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The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918, when it was a semi-constitutional monarchy: beginning with the unification of Germany and proclamation of William I of Prussia as German Emperor (January 18, 1871), effectively ending with the proclamation of the German republic by Philipp Scheidemann (November 9, 1918) and formally ending with the abdication of William II (November 28, 1918). A currency is a unit of exchange, facilitating the transfer of Goods and/or services It is one form of Money, where money is The Goldmark (officially just Mark) is the name used for the currency of the German Empire from 1873 to 1914 The name Papiermark (paper mark is applied to the German currency from the point in 1914 when the link between the Mark and gold was abandoned due to the outbreak A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is The unification of Germany took place on January 18, 1871, when Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck managed to unify a number of independent The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising This article lists the German monarchs, ruling over the territory of Germany from the creation of a separate Eastern Frankish Kingdom in 843 until the end of monarchy Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 Philipp Scheidemann ( 26 July 1865 &ndash 29 November 1939) was a German Social Democratic politician who proclaimed the Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common For the town in Argentina, see 28 de Noviembre. Events Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The most important bordering states were the Russian Empire in the east, France in the west, and Austria-Hungary in the south. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe
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Name
The official name used to describe Germany from 1871 to 1943 in German was the Deutsches Reich,[3][4] while the German term Deutsches Kaiserreich was used unofficially to describe Germany specifically during the 1871–1918 period. Deutsches Reich was the name for Germany from 1871 to 1945 in the German language. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. The direct translation of Deutsches Reich into English is "German Empire", although the German word "Reich" can have non-imperial connotations similar to the English "commonwealth", "realm" or "domain". English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States (ˈraɪk German ˈʁaɪç is a German Loanword cognate with the English Reign, Region, and Rich, but used most to designate The English noun commonwealth dates from the fifteenth century. A realm (rɛlm is the dominion of a monarch king queen emperor empress or other sovereign ruler In the Feudal system demesne (also spelled desmesne pronounced /dəmeɪn/ or /dəmiːn/; via Old French demeine from Latin dominium) was all the land The full English translation to "German Empire" and the part-translation German Reich was officially used to describe Germany during the 47 years of Hohenzollern rule,[5] while only "German Reich" was used in English from 1918 to 1943. Deutsches Reich was the name for Germany from 1871 to 1945 in the German language. During the whole 1871–1943 period, the German Reich was also known as simply Germany.
The term Second Reich (Zweites Reich) is sometimes applied retrospectively to this period. The term was popularised by German nationalist historian Arthur Moeller van den Bruck in the 1920s, and drew an explicit link with the earlier Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation (the "First Reich"), as well as underlining his desire for the establishment of a "Third Reich". Arthur Moeller van den Bruck ( April 23, 1876 &ndash May 30, 1925) was a German cultural historian and writer best known for his controversial The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in [6] This term was subsequently adopted during the time of Nazi rule for propaganda purposes - and therefore its use among historians after World War II has generally been discouraged, as many consider it to give legitimacy to Nazi historiography. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including
Bismarck's founding of the empire
Under the guise of idealism giving way to realism, German nationalism rapidly shifted from its liberal and democratic character in 1848 to Prussian prime minister Otto von Bismarck's authoritarian realpolitik. The unification of Germany took place on January 18, 1871, when Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck managed to unify a number of independent The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) Realpolitik ( German: de real “realistic” “practical” or “actual” and de Politik “politics” refers to politics or diplomacy based primarily Bismarck wanted to unify the rival German states to achieve his aim of a conservative, Prussian-dominated Germany. Three wars led to military successes and helped to convince German people to do this: the Second war of Schleswig against Denmark in 1864, the Austro-Prussian War against Austria in 1866, and the Franco-Prussian War against the Second French Empire in 1870–71. The First Schleswig War occurred in 1848–1851. The Second Schleswig War (2 The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe The Austro-Prussian For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second During the Siege of Paris in 1871, the North German Confederation, supported by its allies from southern Germany, formed the German Empire with the proclamation of the Prussian king Wilhelm I as German Emperor in the Hall of Mirrors at the Palace of Versailles, to the humiliation of the French, who ceased to resist only days later. The Siege of Paris, lasting from September 19, 1870 &ndash January 28, 1871, brought about French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of German dialectal mapPNG|right|thumb|200px|Southern Germany roughly corresponds to the area of Germany south of the Speyer line where Upper German dialects are spoken The Palace of Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal Château in Versailles, in France 's Île-de-France region
Bismarck himself prepared a broad outline—the 1866 North German Constitution, which became the 1871 Constitution of the German Empire with some adjustments. The North German Constitution was the Constitution of the The Constitution of the German Empire was the basic law of the German Empire of 1871-1919 Germany acquired some democratic features. The new empire had a parliament with two houses. The lower house, or Reichstag, was elected by universal male suffrage. The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, Universal suffrage (also universal adult suffrage, general suffrage or common suffrage) consists of the extension of the right to vote to However, the original constituencies drawn in 1871 were never redrawn to reflect the growth of urban areas. As a result, by the time of the great expansion of German cities in the 1890s and 1900s, rural areas were grossly overrepresented.
Legislation also required the consent of the Bundesrat, the federal council of deputies from the states. The Bundesrat ("federal council" or "upper house of German parliament" is the representation of the 16 Federal States ( Bundesländer) of Executive power was vested in the emperor, or Kaiser, who was assisted by a chancellor responsible only to him. The Head of government of Germany is called Chancellor (Kanzler Officially, the chancellor was a one-man cabinet and was responsible for the conduct of all state affairs; in practice, the State Secretaries (bureaucratic top officials in charge of such fields as finance, war, foreign affairs, etc. A cabinet is a body of high-ranking members of Government, typically representing the executive branch. Secretary of State is a commonly used title for a Government Official. ) acted as unofficial portfolio ministers. While the Reichstag had the power to pass, amend or reject bills, it could not initiate legislation. The power of initiating legislation rested with the chancellor.
Although nominally a league of equals, in practice the empire was dominated by the largest and most powerful state, Prussia. It contained three-fifths of Germany's territory and two-thirds of its population. The imperial crown was hereditary in the House of Hohenzollern, the kings of Prussia. With the exception of the years 1872–1873 and 1892–1894, the chancellor was always simultaneously the prime minister of Prussia. With 17 out of 58 votes in the Bundesrat, Berlin needed only a few votes from the small states to exercise effective control. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany.
While the other states retained their own governments, the military forces of the smaller states were put under Prussian control, while those of the larger states such as the Kingdoms of Bavaria and Saxony were coordinated along Prussian principles and would in wartime be controlled by the federal government. The Kingdom of Bavaria (Königreich Bayern was a German state that existed from 1806&ndash1918 The Kingdom of Saxony (Königreich Sachsen lasting between 1806 and 1918 was an independent member of a number of historical confederacies in Napoleonic through post-Napoleonic Although authoritarian in many respects, the empire permitted the development of political parties.
Left, on the podium (in black): Crown Prince Frederick (later Frederick III), his father Emperor William I, and Frederick I of Baden, proposing a toast to the new emperor. Frederick III (German Friedrich Wilhelm Nikolaus Karl, English Frederick William Nicholas Charles; October 18 1831 – June 15 1888 (German Friedrich FrederikIBjpg|thumb|right|150px|Grand Duke Friedrich I of Baden by Hans Thoma]] Grand Duke Friedrich I of Baden (Frederick Wilhelm Ludwig ( September 9 1826
Centre (in white): Otto von Bismarck, first Chancellor of Germany, Helmuth von Moltke the Elder, Prussian Chief of Staff
The evolution of the German Empire is somewhat in line with parallel developments in Italy which became a united nation state shortly before the German Empire. Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) Helmuth Karl Bernhard Graf After the Franco-Prussian War Moltke superintended the preparation of its history which was published between 1874 and 1881 by the great general staff Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Some key elements of the German Empire's authoritarian political structure were also the basis for conservative modernization in Imperial Japan under Tokugawa and the preservation of an authoritarian political structure under the Tsars in the Russian Empire. The Empire of Japan ( {{unicode|Kyūjitai}}: ja 大日本帝國 Shinjitai: ja 大日本帝国 pronounced Dai Nippon Teikoku The Tokugawa shogunate, also known as the, and the, was a feudal regime of Japan established by Tokugawa Ieyasu and ruled by the Shoguns of Tsar csar and tzar redirect here For other uses see Tsar (disambiguation.
One factor in the social anatomy of these governments had been the retention of a very substantial share in political power by the landed elite, the Junkers, due to the absence of a revolutionary breakthrough by the peasants in combination with urban areas. Landed property or landed estates is a Real estate term that usually refers to a property that generates income for the owner without the owner having to Junkers (English pronunciation ə German pronunciation kɐ were the Landed nobility of Prussia and eastern Germany.
Bismarck's intention was to create a constitutional façade which would mask the continuation of authoritarian policies. In the process, he created a system with a serious flaw. There was a significant disparity between the Prussian and German electoral systems. Prussia used a highly restrictive three-class voting system in which the richest third of the population could choose 85 percent of the legislature, all but assuring a conservative majority. After the 1848 revolutions in the German states, the Prussian three-class franchise system ( Dreiklassenwahlrecht) was introduced in 1849 by the As mentioned above, the king and (with two exceptions) the prime minister of Prussia were also the emperor and chancellor of the empire--meaning that the same rulers had to seek majorities from legislatures elected from completely different franchises.
