Geological map of Central Scotland

The geology of Scotland is unusually varied for a country of its size, with a large number of differing geological features. Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit ^[1] There are three main geographical sub-divisions: the Highlands and Islands is a diverse area which lies to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault; the Central Lowlands is a rift valley mainly comprising Paleozoic formations; and the Southern Uplands, which lie south of a second fault line, are largely composed of Silurian deposits. The Highlands and Islands of Scotland are broadly the Scottish Highlands plus Orkney, Shetland and the Hebrides. The Highland Boundary Fault is a Geologic fault that traverses Scotland from Arran and Helensburgh on the west coast to Stonehaven The Central Lowlands or Midland Valley is a geologically defined area of relatively low-lying land in southern Scotland. A rift valley is a linear-shaped lowland between highlands or mountain ranges created by the action of a geologic Rift or fault. The Paleozoic or Palaeozoic Era (from the Greek palaio (παλαιο "old" and zoe (ζωη "life" meaning "ancient life" The Southern Uplands is the southernmost of Scotland 's three major geographic areas (the others being the Central Belt and the Highlands) The Silurian is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Ordovician period about 443

The existing bedrock includes very ancient Archean gneiss, metamorphic beds interspersed with granite intrusions created during the Caledonian mountain building period (the Caledonian orogeny), commercially important coal, oil and iron bearing carboniferous deposits and the remains of substantial tertiary volcanoes. Gneiss (ˈnaɪs is a common and widely distributed type of rock formed by high-grade regional metamorphic processes from preexisting formations that were originally Metamorphic rock is the result of the transformation of an existing rock type the protolith, in a process called Metamorphism, which means "change Granite (ˈɡrænɪt is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, Felsic, igneous rock. The Caledonian orogeny is a mountain building event recorded in the Mountains and Hills of northern Scotland, Ireland, England, An oil is a substance that is in a viscous Liquid state ( "oily") at ambient temperatures or slightly warmer and is Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Devonian period about 359 The chuprichondira geological time interval covers roughly the time span between the demise of the non- avian Dinosaurs and beginning of the most recent Ice Age, approximately Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the During their formation, tectonic movements created climatic conditions ranging from polar to desert to tropical and a resultant diversity of fossil remains. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system.

Scotland has also had a role to play in many significant discoveries such as plate tectonics and the development of theories about the formation of rocks and was the home of important figures in the development of the science including James Hutton, (the "father of modern geology")^[2] Hugh Miller and Archibald Geikie. Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere In Geology, petrology (from Greek πέτρα petra, rock and λόγος logos, knowledge is the study of rocks and the conditions on which James Hutton MD (3 June 1726 OS (14 June 1726 NS) Edinburgh 26 March 1797 was a Scottish Geologist, Hugh Miller (1802 &ndash 1856 was a self-taught Scottish Geologist and writer Folklorist and an Evangelical Christian. Sir Archibald Geikie, OM, PRS ( December 28, 1835 - November 10, 1924) Scottish Geologist, was born ^[3] Various locations such as 'Hutton's Unconformity' at Siccar Point in Berwickshire and the Moine Thrust in the north west were also important in the development of geological science. Siccar Point is a rocky promontory in the county of Berwickshire on the east coast of Scotland. The Moine Thrust Belt is a linear geological feature in the Scottish Highlands which runs from Loch Eriboll on the north coast 190 km south-west to the Sleat peninsula

Trilobites flourished throughout the lower Paleozoic era until becoming extinct in the Permian period

Overview

The main geographical divisions of Scotland

From a geological and geomorphological perspective the country has three main sub-divisions all of which were affected by Pleistocene glaciations. Trilobites ("three-lobes" are extinct Arthropods that form the class Trilobita. The Permian is a geologic period and system that extends from 299 Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Geomorphology (from Greek: γη ge, "earth" μορφή morfé, "form" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period

