Geomorphology (from Greek: γη, ge, "earth"; μορφή, morfé, "form"; and λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is the study of landforms and the processes that shape them. Geomorphologists seek to understand why landscapes look the way they do: to understand landform history and dynamics, and predict future changes through a combination of field observation, physical experiment, and numerical modeling. Landscape comprises the visible features of an area of land including physical elements such as Landforms living elements of flora and fauna abstract elements such as lighting Note The term model has a different meaning in Model theory, a branch of Mathematical logic. Geomorphology is practiced within geology, geodesy, geography, archaeology, and civil and environmental engineering. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built Environmental engineering is the application of Science and Engineering principles to improve the environment (air water and/or land resources Early studies in geomorphology are the foundation for pedology, one of two main branches of soil science. Pedology (from Greek πέδον pedon, "soil" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of soils in their natural environment Soil science is the study of Soil as a Natural resource on the surface of the Earth including soil formation, classification and mapping

Landforms evolve in response to a combination of natural and anthropogenic processes. Anthropogenic effects processes objects or materials are those that are derived from Human activities as opposed to those occurring in Natural environments without The landscape is built up through tectonic uplift and volcanism. Tectonic uplift is a geological process most often caused by Plate tectonics which increases elevation Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the Denudation occurs by erosion and mass wasting, which produces sediment that is transported and deposited elsewhere within the landscape or off the coast. Denudation is the process by which the removal of material through means of Erosion and Weathering, leads to a reduction of elevation and relief in landforms and Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Mass wasting, also known as slope movement, is the geomorphic process by which Soil, Regolith, and rock move downslope under Deposition is the geological process by which material is added to a Landform or land mass Landscapes are also lowered by subsidence, either due to tectonics or physical changes in underlying sedimentary deposits. These processes are each influenced differently by climate, ecology, and human activity. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of

Practical applications of geomorphology include measuring the effects of climate change, hazard assessments including landslide prediction and mitigation, river control and restoration, coastal protection, and assessing the presence of water on Mars. A landslide is a geological phenomenon which includes a wide range of ground movement such as rock falls deep failure of slopes and shallow debris flows which can occur "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there

Contents 1 History 2 Processes 2.1 Fluvial 2.2 Hillslope 2.3 Glacial 2.4 Weathering 3 Taxonomy 4 See also 5 References 6 External links

History

Perhaps the earliest one to devise a theory of geomorphology was the polymath Chinese scientist and statesman Shen Kuo (1031-1095 AD). Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese This was based on his observation of marine fossil shells in a geological stratum of a mountain hundreds of miles from the Pacific Ocean. Marine is an Umbrella term. As an adjective it is usually applicable to things relating to the Sea or Ocean, such as Marine biology, Marine FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit In Geology and related fields a stratum (plural strata) is a layer of rock or Soil with internally consistent characteristics that distinguishes The Pacific Ocean is the largest of the Earth 's Oceanic divisions Noticing bivalve shells running in a horizontal span along the cut section of a cliffside, he theorized that the cliff was once the pre-historic location of a seashore that had shifted hundreds of miles over the centuries. Bivalves are Molluscs belonging to the class Bivalvia. They have two-part shells and typically both valves are symmetrical along the hinge line He inferred that the land was reshaped and formed by soil erosion of the mountains and by deposition of silt, after observing strange natural erosions of the Taihang Mountains and the Yandang Mountain near Wenzhou. Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Silt is Soil or rock derived Granular material of a Grain size between sand and clay The Taihang Mountains ( are a Chinese Mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Henan, Shanxi and Hebei Administration The Prefecture-level city of Wenzhou currently administers 3 district, 2 county-level cities and 6 counties. Furthermore, he promoted the theory of gradual climate change over centuries of time once ancient petrified bamboos were found to be preserved underground in the dry, northern climate zone of Yanzhou, which is now modern day Yan'an, Shaanxi province. Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences Bamboo is a group of Woody perennial Evergreen Plants in the True grass family Poaceae, subfamily Yan'an ( is a city in the Shanbei region of Shaanxi province in China. ( Postal map spelling: Shensi) is a north-central province of the People's Republic of China, and includes portions of the Loess

