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The German Confederation (German: Deutscher Bund) was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, which had been abolished in 1806. For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising Throughout the world there are many cities that were once national Capitals but no longer have that status because the country ceased to exist the capital was moved or the capital For almost five centuries the German city of Frankfurt am Main was a city-state within two major Germanic states The Holy Roman Empire as the Free For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. A confederation is a group of empowered states or communities usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution The word presidency is often used to describe the administration or the executive, the collective administrative and governmental entity that exists around an office Habsburg Monarchy (alternatively Habsburg Empire) refers to the territories ruled by the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg, and then by the successor The Federal Assembly (Bundesversammlung was the only central institution of the German Confederation from 1815 until 1848 and from 1850 until 1866 For almost five centuries the German city of Frankfurt am Main was a city-state within two major Germanic states The Holy Roman Empire as the Free The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of the major powers of Europe, chaired by the Austrian statesman Clemens Wenzel von Metternich Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable " Germany " at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 had been a collection of 39 States loosely bound together in the German Confederation. The Peace of Prague was a Peace treaty signed at Prague on 23 August, 1866, which ended the Austro-Prussian War. Events 79 - Mount Vesuvius begins stirring on the feast day of Vulcan the Roman god of fire The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Central Europe is the Region lying between the variously and vaguely defined areas of Eastern and The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of the major powers of Europe, chaired by the Austrian statesman Clemens Wenzel von Metternich The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in In 1848, revolutions by liberals and nationalists occurred in an attempt to establish a unified German state. The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Talks between the German states failed in 1848, and the confederation briefly dissolved but was re-established in 1850. Rivalry between the two dominant states, Austria and Prussia, over which state had the inherent right to rule German lands led to the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 and the collapse of the confederation. The Austro-Prussian This resulted in the creation of the North German Confederation and a number of south German states, from 1866 to 1871, having no higher legal authority or political body above them for the first time since the creation of the Holy Roman Empire, though these states aligned with Austria until its defeat in 1867 and then followed Prussia. The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of
Members of the German Confederation
The German Confederation or German Union was a loose confederation of 39 states. A confederation is a group of empowered states or communities usually created by treaty but often later adopting a common constitution The Federal Assembly in Frankfurt represented the sovereigns, not the people of those states. The Federal Assembly (Bundesversammlung was the only central institution of the German Confederation from 1815 until 1848 and from 1850 until 1866
The size and influence of the individual states varied greatly:
- The Austrian Empire and the Kingdom of Prussia were the largest and by far the most powerful members of the Confederation. For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising Large parts of both countries were not included in the Confederation, nor had the greater parts of their armed forces been incorporated in the federal army. As a result both states essentially continued to act as independent countries. For example, during the wars against Denmark, they did not fight under the banner of the German Confederation. Each of them had one vote in the Federal Assembly.
- Three member states were ruled by foreign monarchs: the King of Denmark, the King of the Netherlands, and the King of Great Britain (until 1837) were members of the German Confederation as Duke of Holstein, Grand Duke of Luxembourg, and King of Hanover, respectively. This is a list of Danish Monarchs, that is the Kings and Queens regnant of Denmark. The Netherlands has been an independent Monarchy since 16 March 1815, and has been governed by members of the House of Orange-Nassau The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 Holstein (ˈhɔlʃtain ( Low German: Holsteen, Danish: Holsten, Latin and historical English: Holsatia) The Grand Duke of Luxembourg is the Head of state of Luxembourg. The Kingdom of Hanover (Königreich Hannover was established in October of 1814 by the Congress of Vienna, with the restoration of George III to his Hanoverian Each of them had one vote in the Federal Assembly.
- Six other greater states had one vote each in the Federal Assembly: the King of Bavaria, the King of Saxony, the King of Württemberg, the prince-elector of Hesse, the Grand Duke of Baden and the Grand Duke of Hesse. King of Bavaria was a title held by the hereditary Wittelsbach rulers of Bavaria in the state known as the Kingdom of Bavaria from 1805 till 1918 when This article lists Dukes Electors and Kings ruling over territories named Saxony from the beginning of the Saxon Duchy in the 9th century to the end of the Saxon Kingdom in 1918 This is a list of the rulers of the German state of Württemberg, originally a county and eventually a kingdom until the ruling dynasty was overthrown The Grand Duchy of Baden (Großherzogtum Baden was a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. The Grand Duchy of Hesse (Großherzogtum Hessen was a former state that existed in modern-day Germany.