Highlands and Islands

The Highlands and Islands lie to the north and west of the Highland Boundary Fault, which runs from Arran to Stonehaven. The Isle of Arran ( Scots Gaelic: Eilean Arainn) is the largest island in the Firth of Clyde, Scotland, with an area of 430 km² (167 square Stonehaven ( Steenhive in the Doric dialect of Scots) and Cala na Creige in Gaelic is a town with around fourteen thousand inhabitants This part of Scotland largely comprises ancient rocks, from the Cambrian and Precambrian eras, that were uplifted to form a mountain chain during the later Caledonian orogeny. The Cambrian is a geologic period and system that began about Ma (million years ago at the end of the Proterozoic eon and ended about Ma with The Precambrian ( Pre-Cambrian) is an informal name for the supereon comprising the eons of the Geologic timescale that came before the current Orogeny (Greek for "mountain generating" is the process of natural Mountain building and may be studied as a tectonic structural event as a geographical event and These foundations are interspersed with many igneous intrusions of a more recent age, the remnants of which have formed mountain massifs such as the Cairngorms and Skye Cuillins. Igneous rocks (etymology from Latin ignis, fire are rocks formed by solidification of cooled Magma (molten rock The Cairngorms are a mountain range in the eastern Highlands of Scotland closely associated with the mountain of the same name - Cairn Gorm. Skye or the Isle of Skye ( Scottish Gaelic An t-Eilean Sgitheanach əɲ tʰʲelan s̪kʲiə This article is about the Cuillin of Skye See Rùm for the Cuillin of Rùm A significant exception to the above are the fossil-bearing beds of Old Red Sandstones found principally along the Moray Firth coast and in the Orkney islands. The Old Red Sandstone is a Rock formation of considerable importance to early Paleontology. The Moray Firth ( Scottish Gaelic: An Cuan Moireach or Linne Mhoireibh) is a roughly triangular Inlet (or Firth) of the North These rocks are around 400 million years old, and were laid down in the Devonian period. The Devonian is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic era spanning from to  million years ago. ^[4] The Highlands are generally mountainous and are bisected by the Great Glen Fault. The Scottish Highlands ( Scottish Gaelic: A' Ghàidhealtachd, Scots: Hielans) include the rugged and Mountainous There is also a village in Leicestershire called Great Glen. The Great Glen ( Scottish Gaelic: An Gleann Mòr The Great Glen Fault is a long strike-slip (transcurrent fault that runs through its namesake the Great Glen (Glen Albyn in Scotland. The highest elevations in the British Isles are found here, including Ben Nevis, the highest peak at 1,344 metres (4,409 ft). The British Isles (Irish variously Na hOileáin Bhriotanacha, Oileáin Iarthair Eorpa, Éire agus an Bhreatain Mhór; Ellanyn Goaldagh Eileanan Ben Nevis ( Gaelic: Beinn Nibheis, peˈɲivəʃ is the highest mountain in the British Isles. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit Scotland has over 790 islands, divided into four main groups: Shetland, Orkney, and the Hebrides, further sub-divided into the Inner Hebrides and Outer Hebrides. Shetland (formerly spelled Zetland, from etland; Old Norse non Hjaltland; Sealtainn is an Archipelago off the northeast coast of Orkney (also known as the Orkney Islands or incorrectly the Orkneys) is an Archipelago in northern Scotland, situated 10 miles (16 km north See also Hebrides (disambiguation The Hebrides (ˈhɛbrɨˌdiːz "HEB-ri-deez" Gaelic: Innse Gall) comprise a widespread and diverse The Inner Hebrides ( Scottish Gaelic: Na h-Eileanan a-staigh - the inner isles is an Archipelago off the west coast of Scotland, to the south The Outer Hebrides, ( officially known for local government purposes by the Gaelic name Na h-Eileanan Siar) comprise an island

Stac an Armin, St Kilda

The Hebridean archipelago outlier of St Kilda is composed of Tertiary igneous formations of granites and gabbro, heavily weathered by the elements. Stac an Armin ( or Stac an Àrmainn (the proper Scottish Gaelic spelling formerly àrmuinn) meaning "stack of the soldier/warrior" St Kilda (Hiort is an isolated Archipelago 64 kilometres (40 mi west-northwest of North Uist in the North Atlantic Ocean. St Kilda (Hiort is an isolated Archipelago 64 kilometres (40 mi west-northwest of North Uist in the North Atlantic Ocean. The chuprichondira geological time interval covers roughly the time span between the demise of the non- avian Dinosaurs and beginning of the most recent Ice Age, approximately Igneous rocks (etymology from Latin ignis, fire are rocks formed by solidification of cooled Magma (molten rock Granite (ˈɡrænɪt is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, Felsic, igneous rock. These islands represent the remnants of a long extinct ring volcano rising from a seabed plateau approximately 40 m (130 ft) below sea level. ^[5]

