Johann Georg Adam Forster (November 27, 1754^[1] – January 10, 1794) was a German naturalist, ethnologist, travel writer, journalist, and revolutionary. Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, also known as Goethe-Tischbein (born 15 February 1751 in Haina; died 26 February 1828 Events 1095 - Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont Year 1754 ( MDCCLIV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signaling the start of civil war. Year 1794 ( MDCCXCIV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Natural history is the Scientific research of Plants or Animals leaning more towards the Observational than Experimental methods Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and Travel literature is Travel writing considered to have value as Literature. A journalist (also called a newspaperman) is a person who practices Journalism, the gathering and dissemination of information about current events trends A revolutionary when used as a noun is a person who either actively engages in some kind of Revolution, or advocates the revolution with recognition from some government or At an early age, he accompanied his father on several scientific expeditions, including James Cook's second voyage to the Pacific. Captain James Cook FRS RN ( – 14 February 1779) was an English Explorer, Navigator and The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions His report from that journey, A Voyage Round the World, contributed significantly to the ethnology of the people of Polynesia and remains a respected work among both scientists and ordinary readers. Polynesia (from Greek: πολύς many, νῆσος island) is a Subregion of Oceania, comprising a large grouping of over As a result of the report Forster was admitted to the Royal Society at the early age of twenty-two and came to be considered one of the founders of modern scientific travel literature. The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660

After returning to continental Europe, Forster turned towards academia. He traveled to Paris to seek out a discussion with the American revolutionary Benjamin Franklin in 1777. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Benjamin Franklin ( April 17 1790 was one of the Founding Fathers of the United States of America. Year 1777 ( MDCCLXXVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common He taught natural history at the Collegium Carolinum in Kassel (1778-1784), and later at Academy of Vilna (Vilnius University) (1784–1787). Natural history is the Scientific research of Plants or Animals leaning more towards the Observational than Experimental methods Collegium Carolinum may refer to the historic building of the Charles University in Prague a former scientific society in Kassel founded 1709 Kassel (until 1926 officially Cassel) is a city situated along the Fulda River in northern Hessen, Germany, one of the two sources of the Vilnius University (Vilniaus Universitetas formerly known as Vilnius State University, earlier - Stefan Batory University and before that Almae He then (1788) became head librarian at the University of Mainz. The Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz (Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz is a University in Mainz, Rhineland Palatinate, Germany, named Most of his scientific work during this time consisted of essays on botany and ethnology, but he also prefaced and translated many books about travels and explorations, including a German translation of Cook's diaries. Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life

Forster was a central figure of the Enlightenment in Germany, and corresponded with most of its adherents, including his close friend Georg Christoph Lichtenberg. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Georg Christoph Lichtenberg ( 1 July 1742 – 24 February 1799) was a German Scientist, Satirist and His ideas and personality influenced Alexander von Humboldt, one of the greatest scientists of the 19th century]. (September 14 1769 &ndash May 6 1859 was a German naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of the Prussian minister philosopher and linguist When the French took control of Mainz in 1792, Forster became one of the founders of the Jacobin Club there and went on to play a leading role in the Mainz Republic, the earliest republican state in Germany. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. The Jacobin Club was the largest and most powerful political club of the French Revolution. The Republic of Mainz was the first democratic state on the current German territory and was centered in Mainz. Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty During July 1793 and while he was in Paris as a delegate of the young Mainz Republic, Prussian and Austrian coalition forces regained control of the city and Forster was declared an outlaw. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising Habsburg Monarchy (alternatively Habsburg Empire) refers to the territories ruled by the Austrian branch of the House of Habsburg, and then by the successor Unable to return to Germany and separated from his friends and family, he died in Paris of illness in early 1794.

Contents 1 Early life 2 Around the world with Captain Cook 3 A founder of modern travel literature 4 Forster at universities 5 Views from the Lower Rhine 6 Life as a revolutionary 6.1 Foundation of the Mainz Republic 6.2 Death in revolutionary Paris 7 Views on nations and their culture 8 Heritage 9 Works 10 References 11 External links

Early life

Forster was born in the small village of Nassenhuben (Mokry Dwór} near Danzig (Gdańsk), in the Polish province of Royal Prussia. Mokry Dwór may refer to the following places in Poland: Mokry Dwór in Gmina Święta Katarzyna, Wrocław County in Lower Silesian Gdańsk ( Polish pronunciation; 'Danzig', Gduńsk Gedania Dantiscum is the City at the centre of the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in Poland Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Royal Prussia ( Prusy Królewskie was a province of the Kingdom of Poland from 1466 and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772