- 23 smaller and tiny member states shared five votes in the Federal Assembly.
- The four free cities Lübeck, Frankfurt, Bremen and Hamburg shared one vote in the Federal Assembly. The Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck was a city-state that existed from 1226 to 1937 in the present-day German states of Schleswig-Holstein and Mecklenburg-Vorpommern For almost five centuries the German city of Frankfurt am Main was a city-state within two major Germanic states The Holy Roman Empire as the Free The Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (German Freie Hansestadt Bremen) is the smallest of Germany's 16 Federal States ( Bundesländer) Hamburg (English, German: ˈhambʊɐk local pronunciation Low German / Low Saxon: Hamborg) is the second-largest city in Germany
Situation in space and time
Between 1806 and 1815, Napoleon organized the German states into the Confederation of the Rhine, but this collapsed after his defeats in 1812 to 1815. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The Confederation of the Rhine or Rhine Confederation (Rheinbund États confédérés du Rhin officially and Confédération du Rhin in practice) lasted The German Confederation had roughly the same boundaries as the Empire at the time of the French Revolution (less what is now Belgium). The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those The member states, drastically reduced to 39 from more than 300 (see Kleinstaaterei) under the Holy Roman Empire, were recognized as fully sovereign. The States of the German Confederation were those member states that from June 20, 1815 were part of the German Confederation, which lasted with some changes de Kleinstaaterei is a German word mainly used for the political situation in Germany and neighbouring regions during the Holy Roman Empire. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in The members pledged themselves to mutual defence, and jointly maintained the fortresses at Mainz, the city of Luxembourg, Rastatt, Ulm, and Landau. Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. The city of Luxembourg (Lëtzebuerg Luxemburg also known as Luxembourg City (Stad Lëtzebuerg Ville de Luxembourg Luxemburg Stadt is a commune with city Rastatt is a city in the District of Rastatt, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Ulm (ˈʊlm is a City in the German Bundesland of Baden-Württemberg, situated on the River Danube. Landau or Landau in der Pfalz (pop 41821 is an autonomous ( kreisfrei) city surrounded by the Südliche Weinstraße ("Southern Wine Route"
A Federal Assembly under Austrian presidency met in Frankfurt (the Habsburg Emperor and the King of the United Kingdom and Hanover were represented by 'envoy'). The Federal Assembly (Bundesversammlung was the only central institution of the German Confederation from 1815 until 1848 and from 1850 until 1866 The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Hanover (i ( haˈnoːfɐ on the river Leine, is the capital of the federal state of Lower Saxony ( Niedersachsen
During the revolution of 1848/49 the German Confederation was inactive. It was revived in 1850 under Austrian presidency, but rivalry between Prussia and Austria grew more and more.
The Confederation was dissolved in 1866 after the Austro-Prussian War, and was 'succeeded' in 1866 by the Prussian-dominated North German Federation. The Austro-Prussian The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of Unlike the German Confederation, the North German Federation was in fact a true state. Its territory comprised the parts of the German Confederation north of the river Main, plus Prussia's eastern territories and the Duchy of Schleswig, but excluded Austria and the southern German states. The Main (maɪn is a River in Germany, 524 km (329 miles long (including White Main 574 km (357 mi and it is one of the more significant tributaries
Prussia's influence was widened by the Franco-Prussian War resulting in the proclamation of the German Empire at Versailles on January 18, 1871, which united the North German Federation with the southern German states. The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification Versailles (vɛʀsaj in French) formerly de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common All the constituent states of the former German Confederation became part of the Kaiserreich in 1871, except Austria, Luxembourg, and Liechtenstein. Luxembourg (Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg Grand-Duché de Luxembourg Großherzogtum Luxemburg is a small Landlocked country in Western Europe, bordered by The Principality of Liechtenstein (Fürstentum Liechtenstein) is a tiny doubly landlocked Alpine country in Western Europe, bordered by Switzerland
Impact of the French Revolution and the Napoleonic invasions
The late 18th century was a period of political, economic, intellectual, and cultural reforms, the Enlightenment (represented by figures such as Locke, Rousseau, Voltaire, and Adam Smith), but also involving early Romanticism, and climaxing in the French Revolution, where freedom of the individual and nation was asserted against privilege and custom. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. François-Marie Arouet ( 21 November 1694 30 May 1778) better known by the Pen name Voltaire, was a French Adam Smith ( baptised 16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish moral philosopher and a pioneer of Political economy. Romanticism is a complex artistic literary and intellectual movement that originated in the second half of the 18th century in Western Europe, and gained strength during the The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Representing a great variety of types and theories, they were largely a response to the disintegration of previous cultural patterns, coupled with new patterns of production, specifically the rise of industrial capitalism.