Germany emerges as an industrial power
Under the domination of Prussia and Bismarck, Germany had emerged as a nation and as a world power. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The kings of Saxony and Bavaria, the princes, dukes and electors, Brunswick, Baden, Hanover, Mecklenburg, Württemberg, Oldenburg, all paid allegiance to the king of Prussia, the Kaiser. The Free State of Saxony (Freistaat Sachsen ˈzaksən Swobodny Stat Sakska is the easternmost federal state of Germany. Bavaria ( German:, with an area of 70553 Km² (27241 square miles and almost 12 Brunswick (Braunschweig was a historical state in Germany. Originally the territory of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in the Holy Roman Empire, it was established Baden is a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. Hanover (i ( haˈnoːfɐ on the river Leine, is the capital of the federal state of Lower Saxony ( Niedersachsen Mecklenburg ( Low German: Mekelnborg) is a region in northern Germany comprising the western and larger part of the federal state Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Württemberg, formerly known as Wirtemberg, is an area and a former state in Swabia, a region in southwestern Germany. ||-||-||-||} Oldenburg ( Low German: Ollnborg) is an Independent City in Lower Saxony, Germany. Kaiser is the German title meaning " Emperor " with Kaiserin being the female equivalent " Empress "
In 1871, there were 41 million citizens in German Empire. In 1913 there were nearly 68 million, an increase of more than half. Milions of them had been non-Germans who were opposed to living in German state. And more than half of them were living in towns and cities. But it was not merely an expansion of population. The foundations of economic strength at the turn of the century were steel and coal – Germany had made great strides with both:
- “Steel production multiplied by 12 in 30 years”
- “Coal production multiplied by nearly five in 30 years”
- “Manufactures multiplied by four”
- “Exports multiplied by three”
- “Exports of chemicals multiplied by three”
- “Exports of machinery multiplied by five”
In 30 years, Germany’s share in world trade had risen by a third. Now, in 1914, Germany was, after America, the most powerful industrial nation in the world. The epitome of her industrial might lay in the firm of Krupp. The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their Steel production and for their manufacture of Essen, where the first Krupp factory was built, became by 1902:
“A great city with its own streets, its own police force, fire department and traffic laws. Essen (ˈɛsən is a City in the center of the Ruhr Area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. There are 150 kilometres of rail, 60 different factory buildings, 8,500 machine tools, seven electrical stations, 140 kilometres of underground cable and 46 overhead. ”
Germany delighted in the prowess of Krupp’s. When Alfred Krupp died in that year, the Kaiser attended his lavish funeral and called him “a German of the Germans. ” In 1914, the firm employed 80,000 workers. They lived in Krupp houses, their babies were delivered by Krupp doctors, their children educated in Krupp schools, they bought at Krupp stores, borrowed books from Krupp libraries, married in the Krupp church and were buried in the Krupp cemetery. Under Bismarck, Germany had come closer than any other state to modern conceptions of social welfare. German workers enjoyed sickness, accident and maternity benefits, canteens and changing rooms and a national pension scheme before these were even thought of in more liberal countries. Yet the life of the workers was hard. The steel mills operated a 12-hour day and an 80-hour week. Neither rest nor holidays were guaranteed. In Germany, as in every industrial state, there was poverty and protest.
By 1912, the Marxist Social Democratic Party was the strongest party in the Reichstag, the German parliament. The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, But the Reichstag did not rule Germany. The Kaiser ruled Germany through officials whom he personally appointed. “No one,” said Winston Churchill, “should judge Kaiser Wilhelm II without asking the question, ‘What should I have done in this position?’” “Imagine yourself brought up to believe that you were appointed by God to be the ruler of a mighty nation. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC, PC (Can ( 30 November 1874 Imagine succeeding in your twenties to the prizes of Bismarck’s three victorious wars. Imagine feeling the magnificent German race bounding beneath you in ever-swelling numbers, strength, wealth and ambition. And imagine on every side the thunderous tributes of the crowds and the skilled, unceasing flattery of the court.
With this background, subjected to these pressures, trying to hide a left arm withered from birth, for 30 years Wilhelm II vexed and perturbed the peace of Europe – but always short of war. His first public utterance when he came to the throne was addressed not to the people but to the army:
“We belong to each other, I and the army. We were born for each other and will indissolubly cleave to each other. I promise ever to bear in mind that from the world above the eyes of my forefathers look down on me, and that I shall one day have to stand accountably to them for the glory and honour of the army. ”
These were not empty words. The German Kaiser was also the King of Prussia, and it was for the sake of Prussian strength that the other Germany – the Germany of the merchants, the industrialists, the musicians, the philosophers – had accepted her rule. The Prussian influence was seeping in through the whole nation. It was above all a military influence, well described by one of its advocates, General Paul von Hindenburg:
“The army trained and strengthened that mighty organising impulse which we found everywhere in the Fatherland. Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg ( known universally as Paul von Hindenburg ( ( October 2, 1847 &ndash August 2 The conviction that the subordination of the individual to the good of the community was not only a necessity but a positive blessing had gripped the mind of the German army, and through it that of the nation. ”
Constituent states of the empire
Before the German Unification, German territory was made up of 39 constituent states. The unification of Germany took place on January 18, 1871, when Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck managed to unify a number of independent A constituent state is a government that is part of a larger Political entity. These states consisted of kingdoms, grand duchies, duchies, principalities, free Hanseatic cities and one imperial territory. Yet others were created out of annexed territories in Partitions of Poland or in Silesian Wars and contained milions of non-Germans who would represent a continued resistance to German rule enforced on them. The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the The Silesian Wars were a series of wars between Prussia and Austria (and their changing allies for control of Silesia. The Kingdom of Prussia was the largest of the constituent states, covering some 60 percent of the territory of the German Empire. The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising
Several of these states had gained sovereignty following the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in Others were created as sovereign states after the Congress of Vienna in 1815. The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of the major powers of Europe, chaired by the Austrian statesman Clemens Wenzel von Metternich Territories were not necessarily contiguous - many existed in several parts, as a result of historical acquisition, or, in several cases, divisions of the ruling family trees.
| State | Capital | |
|---|---|---|
| Kingdoms (Königreiche) | ||
 |
Prussia (Preußen) | Berlin |
.svg/25px-Flag_of_Bavaria_(striped).svg.png){kind=small} |
Bavaria (Bayern) | Munich |
.svg/25px-Flagge_Königreich_Sachsen_(1815-1918).svg.png){kind=small} |
Saxony (Sachsen) | Dresden |
 |
Württemberg | Stuttgart |
| Grand duchies (Großherzogtümer) | ||
.svg/25px-Flagge_Großherzogtum_Baden_(1871-1891).svg.png){kind=small} |
Baden | Karlsruhe |
 |
Hesse (Hessen) | Darmstadt |
 |
Mecklenburg-Schwerin | Schwerin |
|
Mecklenburg-Strelitz | Neustrelitz |
 |
Oldenburg | Oldenburg |
.svg/25px-Flagge_Großherzogtum_Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach_(1813-1897).svg.png){kind=small} |
Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach) | Weimar |
| Duchies (Herzogtümer) | ||
 |
Anhalt | Dessau |
 |
Brunswick (Braunschweig) | Braunschweig |
.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_(1826-1911).svg.png){kind=small} |
Saxe-Altenburg (Sachsen-Altenburg) | Altenburg |
.svg/25px-Flagge_Herzogtum_Sachsen-Coburg-Gotha_(1911-1920).svg.png){kind=small} |
Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha) | Coburg |
|
Saxe-Meiningen (Sachsen-Meiningen) | Meiningen |
| Principalities (Fürstentümer) | ||
 |
Lippe | Detmold |
 |
Reuss, junior line | Gera |
 |
Reuss, senior line | Greiz |
 |
Schaumburg-Lippe | Bückeburg |
 |
Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt | Rudolstadt |
|
Schwarzburg-Sondershausen | Sondershausen |
.svg/25px-Flag_of_Germany_(2-3).svg.png){kind=small} |
Waldeck-Pyrmont | Arolsen |
| Free Hanseatic cities (Freie Hansestädte) | ||
 |
Bremen | |
 |
Hamburg | |
 |
Lübeck | |
| Imperial territory (Reichsland) | ||
 |
Alsace-Lorraine (Elsaß-Lothringen) | Straßburg |
Each component of the German Empire sent representatives to the Imperial Council (Bundesrat) and the Imperial Diet (Reichstag). The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising The German colonial empire was an overseas area formed in the late 19th century as part of the Hohenzollern dynasty's German Empire. The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. The Kingdom of Bavaria (Königreich Bayern was a German state that existed from 1806&ndash1918 Munich (München; Minga is the capital city of Bavaria, Germany. The Kingdom of Saxony (Königreich Sachsen lasting between 1806 and 1918 was an independent member of a number of historical confederacies in Napoleonic through post-Napoleonic Dresden (etymologically from Old Sorbian Drežďany, meaning people of the riverside forest, Drježdźany is the Capital city of the German The Kingdom of Württemberg (Königreich Württemberg was a state that existed from 1806 to 1918 and is currently located in Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Stuttgart (ˈʃtʊtgaɐ̯t is the capital of the state of Baden-Württemberg in southern Germany. The Grand Duchy of Baden (Großherzogtum Baden was a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. Karlsruhe (ˈkaɐ̯lsʁuːə population 285812 in 2006 is a city in the south west of Germany, in the Bundesland Baden-Württemberg, located near The Grand Duchy of Hesse (Großherzogtum Hessen was a former state that existed in modern-day Germany. Darmstadt is a city in the Bundesland Mecklenburg-Schwerin was a Duchy (from 1815 a Grand duchy) in northern Germany, formed by a partition of the Duchy of Mecklenburg. Schwerin (ʃveˈʁiːn is a City in northern Germany and the capital of the state Mecklenburg-Strelitz was a Duchy and later Grand duchy in northern Germany, roughly consisting of the present day district of Mecklenburg-Strelitz Neustrelitz (nɔʏˈʃtʁeːlɪts is a town in Mecklenburg-Vorpommern, Germany and is the capital of the district of Mecklenburg-Strelitz. Oldenburg ( Low German: Ollnborg) is a historical state in today's Germany named for its capital Oldenburg. ||-||-||-||} Oldenburg ( Low German: Ollnborg) is an Independent City in Lower Saxony, Germany. The Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach (Herzogtum Sachsen-Weimar-Eisenach was created in 1809 by the merger of the Ernestine duchies of Saxe-Weimar and Saxe-Eisenach Weimar (ˈvaɪmaʁ is a City in Germany. It is located in the Bundesland of Thuringia (Thüringen north of the Thüringer Wald, Anhalt is a historical County (after 1806 Duchy) in central Germany, located between the Harz Mountains and the river Elbe Dessau is a town in Germany on the junction of the rivers Mulde and Elbe, in the Bundesland (Federal State of Saxony-Anhalt Brunswick (Braunschweig was a historical state in Germany. Originally the territory of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel in the Holy Roman Empire, it was established Braunschweig, known as Brunswiek in Low German, is a city of 245810 people (as of 31 December 2007 located in Lower Saxony, Germany. Saxe-Altenburg (Sachsen-Altenburg was one of the Saxon duchies held by the Ernestine branch of the Wettin dynasty This article is about the city in Thuringia, Germany. For other uses see Altenburg (disambiguation. Saxe-Coburg and Gotha or Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha served as the name of the two German duchies of Saxe-Coburg and Saxe-Gotha in Coburg is a town located on the Itz River in Bavaria, Germany The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen was one of the Saxon Duchies held by the Ernestine line of the Wettin Dynasty Meiningen is a town in Germany - located in the Southern part of the state of Thuringia and the district seat of Schmalkalden-Meiningen. Lippe and later Lippe-Detmold was a historical state in Germany. Detmold (ˈdɛtmɔlt is a City in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany, with a population of about 74000 The Principality of Reuss Junior Line (Fürstentum Reuß Jüngerer Linie was a state in Germany, ruled by members of the House of Reuss. Gera is the third largest city in the German state of Thuringia after Erfurt, the Thuringian capital The Principality of Reuss Elder Line (Fürstentum Reuß ältere Linie was a state in Germany, ruled by members of the House of Reuss. Greiz is a town in Thuringia, the capital of the district Greiz. Schaumburg-Lippe was a small state in Germany, in the present day state of Lower Saxony, with its capital at Bückeburg. Bückeburg is a small town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It was once the capital of the tiny principality of Schaumburg-Lippe and is today located Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt was a small state in Germany, in the present-day state of Thuringia formed in a resettlement of Schwarzburg dynasty family lands Rudolstadt is a Town in the German Bundesland of Thuringia, close to the Thuringian Forest to the southwest and to Jena Schwarzburg-Sondershausen was a small Principality in Germany in the present day state of Thuringia, with capital at Sondershausen. Sondershausen is a town in Thuringia, Germany, capital of the Kyffhäuserkreis district situated about 50 km north of Erfurt. Waldeck (or later Waldeck and Pyrmont) was a sovereign principality in the German Empire and German Confederation and until 1929 a constituent state of Bad Arolsen (until 1997 Arolsen, Bad being the German name for Spa) is a small town in northern Hesse, Germany, in Waldeck-Frankenberg The Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (German Freie Hansestadt Bremen) is the smallest of Germany's 16 Federal States ( Bundesländer) Hamburg (English, German: ˈhambʊɐk local pronunciation Low German / Low Saxon: Hamborg) is the second-largest city in Germany The Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck was a city-state that existed from 1226 to 1937 in the present-day German states of Schleswig-Holstein and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 Strasbourg (Strasbourg stʁazbuʁ Alsatian: Strossburi,; Straßburg) is the capital and principal City of the Alsace région The Bundesrat ("federal council" or "upper house of German parliament" is the representation of the 16 Federal States ( Bundesländer) of The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, Relations between the Imperial centre and the Empire's components were somewhat fluid, and were developed on an ongoing basis. The extent to which the German Emperor could, for example, intervene on occasions of disputed or unclear succession was much debated on occasion - for example with the Lippe-Detmold inheritance crisis. This article lists the German monarchs, ruling over the territory of Germany from the creation of a separate Eastern Frankish Kingdom in 843 until the end of monarchy Lippe and later Lippe-Detmold was a historical state in Germany.
Bismarck era
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Bismarck's domestic policies played a great role in forging the authoritarian political culture of the Kaiserreich. Despite the lack of a German nation state prior to 1871 the History of Germany dates back to the era of the Germanic tribes. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Migration Period, also called Barbarian Invasions, or sometimes Völkerwanderung ( German for "wandering of peoples" is the English name Francia or Frankia, later also called the Frankish Empire (imperium Francorum Frankish Kingdom (Latin regnum Francorum, "Kingdom of the East ( ern) Francia ( Regnum Francorum orientalium) known variously as Francia Orientalis or the Kingdom of the East Franks, was the The Kingdom of Germany grew out of East Francia in the tenth century The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in This article covers the medieval eastward migrations of Germans de Kleinstaaterei is a German word mainly used for the political situation in Germany and neighbouring regions during the Holy Roman Empire. The Confederation of the Rhine or Rhine Confederation (Rheinbund États confédérés du Rhin officially and Confédération du Rhin in practice) lasted The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to " Germany " at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 had been a collection of 39 States loosely bound together in the German Confederation. The Reichsflotte (Imperial Fleet was the first all- German Navy. The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of The unification of Germany took place on January 18, 1871, when Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck managed to unify a number of independent Deutsches Reich was the name for Germany from 1871 to 1945 in the German language. During World War I, the German Empire was one of the Central Powers that ultimately lost the war The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The history of Germany during World War II closely parallels that of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler. As a consequence of Germany 's defeat in World War II and the onset of the Cold War, the country was split between the two global blocs in the East and West The Allied powers who defeated Nazi Germany in World War II divided the country west of the Oder-Neisse line into four occupation zones for administrative The former eastern territories of Germany (ehemalige deutsche Ostgebiete describes collectively those Provinces or Regions east of the current eastern The expulsion of Germans after World War II was the Forced migration and Ethnic cleansing of German nationals ( Reichsdeutsche) and ethnic West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung took place twice after 1945 first in 1957 the Saarland was permitted to join the Federal Republic of Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. While German -speaking peoples have a long history Germany as a Nation-state dates only from 1871. Background German settlement in Eastern Europe See also History of German settlement in Eastern Europe Part of the motivation behind the territorial This is a timeline of German history. To read about the background to these events see History of Germany. High German Old High German See also Old High German The earliest testimonies of Old High German are from scattered Elder Futhark Less preoccupied by continental power politics following unification in 1871, Germany's semi-parliamentary government carried out a relatively smooth economic and political revolution from above that pushed them along the way towards becoming the world's leading industrial power of the time.
Economy
Industrialization progressed dynamically in Germany and German manufacturers began to capture domestic markets from British imports, and also to compete with British industry abroad, particularly in the United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The German textiles and metal industries had by the beginning of the Franco-Prussian War surpassed those of Britain in organization and technical efficiency and usurped British manufacturers in the domestic market. The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 Germany became the dominant economic power on the continent and was the second largest exporting nation after the US. By the turn of the century, the German metals and engineering industries would be producing heavily for the free trade market of Britain. By the time of World War I (1914–1918) the German economy had switched to supplying its military with the proper equipment needed to fight the war. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All This included the production of rifles (Gewehr 98), pistols (P08 Luger), machine guns (Maxim machine gun), mortars (Minenwerfer), and several other heavy and light artillery pieces. The Gewehr 98 (abbreviated G98 or Gew 98) was the standard German Infantry Rifle from 1898 to 1935 when it was replaced by the Karabiner The Parabellum-Pistole ( Pistol Parabellum) popularly (but incorrectly known as the Luger, is a toggle locked recoil operated, Semi-automatic The Maxim gun was the first self-powered Machine gun, invented by the American-born Briton Sir Hiram Maxim in 1884 Minenwerfer ("mine launcher" is the German name for a class of short range mortars used extensively during the First World War by the German Additionally, Imperial Germany was leading in the sectors of physics and chemistry so that one third of all Nobel Prizes went to German inventors and researchers. The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature
Ideology
After achieving formal unification in 1871, Bismarck devoted much of his attention to the cause of national unity under the ideology of Prussianism. Conservative Catholic activism and emancipation, conceptualized by the conservative turn of the Vatican under Pope Pius IX and its dogma of Papal Infallibility, and working class radicalism, represented by the emerging Social Democratic Party, in many ways both reacted to concerns of dislocation by very different segments of German society, brought by a rapid shift from an agrarian-based economy to modern industrial capitalism under nationalist tutelage. The Holy See is the episcopal jurisdiction of the Bishop of Rome, commonly known as the Pope, and is the preeminent Episcopal see of the Roman Catholic Blessed Pope Pius IX (May 13 1792 &ndash February 7 1878 born Giovanni Maria Mastai-Ferretti, was Pope from June 16 1846 until 1878 Dogma (the plural is either dogmata or dogmas, Greek, plural) is the established Belief or Papal infallibility is the Dogma in Catholic theology that by action of the Holy Spirit, the Pope is preserved from even the possibility of While out-and-out suppression failed to contain either socialists or Catholics, Bismarck's "carrot and stick" approach significantly mollified opposition from both groups.