He was the oldest of seven surviving children of Johann Reinhold Forster and Justina Elisabeth (née Nicolai). Johann Reinhold Forster ( October 22, 1729 &ndash December 9, 1798) was a German naturalist of partial Scottish His father was a naturalist, scientist and a Reformed pastor. The Reformed churches are a group of Christian Protestant Denominations formally characterized by a similar Calvinist system of doctrine historically A pastor is an official person within a Protestant group of people and related to the positions of Priest or Bishop within the Anglican, Roman Catholic In 1765, the Russian tsarina Catherine II gave the pastor an assignment to travel in Russia on a research journey and investigate the situation of a German colony at the Volga River. The Russian Empire ( Pre-reform Russian: Pоссійская Имперія Modern Russian: Российская Империя translit: Rossiyskaya Tsaritsa (царица цари́ца formerly spelled czaritsa (and in English usually rendered tsarina or czarina, which possess non- Catherine II, called Catherine the Great (Екатерина II Великая Yekaterina II Velikaya;) reigned as Empress of Russia for 34 years The Volga Germans (Wolgadeutsche or Russlanddeutsche) were Ethnic Germans living along the Volga River in the region of southern European Russia Georg, then ten years old, joined him. They reached the Kirghiz steppe at the lower Volga. Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced On the journey, they discovered several new species. ^[2] The young Forster learned there how to conduct scientific research and how to practise cartography. He also became fluent in Russian. Russian ( transliteration:,) is the most geographically widespread language of Eurasia, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages

The report from this journey, which included sharp criticism of the governor of Saratov, was not well-received at court, and the Forsters did not obtain fair payment for their work^[3] and had to move house. History The Legend of Saratov Gelonus, a legendary Scythian city and the northernmost Greek colony may be conjectured to have been situated in the locality They chose to settle in England in 1766. The father took up teaching at the Dissenter's Academy in Warrington^[4] and also translation work. The term dissenter (from the Latin dissentire, “to disagree” labels one who dissents or disagrees in matters of opinion belief etc Warrington is a large town borough and Unitary authority area in Cheshire, England. The young Forster, only thirteen years old, published his first book: an English translation of Lomonosov's history of Russia,^[5] which was well-received in scientific circles. Mikhail Vasilyevich Lomonosov (Михаи́л Васи́льевич Ломоно́сов () was a Russian Polymath, scientist ^[6]

Around the world with Captain Cook

In 1772, Forster's father Johann became a member of the Royal Society. The National Maritime Museum (NMM in Greenwich, England is the leading Maritime museum of the United Kingdom and may be the largest museum The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 This and the withdrawal of Joseph Banks^[5] resulted in his invitation by the British admiralty to join James Cook's second expedition to the Pacific (1772–1775). Sir Joseph Banks 1st Baronet, GCB, PRS (13 February 1743 &ndash 19 June 1820 was an English naturalist, botanist and patron of The Kingdom of Great Britain, also known as the United Kingdom of Great Britain, was a State in northwest Europe, in existence from 1707 to 1800 The Admiralty was formerly the authority in the United Kingdom responsible for the command of the Royal Navy. Captain James Cook FRS RN ( – 14 February 1779) was an English Explorer, Navigator and Captain James Cook FRS RN ( – 14 February 1779) was an English Explorer, Navigator and The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions Georg Forster joined his father in the expedition again and was appointed as a draughtsman to his father. A technical drawing is a form of graphic communication This type of Drawing is used in the transforming of an idea into physical form Johann Forster's task was to work on a scientific report from the journey that was to be published after their return. ^[7]

They embarked on the HMS Resolution on July 13, 1772 in Plymouth. Events 1174 - William I of Scotland, a key rebel in the Revolt of 1173-1174, is captured at Alnwick by forces loyal to Year 1772 ( MDCCLXXII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Plymouth ( is a city and unitary authority area on the coast of Devon, England about south west of London. The route led first to the South Atlantic, then through the Indian Ocean and the Southern Ocean to the island of Polynesia and finally around Cape Horn back to England, where the expedition arrived on July 30, 1775. The Indian Ocean is the third largest of the world's Oceanic divisions covering about 20% of the water on the Earth 's surface The Southern Ocean, also known as the Great Southern Ocean, the Antarctic Ocean and the South Polar Ocean, comprises the southernmost waters of Polynesia (from Greek: πολύς many, νῆσος island) is a Subregion of Oceania, comprising a large grouping of over Cabo de Hornos redirects here for the Chilean commune see Cabo de Hornos Chile. Events 1419 - First Defenestration of Prague. 1502 - Christopher Columbus lands at Guanaja in the Bay Islands off Year 1775 ( MDCCLXXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a During the three-year journey, the explorers visited New Zealand, the Tonga islands, New Caledonia, Tahiti, the Marquesas Islands and Easter Island. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island The Kingdom of Tonga is an Archipelago in the south Pacific Ocean comprising 169 islands 36 of them inhabited stretching over a distance of about 800 kilometres (500 miles For the former North American fur-trading district see New Caledonia (Canada, and for the Scottish colony in Panama see Darien scheme. Tahiti is the largest Island in the Windward group of French Polynesia, located in the Archipelago of Society Islands in the They went further south than anybody before them, almost discovering Antarctica. The journey conclusively disproved the Terra Australis Incognita theory, which claimed there was a big, habitable continent in the South. Terra Australis ( Latin, "land of the south" was a theorized continent appearing on European maps from the 15th to the 18th century ^[2]

