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The Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Plant in Iceland
The Nesjavellir Geothermal Power Plant in Iceland
Renewable energy
Wind Turbine
Biofuels
Biomass
Geothermal
Hydro power
Solar power
Tidal power
Wave power
Wind power

Geothermal power (from the Greek words geo, meaning earth, and thermal, meaning heat) is energy generated by heat stored beneath the Earth's surface or the collection of absorbed heat in the atmosphere and oceans. Nesjavellir is the largest Geothermal power plant in Iceland. Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by Hydropower, ie the production of power through use of the gravitational force of falling water Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life Tidal power, sometimes called tidal energy, is a form of Hydropower that converts the energy of Tides into electricity or other useful forms of power Wave power refers to the Energy of Ocean surface waves and the capture of that energy to do useful work — including Electricity generation, Wind Power is the conversion of wind energy into a useful form such as electricity using Wind turbines At the end of 2007 worldwide capacity of wind-powered generators was Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Prince Piero Ginori Conti tested the first geothermal generator on 4 July 1904, at the Larderello dry steam field in Italy. Larderello is a Frazione of the Comune of Pomarance, in Tuscany in central Italy. [1] The largest group of geothermal power plants in the world is located in The Geysers, a geothermal field in California. A power station (also referred to as generating station, power plant or powerhouse) is an industrial facility for the generation of The Geysers, a Geothermal power field located 72 miles (116 km north of San Francisco, California, is the largest geothermal development in the world [2] As of 2007, geothermal power supplies less than 1% of the world's energy. [3]

Contents

Advantages

Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland
Krafla Geothermal Station in northeast Iceland

Geothermal energy offers a number of advantages over traditional fossil fuel based sources. From an environmental standpoint, the energy harnessed is clean and safe for the surrounding environment. [4] It is also sustainable because the hot water used in the geothermal process can be re injected into the ground to produce more steam. In addition, geothermal power plants are unaffected by changing weather conditions. [5] Geothermal power plants work continuously, day and night, making them base load power plants. Baseload (also base load, or baseload demand) is the minimum amount of power that a utility or distribution company must make available to its customers or the amount From an economic view, geothermal energy is extremely price competitive in some areas and reduces reliance on fossil fuels and their inherent price unpredictability. [6] It also offers a degree of scalability: a large geothermal plant can power entire cities while smaller power plants can supply more remote sites such as rural villages. [7]

Disadvantages

There are several environmental concerns behind geothermal energy. Construction of the power plants can adversely affect land stability in the surrounding region. This is mainly a concern with Enhanced Geothermal Systems, where water is injected into hot dry rock where no water was before. Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy (HDR is a type of Geothermal power production that uses the very high temperatures (approx 200 Celsius that can be found in rocks [8] Dry steam and flash steam power plants also emit low levels of carbon dioxide, nitric oxide, and sulfur, although at roughly 5% of the levels emitted by fossil fuel power plants. [7] However, geothermal plants can be built with emissions-controlling systems that can inject these gases back into the earth, thereby reducing carbon emissions to less than 0. 1% of those from fossil fuel power plants. [9]

Although geothermal sites are capable of providing heat for many decades, eventually specific locations may cool down. It is likely that in these locations, the system was designed too large for the site, since there is only so much energy that can be stored and replenished in a given volume of earth. Some interpret this as meaning a specific geothermal location can undergo depletion, and question whether geothermal energy is truly renewable. If left alone, however, these places will recover some of their lost heat, as the mantle has vast heat reserves. The mantle is a part of an Astronomical object. The interior of the Earth, similar to the other Terrestrial planets, is Chemically divided An assessment of the total potential for electricity production from the high-temperature geothermal fields in Iceland gives a value of about 1500 MWh or 15 TWh per year over a 100 year period. The electricity production capacity from geothermal fields is now only 1. 3 TWh per year. [10]

Potential

If heat recovered by ground source heat pumps is included, the non-electric generating capacity of geothermal energy is estimated at more than 100 GW (gigawatts of thermal power) and is used commercially in over 70 countries. A geothermal heat pump system is a heating and/or an Air conditioning system that uses the Earth's ability to store heat in the ground and water Thermal During 2005, contracts were placed for an additional 0. 5 GW of capacity in the United States, while there were also plants under construction in 11 other countries. [11]