One can summarize Bismarck's ideology under four objectives: Kulturkampf, social reform, national unification, and Kleindeutschland. The German term (literally "culture struggle" refers to German policies in relation to Secularity and the influence of the Roman Catholic Church, enacted The Kleindeutsche Lösung ("Lesser German Solution" was a 19th century political idea postulating the idea of a unified Germany consisting of the members
Kulturkampf
Following the incorporation of the Catholic German states in the south and some areas in the east, Catholicism, represented by the Catholic Centre Party, was seemingly the principal threat to unification process. The German Centre Party ( Deutsche Zentrumspartei or merely Zentrum) was a Catholic political party in Germany during the Kaiserreich Southern Catholics, hailing from a much more agrarian base and falling under the ranks of the peasantry, artisans, guildsmen, clergy, and princely aristocracies of the small states more often than their Protestant counterparts in the North, initially had trouble competing with industrial efficiency and the opening of outside trade by the Zollverein. The Zollverein or German Customs Union was formed among the majority of the states of the German Confederation in 1834 during the Industrial Revolution Roman Catholic institutions were obstructed and Catholic influence on society was fought by the Bismarck government. After 1878 however, the struggle against socialism would unite Bismarck with the Catholic Centre Party, bringing an end to the Kulturkampf, which had led to far greater Catholic unrest than existed beforehand and had strengthened rather than weakened Catholicism in Germany.
Social reform
To contain the working class and to weaken the influence of socialist groups, Bismarck reluctantly implemented a remarkably advanced welfare state. Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution This article refers specifically to the Welfare state of the United Kingdom. The social security systems installed by Bismarck (health care in 1883, accident insurance in 1884, invalidity and old-age insurance in 1889) at the time were the largest in the world and, to a degree, still exist in Germany today. Hayek argued that these institutions would begin the process towards the rise of the National Socialists [7]
National unification
Bismarck's efforts also initiated the levelling of the enormous differences between the German states, which had been independent in their evolution for centuries, especially with legislation. Hayek is a surname and may refer to Dina Hayek (born 1982 popular Lebanese singer Friedrich Hayek (1899–1992 Austrian-British Legislation (or " Statutory law " is law which has been promulgated (or " Enacted quot by a Legislature or other Governing
Kleindeutschland
Two visions of what the German Empire should territorially comprise were debated during Bismarck's tenure. One vision was of a Großdeutschland (Greater or Large Germany), and the other, preferred by Bismarck, was a Kleindeutschland (Lesser or Small Germany). Großdeutschland ( German for "Greater Germany" or "Large Germany" is a term referring to the concept of one German Nation-state The Kleindeutsche Lösung ("Lesser German Solution" was a 19th century political idea postulating the idea of a unified Germany consisting of the members Großdeutschland then especially espoused by German liberals and Pan-German nationalists was that Germany should be an all-encompassing state for all Germans including Austrian territory (some wanting all of Austro-Hungarian territory, some only wanting German Austrian lands). Pan-Germanism (Pangermanismus or Alldeutsche Bewegung was a political movement of the 19th century aiming for unity of the German -speaking peoples of Europe Kleindeutschland was an idea espoused by Bismarck and Prussian conservatives. While the Kleindeutschland concept included millions of non-Germans (mainly Poles) its believers thought that incorporating all of Austria-Hungary into Germany would result in the destabilization of the German state due to the even greater number of ethnic minorities in Austria-Hungary. Also, the largely Prussian supporters of Kleindeutschland feared that even the incorporation of German Austria alone excluding non-German territory, would weaken Prussia's control over the direction of Germany and substantially increase the number of Roman Catholics in a state which already had tensions with the Protestant north establishment and Catholic south which the state wanted to assimilate. Kleindeutschland was an important element of the German Empire's political affairs and stands in stark contrast to Nazi Germany which claimed itself to be a successor to the German Empire, even though Nazi Germany followed a Pan-German, Großdeutschland approach which dismantled Prussian hegemony in Germany in favour of a centralized and totalitarian state. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Pan-Germanism (Pangermanismus or Alldeutsche Bewegung was a political movement of the 19th century aiming for unity of the German -speaking peoples of Europe
Germanization
One of the effects of the unification policies was the elimination of the use of non-German languages from public life, schools and academic settings with the intent of pressuring the non-German population to abandon their national identity or leave the country in what was called "Germanization". Germanisation (also spelled Germanization) is either the spread of the German language, people and culture either by force or Assimilation The strict Germanization policies had often the reverse effect of stimulating resistance, usually in the form of home schooling and tighter unity in the minority groups.
The Germanization policies were targeted particularly against the significant Polish minority of the empire, gained by Prussia in the Partitions of Poland. After partitioning Poland in the end of 18th century the Kingdom of Prussia and later German Empire imposed a number of Germanisation policies and measures The Partitions of Poland or Partitions of the Polish Lithuanian Commonwealth took place in the second half of the 18th century and ended the existence of the Laws were made that denied Poles the right to build homes in territories acquired in the Partitions of Poland[8], restricted the right to speak Polish in public meetings, and in 1908 a law was made allowing for expulsion of Poles from their homes[8]. A Settlement Commission was set up and funded by the government in 1885, with a mission to distribute Polish owned land among German colonists. Settlement Commission may refer to the Royal Prussian Settlement Commission in the provinces of Posen and West Prussia the Foreign Claims Settlement However, the Poles founded an organization of their own to defend themselves against the German settlement commission. In the 1880s mass expulsion of some 24,000 Poles of Russian citizenship to Russian ruled Congress Poland was organized by German authorities. The Prussian deportations (or Prussian expulsions, rugi pruskie were mass expulsions of Poles (and to a lesser extent Jews) from Prussia Congress Poland Kongresówka, officially and formally Kingdom of Poland (Królestwo Polskie {{IPA-pl|'|p|o|l|s|kʲ|e}} Царство Польское Tsarstvo Polskoye This act was heavily criticized by several German political parties and Bismarck himself was sceptical about it but he was concerned about possible "revolutionary elements" among the Poles from Russian Poland. [9]
Law
The completely different legal histories and judicial systems posed enormous complications, especially for national trade. While a common trade code had already been introduced by the Confederation in 1861 (which was adapted for the Empire and, with great modifications, is still in effect today), there was little similarity in laws otherwise.
In 1871, a common Criminal Code (Reichsstrafgesetzbuch) was introduced; in 1877, common court procedures were established in the court system (Gerichtsverfassungsgesetz), civil procedures (Zivilprozessordnung) and criminal procedures (Strafprozessordnung). In 1873 the constitution was amended to allow the Empire to replace the various and greatly differing Civil Codes of the states (if they existed at all; for example, parts of Germany formerly occupied by Napoleon's France had adopted the French Civil Code, while in Prussia the Allgemeines Preußisches Landrecht of 1794 was still in effect). In 1881, a first commission was established to produce a common Civil Code for all of the Empire, an enormous effort that would produce the Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (BGB), possibly one of the most impressive legal works of the world; it was eventually put into effect on 1 January 1900. The Bürgerliches Gesetzbuch (or BGB) is the Civil code of Germany. New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC Year 1900 ( MCM) was an exceptional Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar It speaks volumes for the conceptual quality of these codifications that they all, albeit with many amendments, are still in effect today. In Law, codification is the process of collecting and restating the law of a Jurisdiction in certain areas usually by subject forming a Legal code.
Year of three emperors
On 9 March 1888, William I died shortly before his 91st birthday, leaving his son Frederick III as the new emperor. Frederick III (German Friedrich Wilhelm Nikolaus Karl, English Frederick William Nicholas Charles; October 18 1831 – June 15 1888 (German Friedrich Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia. Events 763 BC - Assyrians record a Solar eclipse that will be used to fix the Chronology of Mesopotamian history Events 590 - Bahram Chobin is crowned as king Barham VI of Persia. Year 1888 ( MDCCCLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Frederick III (German Friedrich Wilhelm Nikolaus Karl, English Frederick William Nicholas Charles; October 18 1831 – June 15 1888 (German Friedrich Frederick was a liberal and an admirer of the British constitution,[10] his links with the United Kingdom strengthened further with his marriage to Princess Victoria, eldest child of Queen Victoria. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Princess Victoria Princess Royal (Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa 21 November 1840 &ndash 5 August 1901) was the eldest child and daughter Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901 was from 20 June 1837 the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland With his ascent to the throne, many hoped that Frederick's reign would lead to a liberalisation of the Reich and an increase of parliament's influence on the political process. In general liberalization (or liberalisation) refers to a relaxation of previous government restrictions usually in areas of social or economic policy The dismissal of Robert von Puttkamer, the highly-conservative Prussian interior minister, on 8 June was a sign in the expected direction and a blow to Bismarck's administration. Robert von Puttkamer ( 5 May 1828 15 March 1900) was a Prussian Statesman. This page lists Prussian Ministers of the Interior. See also Interior Ministers of Germany. Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable
However, by the time of his coronation, Frederick had developed incurable laryngeal cancer, which had been diagnosed the previous year on 12 November 1887 by British doctor Morell Mackenzie. Laryngeal cancer may also be called cancer of the larynx or laryngeal carcinoma. Events 764 - Tibetan troops occupy Chang'an, the capital of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, for fifteen days Year 1887 ( MDCCCLXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Sir Morell Mackenzie ( July 7 1837 - February 3, 1892) was a British Physician, one of the pioneers of Laryngology in the [11] Frederick died on the 99th day of his rule, on 15 June 1888. Events 763 BC - Assyrians record a Solar eclipse that will be used to fix the Chronology of Mesopotamian history Year 1888 ( MDCCCLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (click on link for calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The death of Frederick III led to the crowning of his son William II as emperor. Due to the rapid succession of these three monarchs, 1888 is known as the Year of Three Emperors (German: Dreikaiserjahr). The Year of Three Emperors ( Dreikaiserjahr in German) refers to the year 1888. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages.