Supervised by his father, Georg Forster first took up the studies of zoology and botanics of the southern seas, mostly by drawing animals and plants. Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life However, Georg also pursued his own interests which led to completely independent explorations in comparative geography and ethnology. Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and He quickly learned the languages of the Polynesian islands. His reports on the people of Polynesia are approved even to this day, as they show Forster's endeavours to describe the habitants of the southern islands with empathy, sympathy and largely without Western or Christian prejudices. Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings ^[8]

Unlike Louis Antoine de Bougainville, whose reports from a journey to Tahiti a few years earlier had initiated uncritical noble savage romanticism, Forster had a very sophisticated picture of the societies of the South Pacific islands. William Hodges ( October 28, 1744, London - March 6, 1797) was an English painter. Louis-Antoine comte de Bougainville ( November 12 1729 Paris - August 31 1811 Paris) was a French navigator and military In the eighteenth-century cult of " Primitivism " the noble savage, uncorrupted by the influences of civilization was considered more worthy more authentically noble A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions ^[8] He described various social structures and religions that he encountered on the Society Islands, the Easter Island and in Tonga and New Zealand, and ascribed this diversity to the difference in living conditions of these people. Social structure is a term frequently used in Sociology and Social theory — yet rarely defined or clearly conceptualised (Abercrombie et al A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos The Society Islands ( French: Îles de la Société or officially Archipel de la Société) are a group of Islands in the south Pacific At the same time he also observed that the languages of these fairly widely-scattered islands are quite similar. About the habitants of the Nomuka islands (in the Ha'apai island group of present-day Tonga), he wrote that their languages, vehicles, weapons, furniture, clothes, tattoos, style of beard, in short all of their being matched perfectly with what he had already seen while studying tribes on Tongatapu. However, he wrote, "we could not observe any subordination among them, though this had strongly characterised the natives of Tonga-Tabboo, who seemed to descend even to servility in their obeisance to the king. "^[9]

The ethnographical items that were collected by Georg and Reinhold Forster are currently presented as the Cook-Forster-Sammlung (Cook-Forster Collection) in the Sammlung für Völkerkunde anthropological collection in Göttingen. Ethnography ( Greek ethnos = people and graphein = writing is a genre of writing that uses Fieldwork to provide a descriptive The Sammlung für Völkerkunde ( German for Ethnological Collection) at the Institute of Cultural and Social Anthropology of the University of Göttingen Göttingen ( ˈgœtɪŋən, Low German: Chöttingen is a College town in Lower Saxony, Germany. ^[10] Another collection of items collected by the Forsters is on display at the Pitt Rivers Museum in Oxford. The Pitt Rivers Museum is a Museum displaying the archaeological and anthropological collections of the University of Oxford. ^[11]

The journey was rich in scientific results. However, the relationship between the Forsters and Cook and his officers was often problematic, due to the elder Forster's fractious temperament^[2] as well as Cook's refusal to allow more time for botanizing and other scientific observation. Cook refused scientists on his third journey after his experiences with the Forsters. ^[5]

A founder of modern travel literature

These conflicts continued after the journey with the problem of who should write the official account of the travels. Lord Sandwich, although willing to pay the promised money, was irritated with Johann Reinhold Forster's opening chapter and tried to establish an editor over him. John Montagu 4th Earl of Sandwich, PC, FRS ( 3 November 1718 &ndash 30 April 1792) succeeded his grandfather However, Forster did not want to have his writing corrected "like a theme of a School-boy," and stubbornly refused any compromise in this direction. ^[12] As a result, the official account was written by Cook, and the Forsters were deprived of the right to compile the account and did not obtain payment for their work. During the negotiations, the younger Forster decided to release an unofficial account of the travel. In 1777, the book A Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5 was published. This report was the first account of Cook's second voyage (it appeared six weeks before the official publication) and was intended for the general public. The English version and his own translation to German (published 1778–1780) earned the young author real fame. The poet Christoph Martin Wieland praised the book as the most important one of his time, and even today it remains one of the most important journey descriptions ever written. Christoph Martin Wieland ( September 5, 1733 &ndash January 20, 1813) was a German Poet and writer The book also had a significant impact on German literature, culture and science. For instance, Alexander von Humboldt was under its great influence^[13] and it inspired many ethnologists of later times. (September 14 1769 &ndash May 6 1859 was a German naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of the Prussian minister philosopher and linguist Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and

Forster wrote well-polished German prose, which was not only scientifically accurate and objective, but also exciting and easy to read. This was different from conventional travel literature of the time, insofar as it present more than a mere collection of data - it also demonstrated coherent, colourful and reliable ethnographical facts that resulted from detailed and sympathetic observation. Travel literature is Travel writing considered to have value as Literature. Ethnography ( Greek ethnos = people and graphein = writing is a genre of writing that uses Fieldwork to provide a descriptive He often interrupted the description to enrich it with philosophical remarks about the observations. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language ^[14] His main focus was always on the people he encountered: their behaviour, their customs, habits, religions and forms of social organisation. In A Voyage round the World he even presented the songs sung by the people of Polynesia, complete with lyrics and notation. Polynesia (from Greek: πολύς many, νῆσος island) is a Subregion of Oceania, comprising a large grouping of over See also Modern musical symbols Music notation or musical notation is any system which represents aurally perceived Music through the use The book is one of the most important sources concerning the societies of the Southern Pacific from the times before European influence had become significant there.