However, the defeat of Napoleon enabled conservative and reactionary regimes such as those of the Kingdom of Prussia, the Austrian Empire and Tsarist Russia to survive, laying the groundwork for the Congress of Vienna and the alliance that strove to oppose radical demands for change ushered in by the French Revolution. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. Tsar csar and tzar redirect here For other uses see Tsar (disambiguation. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of the major powers of Europe, chaired by the Austrian statesman Clemens Wenzel von Metternich The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The Great Powers at the Congress of Vienna in 1815 aimed to restore Europe (as far as possible) to its pre-war conditions by combating both liberalism and nationalism and by creating barriers around France. A great power is a Nation or State that has the ability to exert its influence on a global scale This article aims to give an historical overview of liberalism in Germany. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. With Austria's position on the continent now intact and ostensibly secure under its reactionary premier Klemens von Metternich, the Habsburg empire would serve as a barrier to contain the emergence of Italian and German nation-states as well, in addition to containing France. For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. But this reactionary balance of power, aimed at blocking German and Italian nationalism on the continent, was precarious.
After Napoleon's final defeat at Waterloo in 1815, the surviving member states of the defunct Holy Roman Empire joined to form the German Confederation (Deutscher Bund) — a rather loose organization, especially because the two great rivals, the Austrian Empire and the Prussian kingdom, each feared domination by the other. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Waterloo (watəʀˈloː is a Walloon Municipality located in the province of Walloon Brabant, Belgium. For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising
In Prussia the Hohenzollern rulers forged a centralized state. By the time of the Napoleonic Wars, Prussia was a socially and institutionally backward state, grounded in the virtues of its established military aristocracy (the Junkers), stratified by rigid hierarchical lines. Junkers (English pronunciation ə German pronunciation kɐ were the Landed nobility of Prussia and eastern Germany.
Apart from Prussia, in Germany as a whole (or more precisely in the many German states), the progress of industrialism was retarded by political disunity, conflicts of interests between nobility and merchants, and the guild system, which discouraged competition and innovation. While this kept the middle class small, affording the old order a measure of stability not seen in France, Prussia's vulnerability to Napoleon's military proved to many perceptive intellects among the old order that a fragile, divided, and backward Germany could be easy prey for its cohesive and industrializing neighbor. The middle class, in colloquial usage consists of those who have some economic independence but not a great deal of social Influence or power.
After 1815, Prussia's defeats by Napoleonic France highlighted the need for administrative, economic, and social reforms to improve the efficiency of the bureaucracy and encourage practical merit-based education. Inspired by the Napoleonic organization of German and Italian principalities, the reforms of Karl August von Hardenberg and Count Stein were conservative, enacted to preserve aristocratic privilege while modernizing institutions. Karl August Fürst von Hardenberg ( May 31, 1750 November 26, 1822) was a Prussian Statesman and Prime Minister Heinrich Friedrich Karl Reichsfreiherr vom und zum Stein ( October 25, 1757 &ndash June 29, 1831) commonly known as Baron vom Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations
The reforms laid the foundation for Prussia's future military might by professionalizing the military and decreeing universal military conscription. To industrialize within the framework of Prussian aristocratic institutions, land reforms ended the monopoly of the Junkers on landownership, thereby abolishing serfdom and many other feudal practices.