Wilhelmine era
Relegitimizing the royal chair and Bismarck's resignation
Oil painting by Max Koner, 1890
William II intended to relegitimize the importance of the imperial throne at a time when other monarchies in Europe were being subordinated into figurehead positions. This decision led the ambitious Kaiser into conflict with Bismarck who was confident in his leadership and had no intention of relinquishing any powers to the young Kaiser and instead wanted William II to be dependent on him. [12] A major difference between William II and Bismarck was their approaches to handling political crises, especially in 1889, when German coal miners went on strike in Upper Silesia. Upper Silesia (Horní Slezsko Oberschlesien Latin: Silesia Superior; Górny Śląsk Silesian: Gůrny Ślůnsk) is the southeastern part Bismarck demanded that the German Army be sent in to crush the strike, but William II rejected this authoritarian measure, responding "I do not wish to stain my reign with the blood of my subjects. The German Army ( Deutsches Heer) was the name given the combined armed forces of the German Empire, also known as the Imperial Army ( Reichsheer) or "[13] Instead of repression being used, William had the government proceed with negotiations with a delegation sent from the coal miners which resulted in the strike coming to an end without violence. [13] This was the beginning of a rift between William II and Bismarck. Bismarck defied Wilhelm's demands for greater power by forming political coalitions with political parties which Wilhelm did not praise. [12] The fractious relationship ended after William II and Bismarck had a dispute, and the latter resigned days later in March 1890. [12]
With the departure of Bismarck as chancellor, William II became the dominant leader of Germany. Unlike his grandfather, William I, who was satisfied with leaving government affairs to the chancellor, William II wanted to be active in the affairs of Germany and wanted to be a knowledgeable leader, not an ornamental figurehead. [14] William voluntarily received economics tutoring from the controversial Walther Rathenau. Walther Rathenau ( September 29, 1867 – June 24, 1922) was a German industrialist politician writer and statesman who served as From Rathenau, William learned about European economics and industrial and financial realities in Europe. [14]
In official appearances and photographs, William II took great care in hiding his deformed and withered left hand which he had since birth. William would become internationally known for his aggressive foreign policy positions and strategic blunders which pushed the German Empire into political isolation and later into World War I. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All
Domestic affairs
Under William II, Germany no longer had long-ruling strong chancellors like Bismarck. The new chancellors had difficulty in performing their roles, especially their additional role as Prime Minister of Prussia that was assigned to them in the German Constitution. Reforms made by Chancellor Caprivi involving trade liberalization which brought about a reduction in unemployment were supported by the Kaiser and many Germans, except for Prussian landowners, who feared loss of land and power and set up a number of anti-Caprivi campaigns against the reforms. Georg Leo Graf von Caprivi de Caprera de Montecuccoli ( English: Count George Leo of Caprivi Caprera and Montecuccoli, born Georg Leo von Caprivi; [15].
While Prussian aristocrats challenged the demands of a united German state, in the 1890s, a number of rebellious organizations were set up to challenge the authoritarian conservative Prussian militarism which was instilled on the country. Some educators acted in opposition of the German state-run schools which taught military education and set up their own independent liberal-minded schools which encouraged individuality and freedom. [16] Nevertheless, the schools in Imperial Germany had a very high standard and dealt with modern developments. [17] Artists began experimental art in opposition to Kaiser Wilhelm's demands for traditional art in which Wilhelm responded "art which transgresses the laws and limits laid down by me can no longer be called art […]. "[18] At the same time, a new generation of cultural producers emerged. [19] The most dangerous opposition to the monarchy came from the newly formed Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD) in the 1890s which advocated Marxism. Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The threat of the SPD towards the German monarchy and industrialists caused the state to both crack down on socialist supporters as well as initiating social reform to sooth tensions. Germany's large industries provided significant social welfare programmes and good care to their employees as long as they were not identified as socialists or members of a trade union. Pensions, sickness benefits and even housing were provided to employees by the big industries to reduce social unease. [16]
William II, unlike Bismarck, set aside differences with the Roman Catholic Church and put the government's energy into opposing socialism at all cost. [20] This policy failed when the Social Democrats won a third of the votes in the 1912 elections to the Reichstag (imperial parliament), and became the largest political party in Germany. The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, The government remained in the hands of a succession of conservative coalitions supported by right-wing liberals or Catholic clerics and heavily dependent on the Kaiser's favour. The rising militarism that was implemented by Wilhelm II caused many to flee Germany in order to avoid military service. Most fled to the United States.
During World War I, the Kaiser's powers were devolved to a two-man dictatorship in 1916 led by the German High Command leaders, future President of Germany, General Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff. The President of Germany (deutscher Bundespräsident is Germany 's Head of state. Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg ( known universally as Paul von Hindenburg ( ( October 2, 1847 &ndash August 2 Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (sometimes given incorrectly as von Ludendorff) (9 April 1865–20 December 1937 was a German Army officer, Generalquartiermeister The Kaiser was no longer seen as a hero figure to Germans, while Hindenburg and Ludendorff were seen as the nation's true heroic leaders. The Kaiser remained a figurehead for the remaining two years of the war until his abdication in 1918.
Foreign affairs
William II wanted Germany to have its "place in the sun" like the British Empire and set Germany to begin colonial efforts in Africa and the Pacific ("new imperialism"). The German colonial empire was an overseas area formed in the late 19th century as part of the Hohenzollern dynasty's German Empire. The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions New Imperialism refers to the colonial expansion adopted by Europe 's powers and later Japan and the United States, during the 19th With much territory in Africa already colonized, Germany took the remaining territories, which formed German Southwest Africa (Namibia), German Kamerun (Cameroon), Togoland, and German East Africa (Tanzania). German South West Africa ( German: Deutsch-Südwestafrika, DSWA) was a Colony of Germany from 1884 until 1915 when it was taken Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast Kamerun was an African colony of the German Empire from 1884 to 1916 in the region of today's Republic of Cameroon. The Republic of Cameroon is a unitary republic of central and western Africa. Togoland was a German Protectorate in West Africa from 1884 to 1914 German East Africa (Deutsch-Ostafrika was a German Colony in East Africa, including what is now Burundi, Rwanda and Tanganyika Tanzania ˌtænzəˈniːə officially the United Republic of Tanzania (Jamhuri ya Muungano wa Tanzania is a country in East Africa bordered by Kenya Germany gained some islands in the Pacific and the Chinese port of Qingdao, to compete with the British holding of Hong Kong and Portuguese holding of Macau. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Hong Kong ( officially the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, is a territory located on China 's south coast on the Pearl River Delta, and borders For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Macau topics. The African colonies had some economic return, but the Pacific colonies had little to no economic use, and only served to spread Germany's official presence. Germany, with the finance of Deutsche Bank, worked to create the Baghdad Railway with the cooperation of the Ottoman Empire with the intention to create a German port in the Middle East. Deutsche Bank AG (literally "German Bank" ˈdɔɪtʃə,) is an international Universal bank with a broad private clients franchise headquartered in In the late 19th and early 20th centuries the Ottoman Empire planned to construct a Baghdad Railway under German control The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. [21]The creation of the Baghdad Railway from 1900–1911 was initially supported by the United Kingdom, which believed that this would increase trade between their country and Germany. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located However, as time passed, the British increasingly saw the efforts as Germany attempting to expand its influence in the Middle East and demanded a block to the expansion of the railway in 1911; this demand was accepted by Germany and the Ottoman Empire. The colonial efforts were opposed by Bismarck and his supporters, who favoured Germany gaining international power through dominating Europe and creating a German "Mitteleuropa" (Middle Europe) through taking land from the Russian Empire, which would provide Germany with sufficient economic resources and land to exploit at the cost of non-German population. Mitteleuropa (Central/Middle Europe is a German term equal to Central Europe. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya William's efforts to colonize the few remaining territories in Africa and the Pacific would come under criticism by German nationalists and later future Nazi dictator Adolf Hitler, for having missed the opportunity to create a fully European-based German empire. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently vandalized and vandalism is reverted immediately
German colonialism under William II put Germany in conflict and risk of conflict on a number of occasions, the first during the Boxer Rebellion in Qingdao, Chinese civilians protested against the German presence in which Wilhelm demanded a swift response saying that the Chinese must be forced to remember German brute power in the same way as others remembered the Huns, a statement which would later be used by war opponents to mock Germany during World War I and World War II. The Boxer Rebellion, or Boxer Movement, was an uprising by members of the Chinese Society of Right and Harmonious Fists against foreign influence The Huns were an early confederation of Central Asian equestrian nomads or semi-nomads with a Turkic core of aristocracy World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including On two occasions, Germany nearly went to war with France over the fate of Morocco.
German colonialism also resulted in the Herero and Namaqua Genocide in German Southwest Africa. The Herero and Namaqua Genocide occurred in German South-West Africa (modern day Namibia) from 1904 until 1907 during the Scramble for Africa German South West Africa ( German: Deutsch-Südwestafrika, DSWA) was a Colony of Germany from 1884 until 1915 when it was taken Upon taking Southwest Africa, German settlers were encouraged to settle on land held by Herero and Nama tribes, in order to displace them. The Herero are a people belonging to the Bantu group with about 240000 members alive today Nama (in older sources also called Namaqua) are an African Ethnic group of South Africa, Namibia and Botswana. The Herero and the Nama people were then being used as slave labour, while their land was pillaged for resources, particularly for diamonds, by the German colonists. In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in In 1903 and 1904, the Herero and the Nama revolted against the colonists in Southwest Africa. In response to the attacks, General Lothar von Trotha was dispatched to quell the uprising. Adrian Dietrich Lothar von Trotha ( July 3, 1848 &ndash March 31, 1920) was a German military Commander noted for his conduct In total, some 65,000 Herero (80 percent of the total Herero population), and 10,000 Nama (50 percent of the total Nama population) perished. The genocide was directed specifically at eliminating Herero and Nama from German Southwest Africa out of fear of more revolts destabilizing Germany's East African colony and endangering its colonists. Imperial Germany's actions did not expand to all non-whites within its boundaries, for a number of native Africans had become German colonial soldiers, called Askaris. Askari is an Arabic, Turkish, Somali, Persian, and Swahili word meaning "soldier" (عسكري ‘askarī The United Nations officially condemned the genocide in 1985, followed in 2004 by the acceptance and condemnation by the German government of the actions of the German Empire which caused the genocide.