Both Forsters also published descriptions of their South Pacific travels in the Magazin von merkwürdigen neuen Reisebeschreibungen ("Magazine of strange new travel accounts") in Berlin, and Georg published a translation of "A Voyage to the South Sea, by Lieutenant William Bligh, London 1792" in 1791–1793. Vice-Admiral William Bligh FRS RN (9 September 1754 – 7 December 1817 was an officer of the British Royal Navy and a colonial administrator

Forster at universities

The publication of A Voyage round the World brought Forster scientific recognition all over Europe. The respectable Royal Society nominated him as a member on 1777-01-09^[15] although he was not even 23 years old. The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 Year 1777 ( MDCCLXXVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 475 - Byzantine Emperor Zeno is forced to flee his capital at Constantinople. He was granted similar titles from Academies ranging from Berlin to Madrid. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. Madrid (pronounced in English in Spanish and colloquially in Spain) is the Capital and largest city of Spain. These achievements did not give him money though. In 1778, he went to Germany to take a teaching position as a Natural History professor at the Collegium Carolinum in Kassel, where he met Therese Heyne, a classical philologist's daughter. Kassel (until 1926 officially Cassel) is a city situated along the Fulda River in northern Hessen, Germany, one of the two sources of the Therese Huber ( 7 May 1764 - 15 June 1829) was a German author See Comparative linguistics for the narrower field of "comparative philology" She later became one of the first independent female writers in Germany. They married in 1785 (which was after he left Kassel) and had three children, but their marriage was not happy. From the time in Kassel on, Forster was in active correspondence with important figures of the Enlightenment, including Lessing, Herder, Wieland and Goethe. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Gotthold Ephraim Lessing ( 22 January, 1729 15 February, 1781) was a German Writer, Philosopher, Dramatist Johann Gottfried von Herder ( August 25, 1744 December 18, 1803) was a German philosopher, Poet, and Literary Christoph Martin Wieland ( September 5, 1733 &ndash January 20, 1813) was a German Poet and writer ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfgaŋ fɔn ˈgøːtə (in English generally ˈgɝːtə 28 August 1749 22 March 1832 was a German writer He also initiated cooperation between the Carolinum in Kassel and the University of Göttingen where his friend Georg Christoph Lichtenberg worked. Georg Christoph Lichtenberg ( 1 July 1742 – 24 February 1799) was a German Scientist, Satirist and Together, they founded and published the scientific and literary journal Göttingisches Magazin der Wissenschaften und Litteratur. ^[5] Forster's closest friend, Samuel Thomas von Sömmering, arrived in Kassel shortly after Forster, and both were soon involved with the Rosicrucians in Kassel. Samuel Thomas von Sömmerring ( 28 January 1755 &ndash 2 March 1830) was a German Physician, Anatomist, The term Rosicrucian (symbol the Rose Cross) describes a secret society of mystics allegedly formed in late mediaeval Germany, holding a doctrine "built on

However, by 1783 Forster saw that his involvement with the Rosicrucians not only led him away from real science, but also deeper into debt^[5] (he had never been very good at managing his own expenses^[2]); for these reason Forster was happy to accept a proposal by the Polish Komisja Edukacji Narodowej (Commission of National Education) and became Chair of Natural History at Vilnius University in 1784. The Commission of National Education (Komisja Edukacji Narodowej abbreviated KEN) was the central educational authority in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, created Vilnius University (Vilniaus Universitetas formerly known as Vilnius State University, earlier - Stefan Batory University and before that Almae ^[3] Initially, he was accepted well in Vilnius, but he felt more and more isolated with time. Most of his contacts were still with scientists in Germany; especially notable is his dispute with Immanuel Kant about the definition of race. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg The term race or racial group usually refers to the concept of categorizing Humans into Populations or groups on the basis of various sets ^[5] In 1785, Forster travelled to Halle where he submitted his thesis about the plants of the South Pacific for a doctorate in medicine. The Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg (Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg also referred to as MLU, is a public University in the cities of ^[16] Back in Vilnius, Forster's ambitions to build a real natural history scientific centre could not get appropriate financial support from the Polish authorities. Moreover, his famous speech on natural history in 1785 went almost unnoticed and was not printed until 1843. These events led to high tensions between him and the local community. ^[17] Eventually, he broke the contract six years short of its completion as Catherine II of Russia had given him an offer to take part in a journey around the world for a high honorarium and a position as a professor in Saint Petersburg. Catherine II, called Catherine the Great (Екатерина II Великая Yekaterina II Velikaya;) reigned as Empress of Russia for 34 years Saint Petersburg ( tr: Sankt-Peterburg,) is a city and a federal subject of Russia located on the Neva River ^[18] This resulted in a conflict between Forster and the influential Polish scientist Jędrzej Śniadecki. Jędrzej Śniadecki (archaic Andrew Sniadecki November 30, 1768 1768 May 12, 1838) was a Polish Writer, Physician However, the Russian proposal was withdrawn and Forster left Vilnius. He then settled in Mainz, where he became head librarian of the University of Mainz, a position his friend Johannes von Müller had held before, who made sure Forster would succeed him when Müller moved to the administration of Elector Friedrich Karl Josef von Erthal. Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. The Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz (Johannes Gutenberg-Universität Mainz is a University in Mainz, Rhineland Palatinate, Germany, named Johannes von Müller ( January 3, 1752 - May 29, 1809) was a Swiss Historian. Friedrich Karl Joseph Reichsfreiherr von Erthal ( 1719-01-03 - 1802-07-25) was Electoral prince and archbishop of Mainz from 1774-07-18 ^[5]