The geology of Shetland is complex with numerous faults and fold axes. These islands are the northern outpost of the Caledonian orogeny and there are outcrops of Lewisian, Dalriadan and Moine metamorphic rocks with similar histories to their equivalents on the Scottish mainland. The Caledonian orogeny is a mountain building event recorded in the Mountains and Hills of northern Scotland, Ireland, England, Similarly, there are also Old Red Sandstone deposits and granite intrusions. The Old Red Sandstone is a Rock formation of considerable importance to early Paleontology. Granite (ˈɡrænɪt is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, Felsic, igneous rock. The most distinctive feature is the ultrabasic ophiolite peridotite and gabbro on Unst and Fetlar, which are remnants of the Iapetus Ocean floor. An Ophiolite is a section of the Earth's Oceanic crust and the underlying upper mantle that has been uplifted or emplaced to be exposed within Continental A peridotite is a dense coarse-grained Igneous rock, consisting mostly of the minerals Olivine and Pyroxene. Gabbro (ˈɡæbrəʊ is a dark coarse-grained intrusive Igneous rock chemically equivalent to Basalt. Unst is one of the North Isles of the Shetland Islands, Scotland. Fetlar is one of the North Isles of Shetland, Scotland, with a population of 86 at the time of the 2001 census The Iapetus Ocean was an Ocean that existed in the Southern Hemisphere between Laurentia ( Scotland and North America) and Baltica ^[6] Much of Shetland's economy depends on the oil-bearing sediments in the surrounding seas. ^[7]

Midland Valley

Often referred to as the Central Lowlands, this is a rift valley mainly comprising Paleozoic formations. The Central Lowlands or Midland Valley is a geologically defined area of relatively low-lying land in southern Scotland. The Paleozoic or Palaeozoic Era (from the Greek palaio (παλαιο "old" and zoe (ζωη "life" meaning "ancient life" Many of these sediments have economic significance for it is here that the coal and iron bearing rocks that fuelled Scotland's industrial revolution are to be found. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the This area has also experienced intense vulcanism, Arthur’s Seat in Edinburgh being the remnant of a once much larger volcano active in the Carboniferous period some 300 million years ago. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the Arthur's Seat is the main peak of the group of hills which form most of Holyrood Park, a remarkably wild piece of highland landscape in the centre of the city of Edinburgh ( ˈɛdɪnb(ərə Dùn Èideann) is the Capital of Scotland and is its second largest city after Glasgow. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Devonian period about 359 This area is relatively low-lying, although even here hills such as the Ochils and Campsie Fells are rarely far from view. The Ochil Hills (from the Celtic (specifically Old Welsh) uchel meaning 'high' is a range of hills in Scotland north of the Forth The Campsie Fells are a range of Hills in central Scotland, stretching east to west from south Stirling to Dumgoyne in East Dunbartonshire

Southern Uplands

The Southern Uplands

The Southern Uplands are a range of hills almost 200 km (125 miles) long, interspersed with broad valleys. The Southern Uplands is the southernmost of Scotland 's three major geographic areas (the others being the Central Belt and the Highlands) They lie south of a second fault line running from the Rhinns of Galloway towards Dunbar. The Rhins of Galloway (also known as The Rhins; and can be spelt The Rhinns; Scottish Gaelic: Na Rannaibh) is a hammer-head Peninsula Dunbar is a town in East Lothian on the southeast coast of Scotland, approximately 30 miles east of Edinburgh and 28 miles from the English Border The geological foundations largely comprise Silurian deposits laid down some 4-500 million years ago. The Silurian is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Ordovician period about 443 ^[8][9]

Post-glacial events

The whole of Scotland was covered by ice sheets during the Pleistocene ice ages and the landscape is much affected by glaciation, and to a lesser extent by subsequent sea level changes. The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period. ^[10][11] In the post-glacial epoch, circa 6100 BC, Scotland and the Faeroe Islands experienced a tsunami up to 20 metres high caused by the Storegga Slides, an immense underwater landslip off the coast of Norway. The Faroe Islands or Faeroe Islands or simply Faroe(s or Faeroes (Føroyar meaning " Sheep Islands" Færøerne Old Norse A tsunami ((tsuːˈnɑːmi is a series of waves created when The three Storegga Slides are considered to be amongst the largest known Landslides They occurred under water at the edge of Norway's continental shelf (Storegga is Old ^[12][13] Earth tremors are infrequent and usually slight. The Great Glen is the most seismically active area of Britain, but the last event of any size was in 1901. ^[14]