Estimates of exploitable worldwide geothermal energy resources vary considerably. According to a 1999 study, it was thought that this might amount to between 65 and 138 GW of electrical generation capacity 'using enhanced technology'. [12]

A 2006 report by MIT, that took into account the use of Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS), concluded that it would be affordable to generate 100 GWe (gigawatts of electricity) or more by 2050 in the United States alone, for a maximum investment of 1 billion US dollars in research and development over 15 years. Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy (HDR is a type of Geothermal power production that uses the very high temperatures (approx 200 Celsius that can be found in rocks The United States of America —commonly referred to as the [11]

The MIT report calculated the world's total EGS resources to be over 13,000 ZJ. The joule (written in lower case ˈdʒuːl or /ˈdʒaʊl/ (symbol J) is the SI unit of Energy measuring heat, Electricity Of these, over 200 ZJ would be extractable, with the potential to increase this to over 2,000 ZJ with technology improvements - sufficient to provide all the world's energy needs for several millennia. A millennium (pl millennia) is a period of Time equal to one thousand Years (from Latin la mille, thousand and la annum [11]

The key characteristic of an EGS (also called a Hot Dry Rock system), is that it reaches at least 10 km down into hard rock. At a typical site two holes would be bored and the deep rock between them fractured. Water would be pumped down one and steam would come up the other. The MIT report estimated that there was enough energy in hard rocks 10 km below the United States to supply all the world's current needs for 30,000 years. [11]

Drilling at this depth is now possible in the petroleum industry, albeit it is expensive. (Exxon announced an 11 km hole at the Chayvo field, Sakhalin. Lloyds List 1/5/07 p 6) Wells drilled to depths greater than 4000 metres generally incur drilling costs in the 10's of millions of dollars. The technological challenges are to drill wide bores at low cost and to break rock over larger volumes. Apart from the energy used to make the bores, the process releases no greenhouse gases.

Other important countries are China, Hungary, Mexico, Iceland, and New Zealand. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island There are a number of potential sites being developed or evaluated in South Australia that are several kilometres in depth. South Australia is a state of Australia in the southern central part of the country

History of development


Geothermal steam and hot springs have been used for centuries for bathing and heating, but it wasn't until the 20th century that geothermal power started being used to make electricity. A hot spring is a spring that is produced by the emergence of geothermally heated Groundwater from the earth's crust.

Prince Piero Ginori Conti tested the first geothermal power generator on 4 July 1904, at the Larderello dry steam field in Italy. Events 836 - Pactum Sicardi, peace between the Principality of Benevento and the Duchy of Naples Year 1904 ( MCMIV) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year starting on Larderello is a Frazione of the Comune of Pomarance, in Tuscany in central Italy. It was a small generator that lit four light bulbs. [13] Later, in 1911, the world's first geothermal power plant was built there. Year 1911 ( MCMXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year It was the world's only industrial producer of geothermal electricity until 1958, when New Zealand built a plant of its own. Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island

The first Geothermal power plant in the United States was made in 1922 by John D. Year 1922 ( MCMXXII) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Grant at The Geysers Resort Hotel. The Geysers, a Geothermal power field located 72 miles (116 km north of San Francisco, California, is the largest geothermal development in the world After drilling for more steam, he was able to generate enough electricity to light the entire resort. Eventually the power plant fell into disuse, as it was not competitive with other methods of energy production. [14]

In 1960, Pacific Gas and Electric began operation of the first successful geothermal power plant in the United States at The Geysers. Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The original turbine installed lasted for more than 30 years and produced 11 MW net power. The Geysers are currently owned by the Calpine corporation and the Northern California Power agency; and it currently produces over 750 MW of power. [14]