Forster regularly published essays on the scientific and discovery expeditions of his times and continued to be a very prolific translator; for instance, he wrote about Cook's third journey to the South Pacific, and about the Bounty expedition, as well as translating Cook's and Bligh's diaries from these journeys into German. Captain James Cook FRS RN ( – 14 February 1779) was an English Explorer, Navigator and For the book about the mutiny by Charles Nordhoff and James Norman Hall see Mutiny on the Bounty (novel. From his London years, Forster was in contact with the private scholar Sir Joseph Banks, the initiator of the Bounty expedition and a participant in Cook's first journey. Sir Joseph Banks 1st Baronet, GCB, PRS (13 February 1743 &ndash 19 June 1820 was an English naturalist, botanist and patron of While at the University of Vilnius he wrote the article, "Neuholland und die brittische Colonie in Botany-Bay", published in the Allgemeines historisches Taschenbuch, (Berlin,Dezember 1786), a remarkably prescient essay on the future prospects of the English colony founded in New South Wales in 1788. ^[19]

Another field of his interest was indology (One of the main goals of his failed expedition to be financed by Catherine II had been to reach India). Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country He translated the Sanskrit play Shakuntala using a Latin version provided by Sir William Jones: this strongly influenced Herder and triggered German interest in the culture of India. Sanskrit (sa संस्कृता वाक् saṃskṛtā vāk, for short sa संस्कृतम् saṃskṛtam) is a historical In Hindu mythology Shakuntala ( Sanskrit: शकुन्‍तला Śakuntalā) is the mother of Emperor Bharata and the wife of Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Sir William Jones ( September 28, 1746 &ndash April 27, 1794) was an English philologist and student of ancient India Johann Gottfried von Herder ( August 25, 1744 December 18, 1803) was a German philosopher, Poet, and Literary ^[8]

Views from the Lower Rhine

In the spring of 1790, Forster and the young Alexander von Humboldt started from Mainz on a long journey through the Southern Netherlands, the United Provinces, and England, which eventually finished in Paris. (September 14 1769 &ndash May 6 1859 was a German naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of the Prussian minister philosopher and linguist The Southern Netherlands (Zuidelijke Nederlanden Países Bajos del Sur Pays-Bas du sud were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain ( Spanish "United Netherlands" redirects here For the "Kingdom of the United Netherlands" see United Kingdom of the Netherlands. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The impressions from the journey were described in a three volume publication Ansichten vom Niederrhein, von Brabant, Flandern, Holland, England und Frankreich im April, Mai und Juni 1790 (Views of the Lower Rhine, from Brabant, Flanders, Holland, England, and France in April, May and June 1790), published 1791–1794. Goethe said about the book: "One wants, after one has finished reading, to start it over, and wishes to travel with such a good and knowledgeable observer. " The book includes considerations in the field of the history of art that were as influential for the discipline as A Voyage round the world was for ethnology. The history of art usually refers to the History of the Visual arts, such as Painting, Sculpture and Architecture. Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and Forster belongs, for example, to the first writers who gave just treatment to the Gothic architecture of Cologne Cathedral,^[5] which was widely perceived as "barbarian" at that time. See also Gothic art Gothic architecture is a style of Architecture which flourished during the high and late medieval period. Cologne Cathedral (Kölner Dom officially de Hohe Domkirche St