Chronology

Archean and Proterozoic eras

The oldest rocks of Scotland are the Lewisian gneisses, which were laid down in the Precambrian period, up to 3,000 million years ago (mya). Lewis ( Leòdhas ʎɔːɣəs̪ ( Norse: Ljoðhús "home Gneiss (ˈnaɪs is a common and widely distributed type of rock formed by high-grade regional metamorphic processes from preexisting formations that were originally The Precambrian ( Pre-Cambrian) is an informal name for the supereon comprising the eons of the Geologic timescale that came before the current In Astronomy, Geology, and Paleontology, mya or " mya " is an abbreviation for "million years ago". In Astronomy, Geology, and Paleontology, mya or " mya " is an abbreviation for "million years ago". They are the oldest in Europe and amongst the oldest rocks in the world. They form basement deposits to the west of the Moine Thrust on the mainland, in the Outer Hebrides and on the islands of Coll and Tiree. The Moine Thrust Belt is a linear geological feature in the Scottish Highlands which runs from Loch Eriboll on the north coast 190 km south-west to the Sleat peninsula The Outer Hebrides, ( officially known for local government purposes by the Gaelic name Na h-Eileanan Siar) comprise an island Coll ( Scottish Gaelic: Colla) is a small Island, west of Mull in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. Tiree ( Scottish Gaelic: Tiriodh is an Island in the Scottish Inner Hebrides southwest of Coll. ^[15] These rocks are largely igneous in origin, mixed with metamorphosed marble, quartzite and mica schist and intruded by later basaltic dykes and granite magma. Marble is a nonfoliated Metamorphic rock resulting from the Metamorphism of Limestone, composed mostly of Calcite (a crystalline form of Quartzite (from German Quarzit) not to be confused with the Mineral Quartz, is a hard Metamorphic rock which was originally The schists form a group of medium-grade Metamorphic rocks chiefly notable for the preponderance of lamellar Minerals such as Micas chlorite A dike or dyke in Geology is a type of Sheet intrusion referring to any geologic body that cuts Discordantly ' across planar ^[16] One of these intrusions forms the summit plateau of the mountain Roinebhal in Harris. Harris ( Na Hearadh in Scottish Gaelic nə hɛɾəɣ is the southern part of the largest island of the Western Isles of Scotland or Outer The granite here is anorthosite, and is similar in composition to rocks found in the mountains of the Moon. Anorthosite (æˈnɔrθəsaɪt/ /ə- is a Phaneritic, Intrusive Igneous rock characterized by a predominance of Plagioclase Feldspar ^[17]

Suilven is formed of Torridonian sandstone, sitting on a landscape of Lewisian gneiss. Suilven ( Scottish Gaelic: Sula Bheinn) is one of the most distinctive Mountains in Scotland. In Geology, Torridonian describes a series of Proterozoic Arenaceous Sedimentary rocks extensively developed in the Northwest Highlands Sandstone is a Sedimentary rock composed mainly of Sand -size Mineral or rock grains.

Torridonian sandstones were also laid down in this period over the gneisses, and these contain the oldest signs of life in Scotland. In later Precambrian times, thick sediments of sandstones, limestones muds and lavas were deposited in what is now the Highlands of Scotland. Limestone is a Sedimentary rock composed largely of the Mineral Calcite ( Calcium carbonate: CaCO3 Lava is molten rock expelled by a Volcano during an eruption When first expelled from a volcanic vent it is a Liquid at Temperatures The Scottish Highlands ( Scottish Gaelic: A' Ghàidhealtachd, Scots: Hielans) include the rugged and Mountainous ^[18][19]