Development around the world

Geothermal power is generated in over 20 countries around the world including Iceland, the United States, Italy, Germany, France, Samogitia (Lithuania), New Zealand, Mexico, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Russia, the Philippines, Indonesia, the People's Republic of China, Japan and Saint Kitts and Nevis. Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Samogitia ( Samogitian: Žemaitėjė, Žemaitija literally lowlands) is one of the five Ethnographic Regions of Lithuania. Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Federation of Saint Kitts and Nevis (also known as the Federation of Saint Christopher and Nevis) located in the Leeward Islands, is a federal two-island Chevron Corporation is the world's largest producer of geothermal energy. Canada's government (which officially notes some 30,000 earth-heat installations for providing space heating to Canadian residential and commercial buildings) reports a test geothermal-electrical site in the Meager Mountain-Pebble Creek area of British Columbia, where a 100 MW facility could be developed. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Mount Meager, also called the Meager Group, Meager Mountain, Mount Meager Volcanic Complex or Meager Creek Volcanic Field (sometimes mistakenly British Columbia (ˌbrɪtɨʃ kəˈlʌmbiə ( BC) ( (la Colombie-Britannique C

Africa

Geothermal power is very cost-effective in the Rift area of Africa. The Great Rift Valley is a name given in the late 19th century by English explorer John Walter Gregory to the continuous geographic trough approximately in length that runs Kenya was the first African country to build geothermal energy sources. The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south Geothermal power (from the Greek roots geo, meaning earth and therme, meaning heat is energy generated by heat stored in the earth or the collection Kenya's KenGen has built two plants, Olkaria I (45 MW) and Olkaria II (65 MW), with a third private plant Olkaria III (48 MW). The Republic of Kenya is a country in East Africa. It is bordered by Ethiopia to the north Somalia to the northeast Tanzania to the south Plans are to increase production capacity by another 576 MW by 2017, covering 25% of Kenya's electricity needs, and correspondingly reducing dependency on imported oil. Hot spots have been found across the continent, especially in the Great Rift Valley. The Great Rift Valley is a name given in the late 19th century by English explorer John Walter Gregory to the continuous geographic trough approximately in length that runs

Australia

Main article: Geothermal energy exploration in Central Australia

Chile

Chile currently has no geothermal power plants but has a geothermal capacity of 16,000 MW for at least 50 years. Geothermal energy exploration in Central Australia is an area of considerable activity which involves finding vast blocks of " hot rocks " with fracture systems that Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the The thermal spring areas are located in quaternary volcanic zones in the Andes such as El Tatio, Liquiñe and Cordón Caulle. The Andes form the world's longest exposed Mountain range. They lie as a continuous chain of highland along the western coast of South America. El Tatio Geyser Field (locally known as Los Géiseres del Tatio is located within the Andes Mountains of northern Chile at 4200 meters above mean Liquiñe is a village in Liquiñe Valley in the Panguipulli municipality Valdivia Province, Chile. Cordón Caulle is a Fissure vents system located in Los Lagos Region of Chile. [15]

Iceland

Main article: Geothermal power in Iceland

Iceland is situated in an area with a high concentration of volcanoes, making it an ideal location for generating geothermal energy. Because of the special geological situation in Iceland, the high concentration of Volcanoes and Geothermal energy are very often used for Heating and 19. 1% of Iceland's electrical energy is generated from geothermal sources[16]. In addition, geothermal heating is used to heat 87% of homes in Iceland. Geothermal heating has been used since the time of the Roman Empire as a way of heating Buildings and Spas by utilizing sources of hot Water Icelanders plan to be 100% non-fossil fuel in the near future. [17]

Mexico

Mexico has the third greatest geothermal energy production with an installed capacity of 959. 50 MW by December 2007, this represents 3. 24% of its total electricity generated. [18][19][20]

New Zealand

New Zealand has operated geothermal power stations since the 1950s. First developments were at Wairakei and Kawerau (direct heat and power). Other stations are Ohaaki,Rotokawa,Poihipi, Nagwha and Mokai.