The first geomorphic model was the geographical cycle or the cycle of erosion, developed by William Morris Davis between 1884 and 1899. William Morris Davis ( February 12 1850 - February 5 1934) was an American Geographer, Geologist, and The cycle was inspired by theories of uniformitarianism which were first formulated by James Hutton (1726-1797). Uniformitarianism in the Philosophy of science, is the assumption that the natural processes operating in the past are the same as those that can be observed operating in the James Hutton MD (3 June 1726 OS (14 June 1726 NS) Edinburgh 26 March 1797 was a Scottish Geologist, Concerning valley forms, the cycle was depicted as a sequence by which a river would cut a valley more and more deeply, but then erosion of side valleys would eventually flatten out the terrain again, now at a lower elevation. The terms side valley and tributary valley refer to Valleys whose Brook or River is confluent to a greater one The cycle could be started over by uplift of the terrain. The model is today considered too much of a simplification to be especially useful in practice. .

Walther Penck developed an alternative model in the 1920s, based on ratios of uplift and erosion, but it was also too weak to explain a variety of landforms. Walther Penck (August 30 1888 &ndash September 29 1923 was an Austrian geographer, born in Vienna as son of geographer Albrecht Penck. G. K. Gilbert was an important early American geomorphologist. Grove Karl Gilbert ( May 6, 1843 &ndash May 1, 1918) known by the abbreviated name G The United States of America —commonly referred to as the

Processes

Modern geomorphology focuses on the quantitative analysis of interconnected processes, such as the contribution of solar energy, the rates of steps of the hydrologic cycle, plate movement rates from geophysics to compute the age and expected fate of landforms and the weathering and erosion of the land. Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life The Earth 's Water is always in movement and the water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on above Geophysics, a major discipline of Earth sciences, is the study of the Earth by quantitative physical methods especially by seismic, electromagnetic Weathering is the decomposition of earth rocks, Soils and their Minerals through direct contact with the planet's Atmosphere. Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind The use of more precise measurement technique has also enabled processes like erosion to be observed directly, rather than merely surmised from other evidence. Computer simulation is also valuable for testing that a particular model yields results with properties similar to real terrain. Simulation is the imitation of some real thing state of affairs or process

Primary surface processes responsible for most topographic features include wind, waves, weathering, mass wasting, ground water, surface water, glaciers, tectonism, and volcanism. Wind is the flow of Air or other Gases that compose an Atmosphere (including but not limited to the Earth's) A wave is a disturbance that propagates through Space and Time, usually with transference of Energy. Weathering is the decomposition of earth rocks, Soils and their Minerals through direct contact with the planet's Atmosphere. Mass wasting, also known as slope movement, is the geomorphic process by which Soil, Regolith, and rock move downslope under Groundwater is Water located beneath the Ground surface in Soil pore spaces and in the Fractures of lithologic formations For Water masses on the surface of the world ocean see Surface water (ocean. "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period. Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the

Fluvial

Rivers and streams are not only conduits of water, but also of sediment. Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of The water, as it flows over the channel bed, is able to mobilize sediment and transport it downstream, either as bedload, suspended load or dissolved load. Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of Suspended Load hweuwqrfor the fine particles that are light enough to be carried in a Stream without touching the Stream bed. The rate of sediment transport depends on the availability of sediment itself and on the river's discharge. In Hydrology, the discharge or outflow of a River is the volume of Water transported by it in a certain amount of time

As rivers flow across the landscape, they generally increase in size, merging with other rivers. The network of rivers thus formed is a drainage system and is often dendritic, but may adopt other patterns depending on the regional topography and underlying geology.