Forster's main interest, however, was again focused on the social behaviour of people, as 15 years earlier in the Pacific. The national uprisings in Flanders and Brabant and of course the revolution in France sparked his curiosity. Flanders (Vlaanderen Flandre Flandern is a geographical region located in parts of present day Belgium, France, and the Netherlands. The Duchy of Brabant was a historical region in the Low Countries. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The journey through these regions, together with the Netherlands and England, where citizens' freedoms were equally well developed, in the end helped him to sort out his own political judgements. From that time on he started to be a confident opponent of the ancien régime. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in Similarly to other German scholars, he welcomed the outbreak of the revolution as a clear consequence of the Enlightenment. As early as July 30, 1789, shortly after he heard about the Storming of the Bastille, he wrote to his father-in-law, philologist Christian Gottlob Heyne that it was beautiful to see what philosophy had nurtured in people's minds and then had realized in the state. Events 1419 - First Defenestration of Prague. 1502 - Christopher Columbus lands at Guanaja in the Bay Islands off Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Storming of the Bastille in Paris occurred on 14 July 1789. Christian Gottlob Heyne ( September 25, 1729 – July 14, 1812) was a German Classical scholar and Archaeologist To educate people about their rights in this way, he wrote, was after all the surest way; the rest would then result as if by itself. ^[20]

Life as a revolutionary

Foundation of the Mainz Republic

The French revolutionary army under General Custine gained control over Mainz on October 21, 1792. Adam Philippe Comte de Custine ( February 4, 1740 &ndash August 28, 1793) was a French general Mainz (ˈmaɪ̯nʦ (Mayence is a City in Germany and the capital of the German federal state of Rhineland-Palatinate. Events 1512 - Martin Luther joins the theological faculty of the University of Wittenberg. Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Two days later, Georg Forster joined others in establishing a Jacobin Club called "Freunde der Freiheit und Gleichheit" ("Friends of Freedom and Equality") in the Electoral Palace. The Jacobin Club was the largest and most powerful political club of the French Revolution. The Electoral Palace in Mainz (Kurfürstliches Schloss zu Mainz is the former city Residenz of the Archbishop of Mainz, who was also Prince-Elector From early 1793 he was actively involved in organizing the Mainz Republic. The Republic of Mainz was the first democratic state on the current German territory and was centered in Mainz. This first republic located on German soil was constituted on the principles of democracy, and encompassed areas on the left bank of the Rhine between Landau and Bingen. Democracy is a form of government in which the supreme power is held completely by the people under a free electoral system The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge Landau or Landau in der Pfalz (pop 41821 is an autonomous ( kreisfrei) city surrounded by the Südliche Weinstraße ("Southern Wine Route" Bingen am Rhein (or Bingen or Bingen on the Rhine) is a city located at the junction of the rivers Rhine and Nahe in the district of Mainz-Bingen Forster became vice-president of the republic's temporary administration and a candidate in the elections to the local parliament, the Rheinisch-Deutscher Nationalkonvent (Rhenish-German National Convention). From January to March of 1793, he was an editor of Die neue Mainzer Zeitung oder Der Volksfreund (The new Mainz newspaper or The People's Friend). In his first article he wrote:

“

Die Pressefreiheit herrscht endlich innerhalb dieser Mauern, wo die Buchdruckerpresse erfunden ward. [21]

”

("The freedom of the press finally reigns within these walls where the printing press was invented. Freedom Constitutional or statutory protections pertaining to freedom of the press A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image ) The freedom did not last too long, though. The Mainz Republic existed only until the retreat of the French troops in July 1793 after the Siege of Mainz. In the Siege of Mainz (Belagerung von Mainz from 14 April &ndash 23 July 1793, a coalition of Prussia, Austria, and other

Forster was not present in Mainz during the siege. As representatives of the Mainz National Convention, he and Adam Lux had been sent to Paris to apply for Mainz — which was unable to exist as an independent state — to become a part of the French Republic. Adam Lux ( December 27, 1765 - November 4, 1793) was a German revolutionary and sympathiser of the French Revolution. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. The application was accepted, but had no effect, since Mainz was conquered by Prussian and Austrian troops, and the old order was restored. ^[22]

Death in revolutionary Paris

Based on a decree by Emperor Francis II inflicting punishments on German subjects who collaborated with the French revolutionary government, Forster was declared an outlaw in the name of the Emperor (under the Reichsacht), a prize of 100 ducats was set on his head and he could not return to Germany. James Gillray, sometimes spelled Gilray (born August 13, 1757 in Chelsea; died June 1, 1815) was a British A decree is an order made by a Head of state or government and having the force of Law. Francis II (Franz II Heiliger Römischer Kaiser ( 12 February 1768 &ndash 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling ^[5] Devoid of all means of making a living and without his wife, who had stayed in Mainz with their children and her later husband Ludwig Ferdinand Huber, he remained in Paris. Ludwig Ferdinand Huber ( September 14, 1764 - December 24, 1804) German author was born in Paris, the son of Michael Huber At this point the revolution in Paris had entered the stage of the Reign of Terror introduced by the Committee of Public Safety under the rule of Maximilien Robespierre. Saint justjpg|thumbnail|200px| Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just]] The Reign of Terror' (5 September 1793 &ndash 28 July 1794 or simply The Terror (la Terreur was The Committee of Public Safety (Comité de salut public le Haut Comité de la santé publique which is an entirely unrelated present-day institution--> set up by the Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (maksimiljɛ̃ fʁɑ̃swa maʁi izidɔʁ də ʁɔbɛspjɛʁ ( 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) Forster had the opportunity to experience the difference between the promises of the revolution of happiness for all and its cruel practice. In contrast to many other German supporters of the revolution, like for instance Friedrich Schiller, Forster did not turn back from his revolutionary ideals under the pressure of the terror regime. Johann Christoph Friedrich von Schiller krɪstɔf friːtʁɪç fɔn ʃɪləʁ/ʃɪlɐ (10 November 1759 9 May 1805 was a German Poet, Philosopher He viewed the events in France as a force of nature which could not be slowed down and which had to release its own energies to avoid being even more destructive. ^[5]