See: Geothermal power in New Zealand
See: Kawerau geothermal power station
See: Wairakei geothermal power

Geothermal power plant in Valencia, Negros Oriental, Philippines
Geothermal power plant in Valencia, Negros Oriental, Philippines

New Zealand geothermal fields [2]

North Dominica

North Dominica recently installed a geothermal power plant near the city of Opravy. Geothermal power in New Zealand is a small but significant part of the energy generation capacity of the country, providing approximately 7% of the country's electricity The Kawerau geothermal power station is a 90-megawatt Geothermal power plant located just outside the town of Kawerau in the Bay of Plenty region New Wairakei is the name of a power station small settlement and a geothermal area a few kilometres north of Taupo, in the centre of the North Island Valencia is a first class municipality in the province of Negros Oriental, Philippines. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP

Portugal

Portugal has a geothermal power plant on São Miguel Island, in the Azores islands. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. São Miguel Island ( pron sɐ̃ũ mi'gɛɫ Portuguese for Saint Michael nicknamed "The Green Island", is the largest and most populous The Azores ( Açores ɐˈsoɾɨʃ or) is a Portuguese Archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean, about 1500 km (950  mi) from

Philippines

The Geothermal Education Office and a 1980 article entitled "The Philippines geothermal success story" by Rudolph J. Birsic published in the journal Geothermal Energy (vol. 8, Aug. -Sept. 1980, p. 35-44) note the remarkable geothermal resources of the Philippines. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP [21][22] During the World Geothermal Congress 2000 held in Beppu, Ōita Prefecture of Japan (May-June 2000), it was reported that the Philippines is the largest consumer of electricity from geothermal sources and highlighted the potential role of geothermal energy in providing energy needs for developing countries. is a city located in Ōita Prefecture on the island of Kyūshū, Japan. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP [23]

According to the International Geothermal Association (IGA), worldwide, the Philippines ranks second to the United States in producing geothermal energy. As of the end of 2003, the US has a capacity of 2020 megawatts of geothermal power, while the Philippines can generate 1930 megawatts. (Mexico is third with 953 MW according to IGA). [24] Early statistics from the Institute for Green Resources and Environment stated that Philippine geothermal energy provides 16% of the country's electricity. [25] By 2005, geothermal energy accounted for 17. 5% of the country's electricity production. [26]. More recent statistics from the IGA show that combined energy from geothermal power plants in the islands of Luzon, Leyte, Negros and Mindanao account for approximately 27% of the country's electricity generation. Leyte is one of the islands in the Philippines where the first geothermal power plant started operations in July 1977. [22]

Russia

There is a geothermal plant on the north slope of Mutnovsky volcano in Kamchatka, presumably supplying power to Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky

Saint Kitts and Nevis

The island of Nevis, long known for its numerous hot springs, commenced drilling for the construction of a geothermal powerplant at Spring Hill, Nevis, in January 2008. Mutnovsky (Мутновский is a volcano located in the southern part of Kamchatka Peninsula, Russia. Petropavlovsk-Kamchatsky (Петропа́вловск-Камча́тский is the main city and the administrative industrial scientific and cultural center of NEVIS, or New Exhaust Valve & Intake System, is a type of Internal combustion engine developed by Cesare Bortone in cooperation with the University When completed (estimated 2010), the plant will supply 50 megawatts of electricity, enough to fulfill all of Nevis' demand (approximately 10 megawatts), and also enough to export to neighbouring Saint Kitts as well as other nearby islands via submarine electrical transmission cables. Saint Kitts (also known more formally as Saint Christopher Island ( Saint-Christophe in French) is an Island in the West Indies The project, being undertaken by West Indies Power, will make Saint Kitts and Nevis the first country in the Caribbean to utilize large-scale Geothermal energy, and, when complete, will make Saint Kitts and Nevis one of the least dependent nations in the world on fossil-fuels. [27]

United Kingdom

Main article: Geothermal power in the United Kingdom

Turkey

Main article: Geothermal power in Turkey

Turkey currently has the 5th highest direct utilization and capacity of geothermal energy in the world. Turkey currently has the 5th highest direct utilization and capacity of geothermal energy in the world [28]

The West Ford Flat power plant is one of 21 power plants at The Geysers
The West Ford Flat power plant is one of 21 power plants at The Geysers

United States

Main article: Geothermal energy in the United States

The United States of America is the country with the greatest geothermal energy production. The Geysers, a Geothermal power field located 72 miles (116 km north of San Francisco, California, is the largest geothermal development in the world Geothermal energy in the United States continues to be an area of considerable activity [29]