Romanticism, nationalism, and liberalism in the Vormärz era
| History of Germany |
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 |
| Ancient times |
| Germanic peoples |
| Migration Period |
| Frankish Empire |
| Medieval times |
| East Francia |
| Kingdom of Germany |
.svg/20px-Banner_of_the_Holy_Roman_Emperor_(after_1400).svg.png){kind=small} Holy Roman Empire |
 East Colonisation |
| Sectionalism |
| Building a nation |
 Confederation of the Rhine |
 German Confederation |
 German Revolutions of 1848 |
 German Reichsflotte Navy |
 North German Confederation |
| Unification of Germany |
| The German Reich |
| German Empire |
 World War I |
.svg/20px-Flag_of_Germany_(2-3).svg.png){kind=small} Weimar Republic |
 Nazi Germany |
 World War II |
| Post-war Germany since 1945 |
.svg/20px-Flag_of_Germany_(1946-1949).svg.png){kind=small} Occupation +  Ostgebiete |
| Expulsion of Germans |
FR Germany +  GDR |
| German reunification |
| Present day Germany |
| Federal Republic of Germany |
| Topical |
 Military history of Germany |
| Territorial changes of Germany |
| Timeline of German history |
| History of the German language |
Although the forces unleashed by the French Revolution were seemingly under control after the Vienna Congress, the conflict between conservative forces and liberal nationalists was only deferred at best. Despite the lack of a German nation state prior to 1871 the History of Germany dates back to the era of the Germanic tribes. The Germanic peoples are a historical group of Indo-European -speaking peoples originating in Northern Europe and identified by their use of the Germanic The Migration Period, also called Barbarian Invasions, or sometimes Völkerwanderung ( German for "wandering of peoples" is the English name Francia or Frankia, later also called the Frankish Empire (imperium Francorum Frankish Kingdom (Latin regnum Francorum, "Kingdom of the East ( ern) Francia ( Regnum Francorum orientalium) known variously as Francia Orientalis or the Kingdom of the East Franks, was the The Kingdom of Germany grew out of East Francia in the tenth century The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in This article covers the medieval eastward migrations of Germans de Kleinstaaterei is a German word mainly used for the political situation in Germany and neighbouring regions during the Holy Roman Empire. The Confederation of the Rhine or Rhine Confederation (Rheinbund États confédérés du Rhin officially and Confédération du Rhin in practice) lasted " Germany " at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 had been a collection of 39 States loosely bound together in the German Confederation. The Reichsflotte (Imperial Fleet was the first all- German Navy. The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of The unification of Germany took place on January 18, 1871, when Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck managed to unify a number of independent Deutsches Reich was the name for Germany from 1871 to 1945 in the German language. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification During World War I, the German Empire was one of the Central Powers that ultimately lost the war The term Weimar Republic ( ˈvaɪmarɐ repuˈbliːk is used by historians to signify the democratic and Republican period of Germany from 1919 to 1933 Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The history of Germany during World War II closely parallels that of Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler. As a consequence of Germany 's defeat in World War II and the onset of the Cold War, the country was split between the two global blocs in the East and West The Allied powers who defeated Nazi Germany in World War II divided the country west of the Oder-Neisse line into four occupation zones for administrative The former eastern territories of Germany (ehemalige deutsche Ostgebiete describes collectively those Provinces or Regions east of the current eastern The expulsion of Germans after World War II was the Forced migration and Ethnic cleansing of German nationals ( Reichsdeutsche) and ethnic West Germany ( Inf German: Westdeutschland or West-Deutschland) was the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany ( The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state German reunification (Deutsche Wiedervereinigung took place twice after 1945 first in 1957 the Saarland was permitted to join the Federal Republic of Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. While German -speaking peoples have a long history Germany as a Nation-state dates only from 1871. Background German settlement in Eastern Europe See also History of German settlement in Eastern Europe Part of the motivation behind the territorial This is a timeline of German history. To read about the background to these events see History of Germany. High German Old High German See also Old High German The earliest testimonies of Old High German are from scattered Elder Futhark The era until the failed 1848 revolution, in which these tensions built up, is commonly referred to as Vormärz ("pre-March"), in reference to the outbreak of riots in March 1848.
This conflict pitted the forces of the old order against those inspired by the French Revolution and the Rights of Man. The sociological breakdown of the competition was, roughly, one side engaged mostly in commerce, trade and industry, and the other side associated with landowning aristocracy or military aristocracy (the Junker) in Prussia, the Habsburg monarchy in Austria, and the conservative notables of the small princely states and city-states in Germany.