Yet before the reign of terror reached its climax, Georg Forster died of a stroke after a rheumatic illness^[3] in his small attic apartment at Rue des Moulins^[23] in Paris in January 1794, at the age of 39. A stroke is the rapidly developing loss of brain functions due to a disturbance in the blood vessels supplying blood to the brain

Views on nations and their culture

Forster had partial Scottish roots and was born in Polish Royal Prussia. Royal Prussia ( Prusy Królewskie was a province of the Kingdom of Poland from 1466 and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772 He worked in Russia, England, Poland and in several German countries of his times. Finally, he finished his life in France. He worked in different milieus and travelled a lot from his youth on. It was his view that this, together with his scientific upbringing based on the principles of the Enlightenment, gave him a wide perspective on different ethnic and national communities:

“

All peoples of the earth have equal claims to my good will. . . , and my praise and blame are independent of national prejudice. [24]

”

In his opinion all human beings have the same abilities with regard to reason, feelings and imagination, but these basic ingredients are used in different ways and in different environments, which gives rise to different cultures and civilisations. According to him it is obvious that the culture on Tierra del Fuego is at a lower level of development than the European culture, but he also admits that the conditions of life there are much more difficult and this gives people very little chance to develop a higher culture. Based on these opinions he was classified as one of the main examples of 18th century German cosmopolitanism. Cosmopolitanism is the idea that all of humanity belongs to a single Moral community. ^[25]

In contrast to the attitude expressed in these writings and to his Enlightenment background, he used insulting terms expressing prejudices against Poles in his private letters during his stay in Vilnius and in a diary from the journey through Poland,^[26][27][28] but he never published any manifestation of this attitude. ^[29] These insults only became known after his death, when his private correspondence and diaries were released to the public. Since Forster's published descriptions of other nations were seen as impartial scientific observations, Forster's disparaging description of Poland in his letters and diaries was often taken at face value in Imperial and Nazi Germany, where it was used as a means of science-based support for a purported German superiority. ^[30] The spreading of the "Polnische Wirtschaft" (Polish economy) stereotype^[31] is most likely due to the influence of his letters. ^[32][33]

Forster's attitude brought him into conflict with people of different nations he encountered and made him welcome nowhere, as he was too revolutionary and antinational for Germans,^[34] proud and opposing in his dealings with Englishmen,^[35] too unconcerned about Polish science for Poles,^[36][33] and too insignificant politically and ignored while in France. ^[37]

Heritage

After Forster's death his works were mostly forgotten, except in professional circles. This was partly due to his involvement in the French revolution. However, his reception changed with the politics of the times, with different periods focusing on different parts of his work. In the period of rising nationalism after the Napoleonic times he was regarded in Germany as a "traitor to his country", overshadowing the perception of his work as an author and scientist. This attitude rose even though the philosopher Friedrich Schlegel wrote about Forster at the beginning of 19th century:

“

Among all those authors of prose who are justified in laying claims to a place in the ranks of German classics, none breathes the spirit of free progress more than Georg Forster. Karl Wilhelm Friedrich (later von) Schlegel ( March 10, 1772 - January 12, 1829) was a German Poet [38]

”

Some interest in Forster's life and revolutionary actions was revived in the context of the liberal sentiments leading up to the 1848 revolution. " Germany " at the time of the Revolutions of 1848 had been a collection of 39 States loosely bound together in the German Confederation. ^[5]

Remembering Forster was ostracised in the Germany of Wilhelm II and more so in the Third Reich,^[39] where interest in Forster was limited to his stance on Poland from his private letters. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Interest in Forster resumed in the 1960s in East Germany, where Forster was interpreted as a champion of class struggle. The German Democratic Republic ( GDR; Deutsche Demokratische Republik DDR; commonly known in English as East Germany) was a Socialist state Class struggle is the active expression of Class conflict looked at from any kind of socialist perspective ^[40] The GDR research station in Antarctica that was opened on 1987-10-25 was named after Forster. Year 1987 ( MCMLXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays 1987 Gregorian calendar) Events 1147 - The Portuguese, under Afonso I, and Crusaders from England and Flanders conquer Lisbon after a ^[41] In West Germany, the search for democratic traditions in German history also lead to a more diversified picture of him in the 1970s. A scholarship program of the Alexander von Humboldt foundation for foreign scholars from developing countries is named after him. ^[42] His reputation as one of first and most outstanding German ethnologists is indisputable, and his works are seen as crucial in the development of ethnology in Germany into a separate branch of science. Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and ^[43]