Paleozoic era

Cambrian period

Further sedimentary deposits were formed through the Cambrian period, (542-488 mya) some of which, along with the earlier Precambrian sediments, metamorphosed into the Dalradian series. Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock types (the others being igneous and Metamorphic rock) The Cambrian is a geologic period and system that began about Ma (million years ago at the end of the Proterozoic eon and ended about Ma with Metamorphic rock is the result of the transformation of an existing rock type the protolith, in a process called Metamorphism, which means "change Dalradian is a geological term that describes a series of Metamorphic rocks typically developed in the high ground which lies southeast of the Great Glen This is composed of a wide variety of materials, including mica schist, biotite gneiss schist, schistose grit, greywacke and quartzite. Biotite is a common phyllosilicate Mineral within the Mica group with the approximate chemical formula K(Mg Fe3AlSi3O10(F The schists form a group of medium-grade Metamorphic rocks chiefly notable for the preponderance of lamellar Minerals such as Micas chlorite Greywacke ( German grauwacke, signifying a grey earthy rock is a variety of Sandstone generally characterized by its hardness dark color and poorly-sorted Quartzite (from German Quarzit) not to be confused with the Mineral Quartz, is a hard Metamorphic rock which was originally ^[20] The area that would become Scotland was at this time close to the south pole and part of Laurentia. Laurentia (also known as the North American craton) like all Craton land was created as continents moved about the surface of the Earth Fossils from the north-west Highlands indicate the presence of trilobites and other primitive forms of life. Trilobites ("three-lobes" are extinct Arthropods that form the class Trilobita. ^[21][22]

Ordovician period

The proto-Scotland landmass moved northwards and from 460-430 mya sandstone, mudstone and limestone was deposited in the area that is now the Midland Valley. Sandstone is a Sedimentary rock composed mainly of Sand -size Mineral or rock grains. Mudstone (also called mudrock) is a fine grained Sedimentary rock whose original constituents were Clays or Muds Grain size is up Limestone is a Sedimentary rock composed largely of the Mineral Calcite ( Calcium carbonate: CaCO3 The Central Lowlands or Midland Valley is a geologically defined area of relatively low-lying land in southern Scotland. This occurred in shallow tropical seas at the margins of the Iapetus Ocean. The Iapetus Ocean was an Ocean that existed in the Southern Hemisphere between Laurentia ( Scotland and North America) and Baltica The Ballantrae Complex near Girvan was formed from this ocean floor and is similar in composition to rocks found at The Lizard in Cornwall. Girvan is a Burgh in Carrick, South Ayrshire, Scotland, with a population of about 8000 people The Lizard is a Peninsula of Cornwall, and contains the most southerly point of mainland Cornwall and of the island Great Britain, Lizard Cornwall ( Kernow ˈkɛɹnɔʊ is the most southwesterly county of England, on the Peninsula that lies to the west of the River Tamar Nonetheless, northern and southern Britain were far apart at the beginning of this period, although the gap began to close as the continent of Avalonia broke away from Gondwana, collided with Baltica and drifted towards Laurentia. Avalonia was an ancient Microcontinent or Terrane whose history formed much of the older rocks of Western Europe, Atlantic Canada and parts of the Gondwana (ɡɒnˈdwɑːnə originally Gondwanaland) was a southern Supercontinent that existed about 500 to 200 Ma ago Baltica redirects here For the Russian beer, see Baltika Breweries Baltica is a name applied by geologists to a late- Proterozoic, The Caledonian orogeny began forming a mountain chain from Norway to the Appalachians. The Caledonian orogeny is a mountain building event recorded in the Mountains and Hills of northern Scotland, Ireland, England, Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional The Appalachian Mountains ( often called the Appalachians, are a vast system of mountains in eastern North America. There was an ice age in the southern hemisphere, and the first mass extinction of life on Earth took place at the end of this period. ^[23][24]

Silurian period

The collision of Avalonia, Baltica and Laurentia. (The names are in French).

During the Silurian period (443-416 mya) the continent of Laurentia gradually collided with Baltica, joining Scotland to the area that would become England and Europe. The Silurian is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Ordovician period about 443 Laurentia (also known as the North American craton) like all Craton land was created as continents moved about the surface of the Earth Sea levels rose as the Ordovician ice sheets melted, and tectonic movements created major faults which assembled the outline of Scotland from previously scattered fragments. The Ordovician is a geologic period and system, the second of six of the Paleozoic era, and covers the time between 488 These faults are the Highland Boundary Fault, separating the Lowlands from the Highlands, the Great Glen Fault that divides the North-west Highlands from the Grampians, the Southern Uplands Fault and the Iapetus Suture, which runs from the Solway Firth to Lindisfarne and which marks the close of the Iapetus Ocean and the joining of northern and southern Britain. The Highland Boundary Fault is a Geologic fault that traverses Scotland from Arran and Helensburgh on the west coast to Stonehaven The Great Glen Fault is a long strike-slip (transcurrent fault that runs through its namesake the Great Glen (Glen Albyn in Scotland. The Solway Firth is a Firth that forms part of the border between England and Scotland, between Cumbria (including the Solway Plain) and Lindisfarne () (variant spelling Lindesfarne is a Tidal island off the north-east coast of England. The Iapetus Ocean was an Ocean that existed in the Southern Hemisphere between Laurentia ( Scotland and North America) and Baltica ^[25][26][27]