The largest dry steam field in the world is The Geysers, 72 miles (116 km) north of San Francisco. The Geysers, a Geothermal power field located 72 miles (116 km north of San Francisco, California, is the largest geothermal development in the world The City and County of San Francisco is the fourth most populous city The Geysers began in 1960, has 1360 MW of installed capacity and produces over 750 MW net. The watt (symbol W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one Joule of energy per Second. Calpine Corporation now owns 19 of the 21 plants in The Geysers and is currently the United States' largest producer of renewable geothermal energy. Calpine Corporation ( is a power company founded in 1984 with headquarters in San Jose California. The other two plants are owned jointly by the Northern California Power Agency and the City of Santa Clara's municipal Electric Utility (now called Silicon Valley Power). Santa Clara California (ˌsæntəˈklærə founded in 1777 and incorporated in 1852 is a city in Santa Clara County, in the U Silicon Valley Power (SVP is a not-for-profit municipal electric utility owned and operated by the city of Santa Clara California, USA Since the activities of one geothermal plant affects those nearby, the consolidation plant ownership at The Geysers has been beneficial because the plants operate cooperatively instead of in their own short-term interest. The Geysers is now recharged by injecting treated sewage effluent from the City of Santa Rosa and the Lake County sewage treatment plant. Santa Rosa is the Spanish name for Saint Rose. It may also refer to Places Argentina Santa Rosa La Pampa Lake County is a County located in the north central portion of the U This sewage effluent used to be dumped into rivers and streams and is now piped to the geothermal field where it replenishes the steam produced for power generation.

Another major geothermal area is located in south central California, on the southeast side of the Salton Sea, near the cities of Niland and Calipatria, California. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. The Salton Sea is an inland Saline lake, occupying the lowest elevations of the Salton Sink, part of the larger Colorado Desert in Southern Niland is a Census-designated place (CDP in Imperial County, California, United States. Calipatria is a city in Imperial County, California, United States. As of 2001, there were 15 geothermal plants producing electricity in the area. CalEnergy owns about half of them and the rest are owned by various companies. Combined the plants have a capacity of about 570 megawatts.

The Basin and Range geologic province in Nevada, southeastern Oregon, southwestern Idaho, Arizona and western Utah is now an area of rapid geothermal development. The Basin and Range Province is a large geologic province which includes parts of the southwestern United States and northwestern Mexico, typified by Basin and Nevada ( is a state located in the western region of the United States of America. Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. The State of Idaho ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States of America. The State of Arizona ( is a state located in the southwestern region of the United States. The State of Utah (ˈjuːtɔː or) is a western state of the United States. Several small power plants were built during the late 1980s during times of high power prices. Rising energy costs have spurred new development. Plants in Nevada at Steamboat near Reno, Brady/Desert Peak, Dixie Valley, Soda Lake, Stillwater and Beowawe now produce about 235 MW. Dixie Valley Nevada was a ranching community in Churchill County Nevada. Beowawe (beɪoˈwɑːwiː bay-o-WAH-wee is an unincorporated area and Ghost town in Eureka County, in northeastern Nevada in the western United States