Meanwhile, demands for change from below had been fermenting since the influence of the French Revolution. Throughout the German Confederation, Austrian influence was paramount, drawing the ire of the nationalist movements. Metternich considered nationalism, especially the nationalist youth movement, the most pressing danger: German nationalism might not only repudiate Austrian dominance of the Confederation, but also stimulate nationalist sentiment within the Austrian Empire itself. In a multi-national polyglot state in which Slavs and Magyars outnumbered the Germans, the prospects of Czech, Slovak, Hungarian, Polish, Serb, or Croatian sentiment along with middle class liberalism was certainly horrifying.
The Vormärz era saw the rise of figures like August Heinrich Hoffmann von Fallersleben, Ludwig Uhland, Georg Herwegh, Heinrich Heine, Georg Büchner, Ludwig Börne and Bettina von Arnim. ( April 2, 1798 - January 19, 1874) who used as his pen name was a German Poet. Johann Ludwig Uhland ( April 26, 1787 &ndash November 13, 1862) was a German Poet. Georg Friedrich Rudolph Theodor Herwegh (1817 - 1875 son of an innkeeper was born in Stuttgart. Christian Johann Heinrich Heine ( December 13, 1797 – February 17, 1856) was a Journalist, Essayist and one of the Karl Georg Büchner ( October 17, 1813 &ndash February 19, 1837) was a German Dramatist and Writer of prose Karl Ludwig Börne ( 6 May 1786 - 12 February 1837) was a German political Writer and Satirist. Bettina Brentano von Arnim (the Countess of Arnim) ( 4 April 1785, Frankfurt am Main &ndash 20 January 1859, Berlin Father Friedrich Jahn's gymnastic associations exposed middle class German youth to nationalist and democratic ideas, which took the form of the nationalistic and liberal democratic college fraternities known as the Burschenschaften. Friedrich Ludwig Jahn ( August 11 1778 &ndash October 15 1852) was a German Prussian Gymnastics educator German Burschenschaften (abbreviated B!, plural B!B!) are a special type of Studentenverbindungen The Wartburg Festival in 1817 celebrated Martin Luther as a proto-German nationalist, linking Lutheranism to German nationalism, and helping arouse religious sentiments for the cause of German nationhood. Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer The festival culminated in the burning of several books and other items that symbolized reactionary attitudes. Reactionary (also reactionist) is a derogatory term usually used by the Left wing in regards to movements which oppose radical change in society and seeks a return One item was a book by August von Kotzebue. August Friedrich Ferdinand von Kotzebue (ˈaʊgʊst fɔn ˈkɔtsəbu May 3, 1761 &ndash March 23, 1819) was a German Dramatist In 1819, Kotzebue was accused of spying for Russia, and then murdered by a theological student, Karl Ludwig Sand, who was executed for the crime. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Karl Ludwig Sand ( Wunsiedel, then in Prussia, October 5, 1795 - Mannheim, May 20, 1820) was a German Sand belonged to a militant nationalist faction of the Burschenschaften. Metternich used the murder as a pretext to issue the Carlsbad Decrees of 1819, which dissolved the Burschenschaften, cracked down on the liberal press, and seriously restricted academic freedom. The Carlsbad Decrees were a set of social restrictions introduced in the German Confederation by Prince Klemens Wenzel von Metternich on 20 September Academic freedom is the belief that the freedom of inquiry by students and faculty members is essential to the mission of the academy
Economic integration
During this period, Prussia continued to repress liberalism and enact reform from above. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state Further efforts to improve the confederation began in 1834 with the establishment of a customs union, the Zollverein. A customs union is a Free trade area with a Common external tariff. The Zollverein or German Customs Union was formed among the majority of the states of the German Confederation in 1834 during the Industrial Revolution In 1834, the Prussian regime sought to stimulate wider trade advantages and industrialism by decree — a logical continuation of the program of Stein and Hardenberg less than two decades earlier. Inadvertently, these reforms sparked the unification movement and augmented a middle class demanding further political rights, but at the time backwardness and Prussia's fears of its stronger neighbors were greater concerns. The customs union opened up a common market, ended tariffs between states, and standardized weights, measures, and currencies within member states (excluding Austria), forming the basis of a proto-national economy.