Silurian rocks form the Southern Uplands of Scotland, which were pushed up from the sea bed during the collision with Baltica/Avalonia. The Southern Uplands is the southernmost of Scotland 's three major geographic areas (the others being the Central Belt and the Highlands) The majority of the rocks are weakly metamorphosed coarse greywacke. Greywacke ( German grauwacke, signifying a grey earthy rock is a variety of Sandstone generally characterized by its hardness dark color and poorly-sorted ^[28] The Highlands were also affected by these collisions, creating a series of thrust faults in the northwest Highlands including the Moine Thrust, the understanding of which played an important role in nineteenth century geological thinking. A thrust fault is a type of fault, or break in the Earth's crust with resulting movement of each side against the other in which a lower stratigraphic position is pushed up The Moine Thrust Belt is a linear geological feature in the Scottish Highlands which runs from Loch Eriboll on the north coast 190 km south-west to the Sleat peninsula Volcanic activity occurred across Scotland as a result of the collision of the tectonic plates, with volcanoes in southern Scotland, and magma chambers in the north, which today form the granite mountains such as the Cairngorms. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the A magma chamber is a large underground pool of molten rock lying under the surface of the earth's crust Granite (ˈɡrænɪt is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, Felsic, igneous rock. The Cairngorms are a mountain range in the eastern Highlands of Scotland closely associated with the mountain of the same name - Cairn Gorm. ^[29]

Devonian period

The Old Red Sandstone Continent in the Devonian

The Scottish landmass now formed part of the Old Red Sandstone Continent and lay some 25 degrees south of the equator, moving slowly north during this period to 10 degrees south. Euramerica (also known as Laurussia or Old Red Continent) was a minor Supercontinent created in the Devonian as the result of a collision between The accumulations of Old Red Sandstone laid down from 408 to 370 million years ago were created as earlier Silurian rocks, uplifted by the formation of Pangaea, eroded and were deposited into a body of fresh water (probably a series of large river deltas). The Old Red Sandstone is a Rock formation of considerable importance to early Paleontology. The Silurian is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Ordovician period about 443 Pangaea, Pangæa or Pangea (pænˈdʒiːə from παν pan, meaning entire, and Γαῖα Gaea, meaning Earth in Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. A huge freshwater lake - the Orcadian Lake - existed on the edges of the eroding mountains stretching from Shetland to the southern Moray Firth. The Orcadian Lakes are a series of Lakes which existed during the Devonian period in the region which is now northern Scotland, Orkney and The formations are extremely thick, up to 11,000 meters in places, and can be subdivided into three categories "Lower", "Middle", and "Upper" from oldest to youngest. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International As a result, the Old Red Sandstone is an important source of fish fossils and it was the object of intense geological studies in the 1800s. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. In Scotland these rocks are found predominantly in the Moray Firth basin and Orkney Archipelago, and along the southern margins of the Highland Boundary Fault.

Elsewhere volcanic activity, possibly as a result of the closing of the Iapetus Suture, created the Cheviot Hills, Ochil Hills, Sidlaw Hills, parts of the Pentland Hills and Scurdie Ness on the Angus coast. The Cheviot Hills are a range of rolling hills straddling the England / Scotland border between Northumberland and the Scottish Borders. The Ochil Hills (from the Celtic (specifically Old Welsh) uchel meaning 'high' is a range of hills in Scotland north of the Forth The Sidlaws ( Scottish Gaelic: Na Sidhbheanntan) are a range of hills of Volcanic origin in the counties of Perthshire and Angus in The Pentland Hills are a range of hills to the south-west of Edinburgh, Scotland. Angus ( Aonghas in Gaelic) is one of the 32 local government Council areas of Scotland, and a lieutenancy area. ^[30][31][32]