Germany's belligerence towards France, and Germany's support of its ally Austria-Hungary's occupation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908, caused Germany to lose previously good relations with Russia, and the potential for an alliance with Britain evaporated, as Britain followed the Russian monarchy's opposition to Germany's aggression and set aside differences with France. Bosnia and Herzegovina ( Latin script: Bosna i Hercegovina, Cyrillic script: Босна и Херцеговина is a country on the Balkan By 1914, Wilhelm's foreign policy left Germany isolated with one loyal ally, Austria-Hungary, largely dependent on German support to protect its declining power due to ethnic nationalism across its heterogeneous empire. Germany's other official ally, the Kingdom of Italy had grown increasingly lukewarm and indifferent to Germany, remained an ally only on paper, and saw more benefit in entering into an alliance which could take back Italian-populated territories from Austria-Hungary. The Kingdom of Italy ( Italian: Regno d'Italia) was a state forged in 1861 by the unification of Italy under the influence of the Kingdom
World War I and the end of the Empire
Following the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian Archduke of Austria-Este, Francis Ferdinand by Bosnian Serb Gavrilo Princip, Kaiser Wilhelm II offered Austro-Hungarian Emperor Franz Joseph full support of Austro-Hungarian plans to invade Serbia, which they blamed for supporting the assassination. During World War I, the German Empire was one of the Central Powers that ultimately lost the war Franz Ferdinand ( December 18, 1863 &ndash June 28, 1914) was an Archduke of Austria-Este, Prince Imperial of Gavrilo Princip ( Cyrillic: Гаврило Принцип gaʋ'rilɔ 'prinʦip ( &ndash) was a Bosnian Serb and proclaimed himself to be a Yugoslav Franz Josef, in certain Anglophone contexts rendered Francis Joseph may refer to the following people Franz Joseph Och, German machine translation Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country This unconditional support for Austria-Hungary was called a "blank cheque" by historians in that the German government did not expect a serious war to take place as Serbia initially met many of the demands of Austria-Hungary, and if a war were to take place, the German government expected the war would remain regional and Russia, which was long angered over Austria-Hungary's occupation of Bosnia in 1908, would not risk entering a war with Austria-Hungary if Germany demanded a halt to Russian aggression. These assumptions backfired when Russia declared war on Austria-Hungary, in which Germany backed Austria-Hungary. France and Britain went to the side of Russia, as the Triple Entente and the German Empire and Europe faced a massive war. The Triple Entente (" entente " — French for "agreement" was the name given to the loose alignment of the United Kingdom, the
Germany began the war by targeting its major rival, France. Germany saw France as its principal danger on the European continent as it could mobilize much faster than Russia and bordered Germany's industrial core in the Rhineland. The Rhineland ( Rheinland in German) is the general name for the land on both sides of the river Rhine in the west of Germany. Unlike Britain and Russia, the French were principally involved in the war for revenge against Germany, in particular, for France's loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Germany in 1871. Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 The German high command knew that France would muster its forces to go into Alsace-Lorraine. Germany did not want to risk lengthy battles along the French-German border and instead adopted the Schlieffen Plan, a military strategy designed to cripple France, through invading Belgium and Luxembourg and then sweeping down towards Paris and then encircling and crushing the French forces along the French-German border in a quick victory. For the French counter-plan see Plan XVII The Schlieffen Plan was the German General Staff 's early 20th century overall strategic The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Luxembourg (Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg Grand-Duché de Luxembourg Großherzogtum Luxemburg is a small Landlocked country in Western Europe, bordered by Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city After defeating France, Germany could turn to attack Russia. This strategy resulted in the violation of recognizing Belgium's and Luxembourg's official neutrality. The strategy initially was successful, the German army swept down from Belgium and Luxembourg and was nearly at Paris, at the nearby Marne river. Marne is a department in north-eastern France named after the Marne River which flows through the department However the French army put up a strong resistance to defend their capital at the First Battle of the Marne resulting in the German army retreating. The First Battle of the Marne (also known as the Miracle of the Marne) was a World War I battle fought from 5 September to 12 September 1914
The aftermath of the First Battle of the Marne was a long-held stalemate between the German army and the Allies with the use of dug-in trench warfare. Further attempts to break through deeper into France failed at the two battles of Ypres with huge casualties. Ypres ( French, generally used in English French ipʁ English ˈiːprə Ieper (official name in Dutch, pronounced /ˈiːpər/ or Ypern German Chief of Staff Erich von Falkenhayn decided to break away from the Schlieffen Plan and instead focus on a war of attrition against France. Erich von Falkenhayn ( 11 September 1861 &ndash 8 April 1922) was a German Soldier and Chief of the General Staff Falkenhayn targeted the ancient city of Verdun because Verdun had been one of the last cities to hold out against the German army in 1870, and Falkenhayn knew that as a matter of national pride, the French would do anything to ensure that Verdun would not be taken. Verdun (medieval Wirten official name before 1970 Verdun-sur-Meuse) is a city and commune Falkenhayn anticipated that with correct tactics, French losses would be more than the Germans and that continued French recruits being sent to Verdun would cause the French army to "bleed white" and then allow the German army to take France easily. In 1916, the Battle of Verdun began, with the French positions in Verdun under constant shelling and poison gas attack and taking large casualties under the attack of an overwhelmingly large German forces. The Battle of Verdun was one of the most critical battles in World War I on the Western Front, fought between the German and French However Falkenhayn's prediction of a greater ratio of French killed proved to be wrong. With Falkenhayn's replacement by Erich Ludendorff and no success in sight at Verdun, the German army retreated in December 1916. Erich Friedrich Wilhelm Ludendorff (sometimes given incorrectly as von Ludendorff) (9 April 1865–20 December 1937 was a German Army officer, Generalquartiermeister
While the western front was a stalemate for the German army, the eastern front proved to be a great success. The badly organized and supplied Russian army faltered and the German and Austro-Hungarian armies steadily advanced eastward. The Germans benefited from political instability in Russia and a desire to end the war. In 1916, the German government allowed Russia's communist Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin to travel through Germany from Switzerland into Russia. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction Germany believed that if Lenin could create further political unrest, Russia would no longer be able to continue its war with Germany, allowing the German army to focus on the western front.
In 1917, the Tsar was ousted from the Russian throne and later a Bolshevik government was created under the leadership of Lenin. Tsar csar and tzar redirect here For other uses see Tsar (disambiguation. The Bolsheviks, originally also Bolshevists ( Большевик Большевист (singular, derived from bolshe, "more" were a faction With political opposition to the Bolsheviks, Lenin decided to end Russia's campaign against Germany, Austria-Hungary, the Ottoman Empire, and Bulgaria in order to redirect its energy to eliminating internal dissent. In 1918, at the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, the Bolshevik government gave Germany and the Ottoman Empire an enormous territorial settlement in exchange for an end to war on the eastern front. Not to be confused with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (February 9 1918, a similar treaty involving Ukraine and the Central Powers. This settlement including all of modern-day Baltic nations (Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania) which were given to the German occupation authority Ober Ost, and Belarus and Ukraine also were given to Germany. Ober Ost is short for Oberbefehlshaber der gesamten Deutschen Streitkräfte im Osten, which is a German term meaning "Supreme Command of All German Forces in the East" Belarus ( Belarusian Беларусь / Biełaruś is a Landlocked country in Eastern Europe, bordered by Russia to the north and east Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. As a result, Germany had at last achieved the long-wanted land of "Mitteleuropa", and now could fully focus on destroying the Allies on the western front.
On the colonial front, German results were mixed. Much of Germany's colonies fell to the British and French armies, however in German East Africa, an impressive campaign was waged by the colonial army leader there, General Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck, who would remain long respected as a military commander then and after by the native Askaris whom he commanded. Paul Emil von Lettow-Vorbeck ( March 20, 1870 - March 9, 1964) was a German General, the commander of the German Askari is an Arabic, Turkish, Somali, Persian, and Swahili word meaning "soldier" (عسكري ‘askarī Lettow-Vorbeck used guerilla raids against British forces in Kenya and Rhodesia as well as invading Portuguese Mozambique to give his forces supplies and to pick up more Askari recruits. Mozambique, officially the Republic of Mozambique (Moçambique or República de Moçambique, ʁɛ'publikɐ d musɐ̃'bik is a country in southeastern Africa By the end of the war his army was the only one allowed a victory parade under the Brandenburg Gate. The Brandenburg Gate (Brandenburger Tor is a former City gate and one of the main symbols of Berlin and Germany.