By 1842 the Zollverein included most German states. Within the next twenty years the output of German furnaces increased fourfold. Coal production grew rapidly as well. In turn, German industry (especially the works established by the Krupp family) introduced the steel gun, cast-steel axles, and a breech loading rifle, exemplifying Germany's successful application of technology to weaponry. The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their Steel production and for their manufacture of Germany's security was greatly enhanced, leaving the Prussian state and the landowning aristocracy secure from outside threat. German manufacturers also produced heavily for the civilian sector. No longer would Britain supply half of Germany's needs for manufactured goods, as it did beforehand.
However, by developing a strong industrial base, the Prussian state strengthened the middle class and thus the nationalist movement. Economic integration, especially increased national consciousness among the German states, made political unity a far likelier scenario. Germany finally began exhibiting all the features of a proto-nation.
The crucial factor enabling Prussia's conservative regime to survive the Vormärz era was a rough coalition between leading sectors of the landed upper class and the emerging commercial and manufacturing interests. Landed property or landed estates is a Real estate term that usually refers to a property that generates income for the owner without the owner having to Marx and Engels, in their analysis of the abortive 1848 Revolutions, defined such a coalition: "a commercial and industrial class which is too weak and dependent to take power and rule in its own right and which therefore throws itself into the arms of the landed aristocracy and the royal bureaucracy, exchanging the right to rule for the right to make money. " 1 It is necessary to add that, even if the commercial and industrial element is weak, it must be strong enough (or soon become strong enough) to become worthy of co-optation, and the French Revolution terrified enough perceptive elements of Prussia's Junkers for the state to be sufficiently accommodating.
While relative stability was maintained until 1848, with enough bourgeois elements still content to exchange the "right to rule for the right to make money", the landed upper class found its economic base sinking. While the Zollverein brought economic progress and helped to keep the bourgeoisie at bay for a while, it increased the ranks of the middle class swiftly - the very social base for the nationalism and liberalism that the Prussian state sought to stem. The Zollverein or German Customs Union was formed among the majority of the states of the German Confederation in 1834 during the Industrial Revolution
The Zollverein was a move toward economic integration, modern industrial capitalism, and the victory of centralism over localism, quickly bringing to an end the era of guilds in the small German princely states. This led to the 1844 revolt of the Silesian Weavers, who saw their livelihood destroyed by the flood of new manufactures. Etymology One theory claims that the name Silesia is derived from the Silingi, who were most likely a Vandalic (East Germanic people
The Zollverein also weakened Austrian domination of the Confederation as economic unity increased the desire for political unity and nationalism.
The Revolutions of 1848
News of the 1848 Revolution in Paris quickly reached discontented bourgeois liberals, republicans and more radical workingmen. " Germany " at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 had been a collection of 39 States loosely bound together in the German Confederation. The February 1848 Revolution in France ended the reign of King Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic (1848-1852 Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city
The first revolutionary uprisings in Germany began in the state of Baden in March 1848. Baden is a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. Within a few days, there were revolutionary uprisings in other states including Austria, and finally in Prussia.
On March 15, 1848, the subjects of Friedrich Wilhelm IV of Prussia vented their long-repressed political aspirations in violent rioting in Berlin, while barricades were erected in the streets of Paris. Events 44 BC - Julius Caesar, Dictator of the Roman Republic, is stabbed to death by Marcus Junius Brutus, Year 1848 ( MDCCCXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Life Frederick William was educated by private tutors many of whom were experienced civil servants such as Friedrich Ancillon. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. King Louis-Philippe of France fled to Great Britain. Louis Philippe ( 6 October 1773 &ndash 26 August 1850) was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 in what was known as the See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands Friedrich Wilhelm gave in to the popular fury, and promised a constitution, a parliament, and support for German unification. A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity But at least his regime was still standing.