Hillslope

Main article: Mass wasting

Soil, regolith, and rock move downslope under the force of gravity via creep, slides, flows, topples, and falls. Mass wasting, also known as slope movement, is the geomorphic process by which Soil, Regolith, and rock move downslope under Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel Regolith ( Greek: "blanket rock" is a layer of loose Heterogeneous material covering solid rock. In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another Such mass wasting occurs on both terrestrial and submarine slopes, and has been observed on Earth, Mars, and Venus. Mass wasting, also known as slope movement, is the geomorphic process by which Soil, Regolith, and rock move downslope under EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 The VENUS ( V ictoria E xperimental N etwork U nder the S ea project is a cabled sea floor observatory operated by the University

Glacial

Glaciers, while geographically restricted, are effective agents of landscape change. "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period. The gradual movement of ice down a valley causes abrasion and plucking of the underlying rock. Ice is a Solid phase, usually crystalline, of a Non-metalic substance that is liquid or gas at Room temperature, such as Ammonia Abrasion is mechanical scraping of a rock surface by Friction between rocks and moving particles during their transport in Wind, Glacier, Waves Plucking, in the sense relating to Glaciers is when a glacier erodes away chunks of Bedrock to be later deposited as Glacial erratics Glacial plucking In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere Abrasion produces fine sediment, termed glacial flour. Rock flour, or glacial flour, consists of clay-sized particles of rock generated by glacial erosion or by artificial grinding to a similar size The debris transported by the glacier, when the glacier recedes, is termed a moraine. Moraine refers to any glacially formed accumulation of unconsolidated glacial debris (soil and rock which can occur in currently glaciated and formerly glaciated regions such as those Glacial erosion is responsible for U-shaped valleys, as opposed to the V-shaped valleys of fluvial origin.

See also: Glacier morphology

Weathering

Main article: Weathering

This results from chemical dissolution of rock and from the mechanical wearing of rock by plant roots, ice expansion, and the abrasive action of sediment. Glacier morphology, or the form a Glacier takes is influenced by Temperature, precipitation, Topography, and other factors Weathering is the decomposition of earth rocks, Soils and their Minerals through direct contact with the planet's Atmosphere. Weathering provides the source of the sediment transported by fluvial, glacial, aeolian, or biotic processes.

Taxonomy

Different geomorphological processes dominate at different spatial and temporal scales. To help categorize landscape scales some geomorphologists use the following taxonomy:

• 1st - Continent, ocean basin, climatic zone (~10,000,000 km²)
• 2nd - Shield, e. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos A continent is one of several large Landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by Convention rather than any strict criteria with seven regions An ocean (from Greek, ''Okeanos'' (Oceanus) is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the Hydrosphere. g. Baltic shield, or mountain range (~1,000,000 km²)
• 3rd - Isolated sea, Sahel (~100,000 km²)
• 4th - Massif, e. The Baltic Shield (sometimes referred to as the Fennoscandian Shield) is located in Fennoscandia ( Norway, Sweden and Finland) northwest A mountain range is a chain of Mountains bordered by highlands or separated from other mountains by passes or valleys This article is about the body of water For other uses see SEA and Seas. See also Sahel Tunisia, a region of eastern Tunisia. The Sahel or Sahel Belt (from Arabic ساحل sāḥil g. Massif Central or Group of related landforms, e. The Massif Central ( Occitan: Massís Central / Massís Centrau) is an elevated region in south-central France, consisting of Mountains and g. , Weald (~10,000 km²)
• 5th - River valley, Cotswolds (~1,000 km²)
• 6th - Individual mountain or volcano, small valleys (~100 km²)
• 7th - Hillslopes, stream channels, estuary (~10 km²)
• 8th - gully, barchannel (~1 km²)
• 9th - Meter-sized features