See also

References

  1. ^ THE CELEBRATION OF THE CENTENARY OF THE GEOTHERMAL-ELECTRIC INDUSTRY WAS CONCLUDED IN FLORENCE ON DECEMBER 10th, 2005 in IGA News #64, April - June 2006. Hot Dry Rock Geothermal Energy (HDR is a type of Geothermal power production that uses the very high temperatures (approx 200 Celsius that can be found in rocks Because of the special geological situation in Iceland, the high concentration of Volcanoes and Geothermal energy are very often used for Heating and A geothermal heat pump system is a heating and/or an Air conditioning system that uses the Earth's ability to store heat in the ground and water Thermal A geothermal heat pump system is a heating and/or an Air conditioning system that uses the Earth's ability to store heat in the ground and water Thermal Geothermal desalination is a proven process under development for the production of Fresh water using heat energy. Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal Renewable heat is an application of Renewable energy. It refers to the renewable generation of heat rather than electrical power The Geysers, a Geothermal power field located 72 miles (116 km north of San Francisco, California, is the largest geothermal development in the world This is a list of renewable energy topics by country. The list refers to Renewable energy in general as well as Solar power, Wind power, Geothermal Publication of UGI/Italian Geothermal Union.
  2. ^ [1] Calpine Corporation page on The Geysers
  3. ^ January 2007 IEA Fact sheet: "Renewables in Global Energy Supply"
  4. ^ Geothermal Energy
  5. ^ Kenya Looks Underground for Power
  6. ^ Overview, U. The International Energy Agency ( IEA, or AIE in Romance languages) is a Paris -based intergovernmental organization founded by the Organisation S. Department of Energy
  7. ^ a b Geothermal Energy
  8. ^ "Energy search goes underground", Yahoo! News, Associated Press, 2007-08-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Retrieved on 2007-09-11. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 9 - The Battle of the Teutoburg Forest ends 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul  
  9. ^ Golob, Richard & Brus, Eric. (1993) The Almanac of Renewable Energy. New York: Henry Holt & Co. ISBN 0-8050-1948-0
  10. ^ Sverrisdottir, Valgerdur. Valgerður Sverrisdóttir (born March 23, 1950) is an Icelandic politician Energy in Iceland: The Resource, its Utilisation and the Energy Policy. Presentation at the Iceland National Hydrogen Association's 11th Annual U. S. Hydrogen Meeting and Exposition, 1 March 2000. Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant 2000 ( MM) was a Leap year that started on Saturday of the Common Era, in accordance with the Gregorian calendar. Retrieved on 31 October 2007
  11. ^ a b c d The Future of Geothermal Energy, Idaho National Laboratory
  12. ^ Geothermal Energy Association - Washington, DC (http). Events 445 BC – Ezra reads the Book of the Law to the Israelites in Jerusalem (see Nehemiah 91 NLTse Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved on 2007-02-07. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 457 - Leo I becomes emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 1074 - Battle of Montesarchio in which the Prince
  13. ^ Tiwari, G. N. ; Ghosal, M. K. Renewable Energy Resources: Basic Principles and Applications. Alpha Science Int'l Ltd. , 2005 ISBN 1842651250
  14. ^ a b A History of Geothermal Energy in the United States. U. S. Department of Energy, Geothermal Technologies Program. Retrieved on 2007-09-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 506 - The Bishops of Visigothic Gaul meet in the Council of Agde.
  15. ^ Present Status of Geothermal Exploration in Chile. Retrieved on 2008-05-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1416 - The Council of Constance, called by the Emperor Sigismund a supporter of Antipope John XXIII burns Jerome of Prague following
  16. ^ International Energy Agency, Energy Statistic - Electricity/Heat in Iceland in 2005. Retrieved on 2007-04-24. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1479 BC - Thutmose III ascends to the throne of Egypt, although power effectively shifts to Hatshepsut (according to
  17. ^ Energy Statistics in Iceland. Orkustofnun (Iceland Energy Authority). Retrieved on 2006-09-20. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 451 - The Battle of Chalons takes place in North Eastern France.
  18. ^ Federal Comission of Electricity of Mexico/Geothermal-electric production 2007
  19. ^ Main aspects of geothermal energy in Mexico
  20. ^ IGA electricity generation for Mexico
  21. ^ Geothermal Education Office - The Philippines
  22. ^ a b Birsic, R. J. The Philippines geothermal success story Geothermal Energy (vol. 8, Aug. -Sept. 1980, p. 35-44)
  23. ^ World Geothermal Congress 2000
  24. ^ IGA electricity generation for Mexico
  25. ^ Institute for Green Resources and Environment: Asian Geothermal Symposium
  26. ^ International Energy Agency, Energy Statistic - Electricity/Heat in Philippines in 2005. Retrieved on 2007-04-24. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1479 BC - Thutmose III ascends to the throne of Egypt, although power effectively shifts to Hatshepsut (according to
  27. ^ Geothermal Development Drilling Begins on Nevis
  28. ^ Lund, J. W. , Freeston, D. H. , & Boyd, T. L. (2005). Direct application of geothermal energy: 2005 Worldwide review. Geothermics, 34, 691-727. http://dx.doi.org/ doi:10. 1016/j. geothermics. 2005. 09. 003
  29. ^ All About Geothermal Energy - Current Use. Geothermal Energy Association. Retrieved on 2007-01-25. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 41 - After a night of negotiation Claudius is accepted as Roman Emperor by the Senate

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