On May 18 the Frankfurt Parliament opened its first session, with delegates from various German states. Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine. The Frankfurt Parliament ( German: Frankfurter Nationalversammlung, literally Frankfurt National Assembly) was the first freely elected Parliament It was immediately divided between those favoring a kleindeutsche (small German) or grossdeutsche (greater German) solution. The Kleindeutsche Lösung ("Lesser German Solution" was a 19th century political idea postulating the idea of a unified Germany consisting of the members Großdeutschland ( German for "Greater Germany" or "Large Germany" is a term referring to the concept of one German Nation-state The former favored offering the imperial crown to Prussia. The latter favored the Habsburg crown in Vienna, which would integrate Austria proper and Bohemia (but not Hungary) into the new Germany. Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. Bohemia (Čechy; Bohemia Czechy is a historical region in central Europe, occupying the western two-thirds of the traditional Czech Lands, currently the Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic
From May to December, the Assembly eloquently debated academic topics while conservatives swiftly moved against the reformers. As in Austria and Russia, this middle-class assertion increased authoritarian and reactionary sentiments among the landed upper class, whose economic position was declining. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending They turned to political levers to preserve their rule. As the Prussian army proved loyal, and the peasants were uninterested, Friedrich Wilhelm regained his confidence. The Assembly issued its Declaration of the Rights of the German people, a constitution was drawn up (excluding Austria which openly rejected the Assembly), and the leadership of the Reich was offered to Friedrich Wilhelm, who refused to "pick up a crown from the gutter". Thousands of middle class liberals fled abroad, especially to the United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the
In 1849, Friedrich Wilhelm proposed his own constitution. His document concentrated real power in the hands of the King and the upper classes, and called for a confederation of North German states (the Erfurt Union). The Erfurt Union (Erfurter Union was a short-lived union of German states under a Federation, proposed by the Kingdom of Prussia at Erfurt, Austria and Russia, fearing a strong, Prussian-dominated Germany, responded by pressuring Saxony and Hanover to withdraw, and forced Prussia to abandon the scheme in a treaty dubbed the "humiliation of Olmütz". The Punctation of Olmütz (Olmützer Punktation also called the Agreement of Olmütz, was a treaty between Prussia and Austria, dated November 29
Bismarck and the Wars of Unification
Shortly after the "humiliation of Olmütz", a new generation of statesmen responded to popular demands for national unity for their own ends, continuing Prussia's tradition of autocracy and reform from above. An autocracy is a Form of government in which the Political power is held by a single self-appointed ruler It takes very able leadership to drag along the less perceptive reactionary elements, and Germany found it to accomplish the seemingly paradoxical task of conservative modernization. Bismarck, in fact, was appointed by Wilhelm IV of Prussia (the future Kaiser Wilhelm I) to circumvent the liberals in the Landtag who resisted Wilhelm's autocratic militarism. Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) A Landtag ( Diet) is a representative assembly or Parliament in German-speaking countries with some legislative authority Gradually Bismarck won over the middle class, reacting to the revolutionary sentiments expressed in 1848 by providing them with the economic opportunities for which the urban middle sectors had been fighting.
Territorial legacy
The current countries whose territory were partly or entirely located inside the boundaries of German Confederation 1815–1866 are:
- Austria (all states except Burgenland)
- Luxembourg (entire territory)
- Liechtenstein (entire territory)
- Netherlands (province of Limburg - the province joined the Confederation after 1839)
- Czech Republic (entire territory)
- Poland (West Pomeranian Voivodship, Lubusz Voivodship, Lower Silesian Voivodship, Opole Voivodship, part of Silesia), temporary: Poznan (Posen) Territory, formerly South-east Prussia, formerly Free City of Gdansk (Danzig)
- Belgium (German-speaking community and some other territory at the east of the province of Liège); the larger province of Luxembourg had left the Confederation at its accession to Belgium in 1839
- Italy (autonomous northern regions of Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol and the Provinces of Trieste and Gorizia)
- Croatia (the Pazin territory in Istria county and the coastal strip between Opatija and Plomin inLiburnia)