Despite success on the Eastern Front in 1918, Germany was not making progress on the western front for three reasons. The first was war exhaustion; German soldiers had been on the battlefield constantly without relief and, after failing to break the British and French armies in offensives in March and April of 1918 despite the transfer of large numbers of troops from the Eastern Front, had lost hope in the chance of a victory. The second was civil unrest because of the war effort. The concept of "total war" in World War I, meant that supplies had to be redirected towards the armed forces and, with German commerce being stopped by the British naval blockade, German civilians were forced to live in increasingly meagre conditions. Total war is a conflict of unlimited scope in which a Belligerent engages in a total mobilization of all available resources at his disposal Food prices were first limited, then rationing was introduced. The winter of 1916–17 was called the "turnip winter". During the war, about 750,000 German civilians died from malnutrition. [22] Many Germans wanted an end to the war and more and more Germans associated with the left, such as the Social Democratic Party and the more radical Independent Social Democratic Party which demanded an end to the war. The third reason was the entry of the United States into the war. With a surprise attack by a German U-Boat (submarine) against the liner RMS Lusitania in 1915 which was carrying American civilians (though the Germans suspected it was bringing supplies to Britain) and Germany's subsequent declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare against Britain in 1917, American public sentiment moved from isolationism to interventionism. U-boat is the anglicized version of the German word, itself an abbreviation of Unterseeboot ( undersea boat) and refers Construction and trials Owned by the Cunard Steamship Company built by John Brown and Company Lusitania was named for the ancient Roman province of While U. S. involvement was smaller than that of World War II, the American entry was devastating to the Germans because unlike Britain, France or Germany itself, the United States forces were not worn down by the war attrition which had affected the other countries.
In November 1918, with internal revolution, a stalemated war, Austria-Hungary falling apart from multiple ethnic tensions, and pressure from the German high command, Emperor William II, who was by this time merely a figurehead, abdicated the throne along with the German high command, leaving the disastrous scenario to be blamed on the new government led by the German Social Democrats which called for and received an armistice on November 11, 1918 which marked the end of World War I and the end of the German Empire. Events 308 - The Congress of Carnuntum: Attempting to keep peace within the Roman Empire, the leaders of the Tetrarchy declare Year 1918 ( MCMXVIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common It was succeeded by the democratic, yet flawed, Weimar Republic. The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933
Legacy
The German Empire left a legacy of mixed fortunes for Germany and Europe. Under Bismarck, a united German state had finally been achieved, however it remained a Prussian-dominated state and it did not have German Austria within it. The influence of Prussian militarism and its colonial efforts cast a negative view of the state, especially in regards to the Herero and Namaqua Genocide and the causes of World War I. The Herero and Namaqua Genocide occurred in German South-West Africa (modern day Namibia) from 1904 until 1907 during the Scramble for Africa While the German Empire enacted a number of progressive social reforms such as guaranteeing freedom of press, and established a system of public welfare, at the same time it openly engaged in racist discrimination of non-Germans, leading some scholars to title it an "apartheid state". Social apartheid refers to de facto segregation on the basis of class or economic status in which an Underclass develops which is separated from the rest of the population [23] There was a modern election system to the federal parliament, the Reichstag, which represented every adult man by one vote. This enabled the German Socialists and the Catholic Centre Party to play remarkable roles in the empire's political life, although both parties were officially regarded more or less as "foes of the empire".
The history of the German Empire is well remembered in Germany as a period when academic research and university life flourished as well as arts and literature. Thomas Mann published his novel Buddenbrooks in 1901. Paul Thomas Mann ( June Buddenbrooks was Thomas Mann 's first Novel, published in 1901 when he was twenty-six years old Theodor Mommsen was awarded the Nobel prize for literature a year later for his Roman history. Christian Matthias Theodor Mommsen ( 30 November 1817 &ndash 1 November 1903) was a German classical scholar, The Nobel Prize in Literature (Nobelpriset i litteratur is awarded annually since 1901 to an author from any country who has in the words from the will of Alfred Painters like the groups Der Blaue Reiter and Die Brücke made a significant contribution to modern art. Der Blaue Reiter ( The Blue Rider) was a group of artists from the Neue Künstlervereinigung München in Munich, Germany. The AEG turbine building in Berlin by Peter Behrens from 1909 can be regarded as a milestone in classic modern architecture and an outstanding example of emerging functionalism. AEG ( Allgemeine Elektrizitäts-Gesellschaft, General Electricity Company) was a German producer of Electronics and electrical equipment For the Canadian writer see Peter Behrens (writer. For the German musician and member of Trio, see Peter Behrens (musician The social, economic, and scientific successes of this Gründerzeit, or founding epoch, have led the Wilhelmine era to sometimes be regarded as a golden age. deu Gründerzeit ( German, 'grʏndɐˌtsaɪ̯t literally “the founders' epoch” refers to the economic phase in 19th century Germany and Austria before The term Golden age is best known from Greek mythology and legend but can also be found in other ancient cultures (see below
In the field of economics the "Kaiserzeit" lay the foundation of Germany being one of the world's leading economic powers. Especially the iron and coal industry of the Ruhr area, at the Saar Bassin and in Upper Silesia contibuted much to that process. The Ruhr Area, ( German Ruhrgebiet, colloquial Ruhrpott, Kohlenpott or Revier) is an Urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia Saarland (ˈzaːɐ̯lant in German; French: Sarre) is one of the 16 federal states (German Bundesländer) of Germany. Upper Silesia (Horní Slezsko Oberschlesien Latin: Silesia Superior; Górny Śląsk Silesian: Gůrny Ślůnsk) is the southeastern part The first motorcar was constructed by Karl Benz in 1886. Karl Friedrich Benz, sometimes spelled Carl, ( November 25, 1844, Karlsruhe, Germany – April 4, 1929, Ladenburg The enormous growth of industrial production and industrial potential also led to a rapid urbanisation of Germany, which turned the Germans into a nation of city dwellers.
The empire's support of Austria-Hungary's invasion of Serbia against Russia's opposition has been seen by a number of historians as a major influence in what caused the clash of alliances in Europe which resulted in the massive war later known as World War I. Serbia (Србија Srbija) officially the Republic of Serbia (Република Србија Republika Srbija) is a Landlocked Country Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The defeat and aftermath of World War I and the territorial and economic losses imposed by the Treaty of Versailles caused enormous ramifications for the new German republic, such as defining what the German state was and how it should operate. The fighting in World War I ended when an Armistice took effect at 1100 am GMT on November 11 1918 Conservatives, liberals, socialists, nationalists, Catholics, and Protestants all had their own interpretations, which led to a fractious political and social climate in Germany in the aftermath of the empire's collapse.
There is a considerable historical debate over the Sonderweg question, concerning whatever the nature of German politics and society during the German Empire made Nazi Germany inevitable. Sonderweg (literally "special path" is a controversial theory in German Historiography that considers the German -speaking lands or the country Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Some historians, such as Fritz Fischer, Hans-Ulrich Wehler, and Wolfgang Mommsen, have argued that during the German Empire, a "pre-modern" aristocratic elite became entrenched in German society and thus doomed the Weimar Republic to failure before it was even born. Fritz Fischer ( March 5, 1908 &ndash December 1, 1999) was a German historian best known for his analysis of the Causes of World War I Hans-Ulrich Wehler (born September 11, 1931) is a Left-wing German Historian. The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 Other historians, such as Gerhard Ritter, have argued that it was only World War I and its aftermath that opened the doors to Nazism. Gerhard Albert Ritter ( April 6, 1888 - July 1, 1967) was a Conservative German Historian. Nazism, which was a short name for National Socialism (Nationalsozialismus refers primarily to the Ideology and practices of the National Socialist German
Territorial legacy
In addition to present-day Germany, large parts of what comprised the German Empire now belong to several other modern European countries:
| German name | Country | Region |
|---|---|---|
| Elsass-Lothringen | France | The then-German-speaking départements of Bas-Rhin and Haut-Rhin (Alsace region) and Moselle (north-eastern part of the Lorraine region) |
| The Eupen und Malmédy area (intentionally spelled with é only then) |
Belgium | Eupen and Malmedy, two towns and surrounding municipalities in the province of Liège, on the German border |
| Nordschleswig | Denmark | South Jutland County |
| Hultschiner Ländchen (The Sudetenland which stretched along the border to Germany belonged to the Austro-Hungarian Empire) | Czech Republic | Hlučín Region, on the border to Poland in Silesia, from which Germans were deported following WWII (as from the whole Sudetenland) |