Carboniferous period

During the Carboniferous period (359-299 mya), Scotland lay close to the equator. The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Devonian period about 359 Several changes in sea level occurred and the coal deposits of Lanarkshire and West Lothian and limestones of Fife and Dunbar date from this time. Lanarkshire ( Siorrachd Lannraig in Gaelic) officially the County of Lanark, was formerly a county of Scotland. West Lothian ( Lodainn an Iar in Gaelic) is one of the 32 unitary Council areas in Scotland, and a Lieutenancy area. Fife ( Gaelic: Fìobha) is a Council area of Scotland, situated between the Firth of Tay and the Firth of Forth, with inland Dunbar is a town in East Lothian on the southeast coast of Scotland, approximately 30 miles east of Edinburgh and 28 miles from the English Border There are oil shales near Bathgate around which the nineteenth century oil-processing industry developed, and elsewhere in the Midland Valley there are ironstones and fire clay deposits that had significance in the early Industrial Revolution. Bathgate is a rapidly growing town in West Lothian, Scotland, on the M8 motorway five miles (8 km west of Livingston. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Fossil Grove in Victoria Park, Glasgow contains the preserved remains of a Carboniferous forest. Victoria Park Glasgow is a place located in Glasgow, Scotland. More volcanic activity formed Arthur's Seat and the Salisbury Crags in Edinburgh and the nearby Bathgate Hills. Arthur's Seat is the main peak of the group of hills which form most of Holyrood Park, a remarkably wild piece of highland landscape in the centre of the city of Holyrood Park (also called Queen's Park, and formerly King's Park) is a royal park in central Edinburgh, Scotland. Edinburgh ( ˈɛdɪnb(ərə Dùn Èideann) is the Capital of Scotland and is its second largest city after Glasgow. Bathgate is a rapidly growing town in West Lothian, Scotland, on the M8 motorway five miles (8 km west of Livingston. ^[33][34]

Permian period

Map of Pangaea

The Old Red Sandstone Continent became a part of the supercontinent Pangaea in the Permian (299-251 mya), during which proto-Britain continued to drift northwards. Pangaea, Pangæa or Pangea (pænˈdʒiːə from παν pan, meaning entire, and Γαῖα Gaea, meaning Earth in The Permian is a geologic period and system that extends from 299 Scotland's climate was arid at this time and some fossils of reptiles have been recovered. However, Permian sandstones are found in only a few places - principally in the south west, on the island of Arran, and on the Moray coast. Stone quarried from Hopeman in Moray has been used in the National Museum and Scottish Parliament buildings in Edinburgh. Hopeman is a seaside Village in Moray, Scotland, on the coast of the Moray Firth. National Museums Scotland is the family of several National museums in Scotland. The Scottish Parliament Building (Pàrlamaid na h-Alba is the home of the Scottish Parliament at Holyrood, within the UNESCO World Heritage Site ^[35]

At the close of this period came the Permian–Triassic extinction event in which 96% of all marine species vanished^[36] and from which bio-diversity took 30 million years to recover. The Permian–Triassic (P–Tr extinction event, informally known as the Great Dying, was an Extinction event that occurred, and 70 percent of terrestrial Marine biology is the scientific study of living Organisms in the Ocean or other marine or Brackish bodies of water In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank.

Mesozoic era

Triassic period

During the Triassic, (251-200 mya) much of Scotland remained in desert conditions, with higher ground in the Highlands and Southern Uplands providing sediment to the surrounding basins via flash floods. The Triassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about 251 to 199 Ma (million years ago This is the origin of sandstone outcrops near Dumfries, Elgin and the Isle of Arran. Dumfries (dəmˈfriːs is a town and former Royal burgh within the Dumfries and Galloway council area of Scotland and is situated close to the Elgin (Eilginn is a former Cathedral city and a former Royal Burgh in Moray, Scotland and is the administrative and commercial centre for Moray The Isle of Arran ( Scots Gaelic: Eilean Arainn) is the largest island in the Firth of Clyde, Scotland, with an area of 430 km² (167 square Towards the close of this period sea levels began to rise and climatic conditions became less arid. ^[37]

Jurassic period

Pangaea was formed by the convergence of multiple continental masses and later broke apart to form two primary continents, Laurasia and Gondwana