- The Danish crown had been a member only in chief of its duchy of Holstein. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Germany (Deutschland is a Federal Republic consisting of sixteen States, known in German as Länder (singular Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Austria is a federal republic made up of nine States, known in German as Länder (singular Land) Burgenland ( Croatian Gradišće, Slovenian Gradiščansko, Hungarian Várvidék, Őrvidék or Felsőőrvidék Luxembourg (Groussherzogtum Lëtzebuerg Grand-Duché de Luxembourg Großherzogtum Luxemburg is a small Landlocked country in Western Europe, bordered by The Principality of Liechtenstein (Fürstentum Liechtenstein) is a tiny doubly landlocked Alpine country in Western Europe, bordered by Switzerland The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Limburg ( Dutch: (Nederlands Limburg is the southern-most of the twelve provinces of the Netherlands. The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, Slovenia, officially the Republic of Slovenia (Republika Slovenija) is a Country in southern Central Europe bordering Italy to the west Prekmurje (Muravidék is the easternmost region of Slovenia. It borders Hungary to the north-east Austria to the north-west Croatia to the Koper (Capodistria is a coastal town and municipality and the largest commercial Port in Slovenia, on the coast of the Adriatic Sea. Izola ( Italian: Isola or Isola d'Istria) is an old fishing Town and a Municipality in southwestern Slovenia on the Piran ( Italian Pirano) is a Town and Municipality in southwestern Slovenia on the Adriatic coast along the Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland West Pomeranian Voivodeship (also known by its Polish name of województwo zachodniopomorskie or simply Zachodniopomorskie) is a voivodeship Lubusz Voivodeship (also known as Lubusz Province or by its Polish name of województwo lubuskie or simply Lubuskie) is a voivodeship (province Lower Silesian Voivodeship (also known as Lower Silesia Province or by its Polish name of województwo dolnośląskie {{IPA-pl|d|o|l|n|o|'|ś|l|ą|s|k|j|e}} Opole Voivodeship (also known as Opole Province or by its Polish name of województwo opolskie or simply Opolskie; Woiwodschaft Oppeln/Oppelner Schlesien Silesian Voivodeship (also known as Silesia Province or by its Polish name of województwo śląskie or simply Śląskie) is a Voivodeship The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those The German-speaking Community of Belgium (Deutschsprachige Gemeinschaft Belgiens DGB) is one of the three federal communities in Belgium. List of Governors 1830 - 1831 Etienne de Sauvage (Liberal 1831 - 1832 Jean-François Tielemans (Liberal Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol ( Italian: Trentino-Alto Adige; German: Trentino-Südtirol; Ladin: Trentin-Adesc Aut The Province of Trieste (Provincia di Trieste Tržaška pokrajina is a province in the autonomous Friuli-Venezia Giulia region of Italy. The Province of Gorizia (Italian Provincia di Gorizia, Slovenian: Goriška pokrajina) is a province in the autonomous Friuli-Venezia Croatia (Hrvatska ˈxȓvatska officially the Republic of Croatia ( Republika Hrvatska) is a southern Central European country at the crossroads between Pazin ( Italian: Pisino, German: Mitterburg) is a town in Istria, Croatia, population 4986 (2001 total municipality population Istria County (Istarska Županija Italian: Regione Istriana) is the westernmost county of Croatia which includes the biggest part of the Istrian Opatija (Sankt Jakobi Italian: Abbazia) is a Town in western Croatia, just southwest of Rijeka on the Adriatic coast Plomin (Fianona is a village in the Croatian part of Istria, situated approximately 11 km north of Labin, on an 80 meters high hill Liburnia in ancient geography was the land of the Liburnians, a region along the northeastern Adriatic coast in Europe, which is today part of Croatia Holstein (ˈhɔlʃtain ( Low German: Holsteen, Danish: Holsten, Latin and historical English: Holsatia) Schleswig first joined as part of Prussia following the Second War of Schleswig (1864). The First Schleswig War occurred in 1848–1851. The Second Schleswig War (2
See also
- States of the German Confederation
- List of German monarchs
- History of Germany
- Holy Roman Empire
- German Empire
- North German Confederation
- Former countries in Europe after 1815
Notes
1 See Karl Marx, Selected Works, II. The States of the German Confederation were those member states that from June 20, 1815 were part of the German Confederation, which lasted with some changes This article lists the German monarchs, ruling over the territory of Germany from the creation of a separate Eastern Frankish Kingdom in 843 until the end of monarchy Despite the lack of a German nation state prior to 1871 the History of Germany dates back to the era of the Germanic tribes. The Holy Roman Empire ( HRE; German Heiliges Römisches Reich (HRR, Latin Sacrum Romanum Imperium (SRI was a union of territories in The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of This article gives an overview of countries (including puppet-countries that existed in Europe after the Congress of Vienna in 1815 , "Germany: Revolution and Counter-Revolution", written mainly by Engels.
References
- ^ Deutsche Geschichte 1848/49, Meyers Konversationslexikon 1885–1892
Sources
- Westermann, Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte (in German, detailed maps)
- WorldStatesmen- here Germany; also links to a map on rootsweb.com
- Barrington Moore, Jr. 1993 [1966]. Social Origins of Dictatorship and Democracy. Boston: Beacon Press.
External links
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