See also

References

• Selby, M. The Weald (wɪəld is the name given to a physiographic area in south-east England situated between the parallel Chalk Escarpments of the North See also Cotswold The Cotswolds is a range of Hills in west-central England, sometimes called the "Heart of England" A mountain is a Landform that extends above the surrounding Terrain in a limited area with a peak Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the An estuary is a semi-enclosed Coastal body of Water with one or more Rivers or Streams flowing into it and with a free connection to the open This article refers to the landform For other uses see Gully (disambiguation. Badlands are a type of Arid Terrain where softer sedimentary rocks and Clay -rich Soils have been extensively eroded by Wind The base level of a River or Stream is the lowest point to which it can flow often referred to as the 'mouth' of the river Biogeology is the study of the interactions between the Earth's Biosphere and the Lithosphere. Bioerosion describes the Erosion of hard ocean substrates by living organisms by a number of mechanisms Biogeomorphology and ecogeomorphology are the study of interactions between Organisms and the development of Landforms, and are thus fields of study within The Theory of Biorhexistasy describes climatic conditions necessary for periods of soil formation ( Pedogenesis) separated by periods of Soil erosion. Coastal erosion is the wearing away of land or the removal of Beach or Dune Sediments by Wave action tidal currents, wave currents Soil erosion prediction models play an important role both in meeting practical needs of soil conservation goals and in advancing the scientific understanding of soil Erosion processes Stream beds or river valleys have various different landforms Geologic modelling is the applied science of creating computerized representations of portions of the Earth's crust, especially oil Hydrology (from Greek Yδωρ hudōr, "water" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of the movement distribution and quality of In Hydrology, behavioral modeling is a modeling approach that focuses on the modeling of the behavior of hydrological Systems The behavioral Landscape comprises the visible features of an area of land including physical elements such as Landforms living elements of flora and fauna abstract elements such as lighting The lithosphere (IPA, from the Greek λίθος for "rocky" + σφαίρα for "sphere" is the solid outermost shell of a rocky Planet. A mound is a general term for an artificial heaped Pile of Earth, Gravel, Sand, rocks Regolith ( Greek: "blanket rock" is a layer of loose Heterogeneous material covering solid rock. Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel Soil conservation is set of management strategies for prevention of Soil being eroded from the earth’s surface or becoming chemically altered by overuse Soil mechanics is a discipline that applies principles of Engineering mechanics, e Soil morphology is the field observable attributes of the soil within the various Soil horizons and the description of the kind and arrangement of the horizons Soils retrogression and degradation in the French school of pedology are two regressive evolution processes associated with the loss of equilibrium of a stable Soil Stream capture, river capture, or stream piracy is a geomorphological phenomenon occurring when a stream or river Drainage system or A drainage basin is an extent of Land where Water from Rain or Snow melt drains downhill into a body of water such as a River, Foundations Principles of Geology J. (1985). Earth's Changing Surface. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-823252-7.  

• Chorley, Richard; Stanley Schumm, and David Sugden (1984). Richard John Chorley ( 4 September 1927 - 12 May 2002) was a leading figure in the late 20th century for his work in quantitative geography Geomorphology. London: Edition Methuen. ISBN 0-416-32590-4.  

• Edmaier, Bernhard (2004). Bernhard Edmaier is a German Geologist, Photographer and author of geoscientific books Earthsong. A collection of breathtaking arial photographs. Berlin: Phaidon Press. Phaidon Press is one of the leading publishers of books on the visual arts including Art, Architecture, Photography, and Design worldwide ISBN 0-7148-9424-9.  

• Scheidegger, Adrian E. (2004). Morphotectonics. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. ISBN 3-540-20017-7.  

• Needham, Joseph (1986). Noel Joseph Terence Montgomery Needham, CH, FRS, FBA ( December 9, 1900 – March 24 1995) was a British Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3, Mathematics and the Sciences of the Heavens and the Earth. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd. .  

External links

• Geomorphology in the Association of American Geographers
• International Association of Geomorphologists
• British Society for Geomorphology
• Association of Polish Geomorphologists
• German Geomorphologists Group (Deutscher Arbeitskreis fuer Geomorphologie
• Model of landscape evolution by William Morris Davis (by GEOMORPHLIST)
• The Geographical Cycle, or the Cycle of Erosion (1899)
• Geomorphology from Space (by NASA)
• USDA-NRCS Web Soil Survey Survey of surficial geologic deposits and geomorphology across the U. S.

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