrate wafers for high-efficiency multi-junction solar cells for space applications
Certain compounds of germanium have low toxicity to mammals, but have toxic effects against certain bacteria. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have This property makes these compounds useful as chemotherapeutic agents.
Germanium is useful for single crystal neutron or synchrotron X-ray monochromator for beamlines. A single crystal, also called monocrystal, is a Crystalline Solid in which the Crystal lattice of the entire sample is continuous and unbroken The term "Neutron Scattering" encompasses all scientific techniques whereby the deflection of Neutron radiation is used as a scientific probe This article is mostly concerned with applications of Synchrotron radiation. A crystal Monochromator is a device in neutron and X-ray optics to select a defined Wavelength of the radiation for further purpose on a The reflectivity has advantages over silicon in neutron and High energy X-ray applications. High Energy X-rays or HEX-rays are very hard X-rays, with 80 KeV - 1000 KeV typically one order of magnitude higher in energy than conventional
Crystals of high purity germanium are used in detectors for gamma spectroscopy and the search for dark matter. A semiconductor detector is a device that uses a semiconductor (usually Silicon or Germanium) to detect Gamma spectroscopy involves the Spectroscopy of Radionuclides. In Physics and cosmology, dark matter is hypothetical Matter that does not interact with the electromagnetic force but whose presence can be inferred from
In recent years germanium has seen increasing use in precious metal alloys. In sterling silver alloys, for instance, it has been found to reduce firescale, increase tarnish resistance, and increase the alloy's response to precipitation hardening (see Argentium sterling silver). Sterling silver is an Alloy of Silver containing 925% pure silver and 7 Firescale, also known as firestain is a red or purple stain that appears on mixtures of Silver and Copper, such as Sterling silver. Argentium Sterling Silver is a modern Sterling silver alloy which modifies the traditional sterling silver alloy (92
Value
In 1998 the cost of germanium was about US$1. Year 1998 ( MCMXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full 1998 Gregorian calendar) The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been 70 per gram. For other uses of the words gram or gramme see Gram (disambiguation. The year-end price for zone-refined germanium had (generally) decreased since then until 2005 when prices began to increase. [2][3][4][5][6][7]:
-
- 1999. . . . . $1,400 per kilogram (or $1. 40 per gram)
- 2000. . . . . $1,250 per kilogram (or $1. 25 per gram)
- 2001. . . . . $890 per kilogram (or $0. 89 per gram)
- 2002. . . . . $620 per kilogram (or $0. 62 per gram)
- 2003. . . . . $380 per kilogram (or $0. 38 per gram)
- 2004. . . . . $600 per kilogram (or $0. 60 per gram)
- 2005. . . . . $660 per kilogram (or $0. 66 per gram)
- 2006. . . . . $880 per kilogram (or $0. 88 per gram)
- 2007. . . . . $1240 per kilogram (or $1. 24 per gram)
Compounds
Some inorganic germanium compounds include Germanium tetrahydride (GeH4), germanium tetrachloride (GeCl4), and Germanium dioxide (germania) (GeO2). Traditionally inorganic compounds are considered to be of mineral not biological origin Germane is the Chemical compound with the formula Ge[[hydrogen H4]] Germanium tetrachloride is a colourless liquid used as an intermediate in the production of purified germanium metal Germanium dioxide, also called germanium oxide and germania, is an Inorganic compound, an Oxide of Germanium. The dioxide exhibts the unusual property of having a high refractive index for visible light, but transparent to infrared light. Infrared ( IR) radiation is Electromagnetic radiation whose Wavelength is longer than that of Visible light, but shorter than that of Some organic compounds of germanium include tetramethylgermane (Ge(CH3)4) and tetraethylgermane (Ge(C2H5)4). Organometallic chemistry is the study of Chemical compounds containing bonds between Carbon and a Metal. The organogermanium compound isobutylgermane ((CH3)2CHCH2GeH3), was reported as the less hazardous liquid substitute for toxic germane gas in semiconductor applications. Isobutylgermane (IBGe (CH32CHCH2GeH3 is a Germanium -containing liquid MOVPE ( Metalorganic Vapor Phase Epitaxy Germane is the Chemical compound with the formula Ge[[hydrogen H4]] A semiconductor' is a Solid material that has Electrical conductivity in between a conductor and an insulator; it can vary over that Germanium also occurs in the III oxidation state, but only in the Ge26+ cation. [8]
- See also
- Category:Germanium compounds
- Germane
- Germanide
Properties
Pure germanium is known to spontaneously extrude very long screw dislocations, referred to as germanium whiskers. Germane is the Chemical compound with the formula Ge[[hydrogen H4]] In Materials science, a dislocation is a Crystallographic defect, or irregularity within a Crystal structure. The growth of these whiskers is one of the primary reasons for the failure of older diodes and transistors made from germanium, as, depending on what they end up touching, they may lead to an electrical short.
FDA research has concluded that germanium, when used as a nutritional supplement, "presents potential human health hazard". [9]
References
- ^ Germanium: germanium(II) chloride compound data. WebElements. com. Retrieved on 2007-12-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V
- ^ "Germanium" (January 2003). U. S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries: 2. [1].
- ^ "Germanium" (January 2004). U. S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries: 2. [2].
- ^ "Germanium" (January 2005). U. S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries: 2. [3].
- ^ "Germanium" (January 2006). U. S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries: 2. [4].
- ^ "Germanium" (January 2007). U. S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries: 2. [5].
- ^ Gerald R. Smith (January 2008). "MINERAL COMMODITY SUMMARIES 2008". U. S. Geological Survey Mineral Commodity Summaries: 202. [6].
- ^ Germanium: germanium(III) hydride compound data. WebElements. com. Retrieved on 2007-12-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1041 - Empress Zoe of Byzantium elevates her adoptive son to the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire as Michael V
- ^ Tao, S. H. and Bolger, P. M. (June 1997). "Hazard Assessment of Germanium Supplements". Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 25 (3): 211-219.
External links
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