| Central and eastern Pommern, Schlesien, Ostbrandenburg, Ermland, Masuren, Westpreußen, Southern Ostpreußen Also Posen (Wartheland). Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Bas-Rhin is a ''département'' of France. The name means "Lower Rhine " Haut-Rhin is a ''département'' of France named after the Rhine river Alsace (Alsace alzas Alsatian and Elsass pre-1996 German: Elsaß; Alsatia is one of the 26 Regions of France, located on the eastern Moselle is a ''département'' in the east of France named after the Moselle River. Lorraine (Lothringen is one of the 26 régions of France. It is the only administrative region with two cities of equal importance Metz and Nancy Eupen is a Municipality located in the Belgian province of Liège, 15 km from the German border ( Aachen) from the Dutch Malmedy is a Municipality of Belgium. It lies in the country's Walloon Region and Province of Liege. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Eupen is a Municipality located in the Belgian province of Liège, 15 km from the German border ( Aachen) from the Dutch Malmedy is a Municipality of Belgium. It lies in the country's Walloon Region and Province of Liege. List of Governors 1830 - 1831 Etienne de Sauvage (Liberal 1831 - 1832 Jean-François Tielemans (Liberal Short description of South Jutland South Jutland county is also known as Northern Schleswig ( Danish: Nordslesvig, German: Nordschleswig The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Short description of South Jutland South Jutland county is also known as Northern Schleswig ( Danish: Nordslesvig, German: Nordschleswig Hlučín Area ( Hlučínsko in Czech, Hultschiner Ländchen in German) is an area of Czech Silesia in the Moravian-Silesian Sudetenland ( Czech and Polish: Sudety) is the German name used in English in the first half of the 20th century for the western regions of The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, Hlučín Area ( Hlučínsko in Czech, Hultschiner Ländchen in German) is an area of Czech Silesia in the Moravian-Silesian For the present-day Polish provinces see Pomeranian Voivodeship and West Pomeranian Voivodeship. The Province of Silesia (Provinz Schlesien Prowincja Śląsk was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1815 to 1919 the territory had been conquered from The Neumark ( also known as the New March (Nowa Marchia or East Brandenburg ( was a region of the Prussian Province of Brandenburg, Warmia (Warmia Latin: Varmia) or Erm(eland ( is a region between Pomerania and Masuria in northeastern Poland West Prussia ( Prusy Zachodnie was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1773&ndash1824 and 1878&ndash1918 which was created out of the earlier Polish East Prussia (Ostpreußen; Rytų Prūsija or Rytprūsiai; Prusy Wschodnie Восточная Пруссия or Vostochnaya Prussiya) refers to the main part The Province of Posen (Provinz Posen Prowincja Poznańska was a province of Prussia from 1848-1918 and as such part of the German Empire from 1871 to 1918 the whole |
Poland | the northern and western parts of the country, including Pomerania, Silesia, Lubusz Land, Warmia and Masuria, from all of which Germans were deported following WWII. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Etymology One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, who were most likely a Vandalic (East Germanic people Lubusz Land, ( Polish: ziemia lubuska, German: Land Lebus, Czech: Lubušsko) is a historical region in Poland Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship (also known as Warmia-Masuria Province or by its Polish name województwo warmińsko-mazurskie or simply Warmińsko-Mazurskie |
| Northern Ostpreußen with Königsberg | Russia | Kaliningrad Oblast enclave on the Baltic, from which Germans were deported following WWII. East Prussia (Ostpreußen; Rytų Prūsija or Rytprūsiai; Prusy Wschodnie Восточная Пруссия or Vostochnaya Prussiya) refers to the main part Königsberg (Karaliaučius Low German: Königsbarg; Królewiec see also other names) was until 1946 the name of Kaliningrad. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Kaliningrad Oblast (Калинингра́дская о́бласть Kaliningradskaya oblast; informally called Yantarny kray (ru Янта́рный край meaning |
| Memelland with Memel (city) | Lithuania | Klaipėda Region, including the Baltic coastal city of Klaipėda, from which Germans were deported following WWII. The Klaipėda Region (Klaipėdos kraštas or Memel Territory (Memelland or Memelgebiet Territoire de Memel was defined by the Treaty of Versailles Klaipėda ( ˈklaɪpɛdə Memel is a City in Lithuania situated at the mouth of the Curonian Lagoon where it flows into the Baltic Sea Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the The Klaipėda Region (Klaipėdos kraštas or Memel Territory (Memelland or Memelgebiet Territoire de Memel was defined by the Treaty of Versailles Klaipėda ( ˈklaɪpɛdə Memel is a City in Lithuania situated at the mouth of the Curonian Lagoon where it flows into the Baltic Sea |
References
- ^ German Empire: administrative subdivision and municipalities, 1900 to 1910 (German). Retrieved on 2007-04-25. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
- ^ Population statistics of the German Empire, 1871 (German). Retrieved on 2007-04-25. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1607 - Eighty Years' War: The Dutch fleet destroys the anchored Spanish fleet at Gibraltar.
- ^ Constitution of the German Reich: Bismarck constitution (German) (1871-04-16). The Constitution of the German Empire was the basic law of the German Empire of 1871-1919
- ^ Constitution of the German Reich: Weimar constitution (German) (1919-08-11). For a detailed discussion of the English translation of Reich, see Reich. Year 1919 ( MCMXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 2492 BC - Traditional date of the defeat of Bel by Hayk, progenitor and founder of the Armenian nation
- ^ Convention for the Unification of Certain Rules of Law with respect to Collisions between Vessels (1910-09-23). Year 1910 ( MCMX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English —an example of a legal document where Germany is officially referred to as "the German Empire".
- ^ Moeller van den Bruck, Arthur (1923). Arthur Moeller van den Bruck ( April 23, 1876 &ndash May 30, 1925) was a German cultural historian and writer best known for his controversial Das Dritte Reich (in German). Das Dritte Reich (" The Third Reich " is a 1923 book by German author Arthur Moeller van den Bruck, the ideology of which heavily informed
- ^ F. A. Hayek, The Road to Serfdom
- ^ a b Imannuel Geiss, Der polnische Grenzstreifen 1914-1918. Ein Beitrag zur deutschen Kriegszielpolitik im Ersten Weltkrieg, Hamburg/Lübeck 1960
- ^ Józef Feldman, Bismarck a Polska, Państwowe Wydawnictwo Naukowe, Warsaw 1966, p. 323
- ^ Kitchen, Martin (2000). Cambridge Illustrated History of Germany. Cambridge University Press, 214. ISBN 978-0521794329.
- ^ Judd, Denis (1976). Eclipse of Kings. Stein & Day, 13. ISBN 978-0685701195.
- ^ a b c Kurtz, Harold (1970). The Second Reich: Kaiser Wilhelm II and his Germany. McGraw-Hill, 60. ISBN 978-0070356535.
- ^ a b Stürmer, Michael (2000). Michael Stürmer (born September 29 1938) is a German historian The German Empire: 1870–1918. New York: Random House, 63. Random House Inc is the world's largest English-language general trade book publisher ISBN 0679640908. .
- ^ a b Kurtz, Harold (1970) 63
- ^ Kurtz, Harold (1970) 67
- ^ a b Kurtz, Harold (1970) 72
- ^ Lüke, Martina G. : Zwischen Tradition und Aufbruch. Deutschunterricht und Lesebuch im Deutschen Kaiserreich. Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-631-56408-0.
- ^ Kurtz, Harold (1970) 76
- ^ Jefferies, Matthew: Imperial Culture in Germany, 1871–1918. New York and London: Palgrave, 2003.
- ^ Kurtz, Harold (1970) 56
- ^ Stürmer, Michael (2000) 91
- ^ German Historical Museum. The Deutsches Historisches Museum (DHM German Historical Museum) was founded in 1987 by the chancellor of Germany Helmut Kohl and the mayor of Berlin 1914–18: Lebensmittelversorgung (German).
- ^ Martin Kitchen, A History of Modern Germany, 1800-2000 Blackwell Publishing 2006, page 130
Further reading
- Aronson, Theo. The Kaisers. London: Cassell, 1971.
- Blackbourn, David and Eley, Geoff. The Peculiarities Of German History: Bourgeois Society and Politics In Nineteenth-Century Germany. New York: Oxford University Press, 1984 ISBN 0-19-873058-6.
- Craig, Gordon. Gordon Alexander Craig ( November 13, 1913 &ndash October 30, 2005) was a Scottish-American historian of German, Swiss Germany: 1866-1945, Oxford : Clarendon Press, 1978 ISBN 0-19-822113-4.
- Fischer, Fritz. Fritz Fischer ( March 5, 1908 &ndash December 1, 1999) was a German historian best known for his analysis of the Causes of World War I From Kaiserreich to Third Reich: Elements of Continuity in German History, 1871-1945. (translated and with an introduction by Roger Fletcher) London: Allen & Unwin, 1986. ISBN 0-04-943043-2.
- Fischer, Fritz. Fritz Fischer ( March 5, 1908 &ndash December 1, 1999) was a German historian best known for his analysis of the Causes of World War I War of Illusions: German Policies from 1911 to 1914. (translated from the German by Marian Jackson) New York: Norton, 1975. ISBN 0-393-05480-2.
- Jefferies, Mattew. Imperial Culture in Germany, 1871-1918. New York and London: Palgrave, 2003. 1-4039-0421-9.
- Lüke, Martina G. : Zwischen Tradition und Aufbruch. Deutschunterricht und Lesebuch im Deutschen Kaiserreich. Frankfurt am Main 2007, ISBN 978-3-631-56408-0.
- Nipperdey, Thomas. Deutsche Geschichte 1800 - 1918. Arbeitswelt und Bürgergeist. Machtstaat vor der Demokratie. 3 vols. Beck: München, 1998, ISBN-13: 978-3-406-44038-0.
- Retallack, James. Germany In The Age of Kaiser Wilhelm II, Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire : Macmillan ; New York : St. Martin's Press, 1996 ISBN 0-312-16031-3.
- Ritter, Gerhard. Gerhard Albert Ritter ( April 6, 1888 - July 1, 1967) was a Conservative German Historian. The Sword and the Scepter; the Problem of Militarism in Germany. (translated from the German by Heinz Norden) Coral Gables: University of Miami Press 1969-73.
- Stürmer, Michael. Michael Stürmer (born September 29 1938) is a German historian The German Empire, 1870-1918. New York: Random House, 2000. ISBN 0-679-64090-8.
- Mommsen, Wolfgang. Imperial Germany 1867-1918: Politics, Culture, and Society in an Authoritarian Sate. (translated by Richard Deveson from Der Autoritäre Nationalstaat) London: Arnold, 1995. ISBN 0-340-64534-2.
- Wehler, Hans-Ulrich. Hans-Ulrich Wehler (born September 11, 1931) is a Left-wing German Historian. The German Empire, 1871-1918. (translated from the German by Kim Traynor) Leamington Spa, Warwickshire: Berg Publishers, 1985. ISBN 0-907582-22-2.
- Gregor Schollgen. Escape into War? The Foreign Policy of Imperial Germany. UK: Berg, 1990. ISBN 0-85496-275-1.
- Imanuel Geiss. German Foreign Policy 1871-1914. USA: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1976. ISBN 0-7100-8303-3
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