Works

• A Voyage round the World in His Britannic Majesty's Sloop Resolution, Commanded by Capt. James Cook, during the Years, 1772, 3, 4, and 5 (1777)
• Journal of travels in Poland (August-November, 1784), The Warsaw Voice, 1990 31 8–9
• Dissertatio botanico-medica de plantis esculentis insularum oceani Australis (1785)
• Essays on the moral and natural geography, natural history and philosophy (1789–1797)
• Views of the Lower Rhine, Brabant, Flanders (three volumes, 1791–1794)
• "Neuholland und die brittische Colonie in Botany-Bay", Allgemeines historisches Taschenbuch: oder Abriss der merkwürdigsten neuen Welt-Begebenheiten für 1787, enthaltend Zusätze zu der für das Jahr 1786 herausgegebenen Geschichte der wichtigsten Staats- und Handelsveränderungen von Ostindien, von M. C. Sprengel, Professor der Geschichte auf der Universität zu Halle, Berlin, bei Haude und Spener, Dezember 1786, Zusatz 7, S. xxxiii-liv; supplement to: Historisch-genealogischer Calender oder Jahrbuch der merkwürdigsten neuen Weltbegebenheiten für 1787. Re-published in Georg Forster’s Kleine Schriften: Ein Beytrag zur Völker- und Länderkunde, Naturgeschichte und Philosophie des Lebens, gesammlet von Georg Forster, Erster Theil, Leipzig, Kummer, 1789, S. 233-74. (English translation at: web. mala. bc. ca/Black/AMRC/index. htm?home. htm&2)
• Letters (posthumous compilation of his correspondence, 1828)
• Werke in vier Bänden, Gerhard Steiner (editor). Leipzig 1971
• Ansichten vom Niederrhein, Gerhard Steiner (editor). Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1989. ISBN 3-458-32836-X
• Reise um die Welt, Gerhard Steiner (editor). Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1983. ISBN 3-458-32457-7
• Über die Beziehung der Staatskunst auf das Glück der Menschheit und andere Schriften, Wolfgang Rödel (editor). Frankfurt am Main: Insel, 1966. – A little collection of political essays, notes, and speeches of republican thinkers and writers.
• Georg Forsters Werke, Sämtliche Schriften, Tagebücher, Briefe, Deutschen Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin, G. Steiner et al. Berlin: Akademie 1958
• Georg Forster, Revolutions-Briefe, Kurt Kersten, Athenaeum Verlag, 1981

References

This article is partly based on a translation of the German Wikipedia article Georg Forster. The German Wikipedia (Deutschsprachige Wikipedia is the German-language edition of Wikipedia, a free and publicly editable online Encyclopedia. Johann Georg Adam Forster (November 27 1754 – January 10 1794 was a German naturalist, ethnologist, travel writer, Journalist

External links

• The Forster Collection at the Pitt Rivers Museum
• Georg Forster society in Kassel (German)
• Letter recommending Georg Forster to the Royal Society
• Edition of Forster's works at the Berlin-Brandenburg Academy of the Sciences (German)
• Drawing of a Chinstrap Penguin by Georg Forster
• Biography at the Australian Dictionary of Biography
• Forster comments after hearing of the death of Benjamin Franklin

Persondata
NAME	Forster, Johann Georg Adam
ALTERNATIVE NAMES	Forster, George
SHORT DESCRIPTION	naturalist and ethnologist
DATE OF BIRTH	November 1754
PLACE OF BIRTH	Mokry Dwór (German: Nassenhuben), near Danzig (Polish: Gdańsk), Royal Prussia, Poland
DATE OF DEATH	10 January 1794
PLACE OF DEATH	Paris

The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 The Chinstrap Penguin ( Pygoscelis antarcticus) is a species of Penguin which is found in the South Sandwich Islands, Antarctica the South Orkneys The Australian Dictionary of Biography (ADB or AuDB is a multi-volume project published by Melbourne University Press. Natural history is the Scientific research of Plants or Animals leaning more towards the Observational than Experimental methods Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and Mokry Dwór may refer to the following places in Poland: Mokry Dwór in Gmina Święta Katarzyna, Wrocław County in Lower Silesian Gdańsk ( Polish pronunciation; 'Danzig', Gduńsk Gedania Dantiscum is the City at the centre of the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in Poland Royal Prussia ( Prusy Królewskie was a province of the Kingdom of Poland from 1466 and then the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1569 to 1772 Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Events 49 BC - Julius Caesar crosses the Rubicon, signaling the start of civil war. Year 1794 ( MDCCXCIV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city

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