As the Jurassic (200-145 mya) started, Pangaea began to break up into two continents, Gondwana and Laurasia, marking the beginning of the separation of Scotland and North America. Pangaea, Pangæa or Pangea (pænˈdʒiːə from παν pan, meaning entire, and Γαῖα Gaea, meaning Earth in Laurasia (lɔˈreɪʃiə lɔˈreɪʒə was a Supercontinent that most recently existed as a part of the split of the Pangaean supercontinent in the late Mesozoic The Jurassic is a geologic period and system that extends from about Ma (million years ago to  Ma that is from the end of the Triassic to the beginning Pangaea, Pangæa or Pangea (pænˈdʒiːə from παν pan, meaning entire, and Γαῖα Gaea, meaning Earth in A continent is one of several large Landmasses on Earth. They are generally identified by Convention rather than any strict criteria with seven regions Gondwana (ɡɒnˈdwɑːnə originally Gondwanaland) was a southern Supercontinent that existed about 500 to 200 Ma ago Laurasia (lɔˈreɪʃiə lɔˈreɪʒə was a Supercontinent that most recently existed as a part of the split of the Pangaean supercontinent in the late Mesozoic Sea levels rose, as Britain and Ireland drifted on the Eurasian Plate to between 30° and 40° north. The Eurasian Plate is a Tectonic plate which includes most of the continent of Eurasia (a landmass consisting of the traditional Continents of Europe Most of northern and eastern Scotland including Orkney, Shetland and the Outer Hebrides remained above the advancing seas, but the south and south-west were inundated. There are only isolated sedimentary rocks remaining on land from this period, on the Sutherland coast near Golspie and on Skye, Mull, Raasay and Eigg. Sedimentary rock is one of the three main rock types (the others being igneous and Metamorphic rock) Sutherland (In Gaelic the area is referred to according to its traditional areas Dùthaich 'Ic Aoidh (NW Asainte (Assynt and Cataibh (East Raasay ( Scottish Gaelic: Ratharsair, rˠaarˠs̪əɾʲ is an Island between the Isle of Skye and the mainland of Scotland. Eigg ( Scottish Gaelic: Eige) is one of the Small Isles, in the Scottish Inner Hebrides. This period does however have considerable significance. The burial of algae and bacteria below the mud of the sea floor during this time resulted in the formation of North Sea oil and natural gas, much of it trapped in overlying sandstone by deposits formed as the seas fell to form the swamps and salty lakes and lagoons that were home to dinosaurs. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have North Sea oil refers to oil and Natural gas ( Hydrocarbons produced from Oil reservoirs beneath the North Sea. Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, ^[38][39]

Cretaceous period

In the Cretaceous, (146-65 mya) Laurasia split into the continents of North America and Eurasia. The Cretaceous (kriːˈteɪʃəs, usually abbreviated 'K' for its German translation "Kreide" is a geologic period and system, reaching from the end of For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. Sea levels rose globally during this period and much of low-lying Scotland was covered in a layer of chalk. Chalk (ʧɔːk is a soft white porous Sedimentary rock, a form of Limestone composed of the Mineral Calcite. Although large deposits of Cretaceous rocks were laid down over Scotland, these have not survived erosion except in a few places on the west coast such as Loch Aline in Morvern. The Cretaceous (kriːˈteɪʃəs, usually abbreviated 'K' for its German translation "Kreide" is a geologic period and system, reaching from the end of Loch Aline is a small salt water Loch home to fish birds and game located in Morvern, Lochaber, Scotland. Not to be confused with Morven Morvern is a peninsula in south west Lochaber, on the west coast of Scotland. ^[40][41] At the end of this period the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event brought the age of dinosaurs to a close. The Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, which occurred approximately ( Ma) was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant species in a geologically

Cenozoic era

Paleogene period

In the early Paleogene period between 63 and 52 mya, the last volcanic rocks in the British Isles were formed. The Paleogene (alternatively Palaeogene) is a geologic period and system that began 65 As North America and Greenland, separated from Europe the Atlantic Ocean slowly formed. Greenland (Kalaallit Nunaat meaning "Land of the Greenlanders" Grønland is a self-governing Danish Province located between the This led to a chain of volcanic sites west of mainland Scotland including on Skye, the Small Isles and St. Kilda, in the Firth of Clyde on Arran and Ailsa Craig and at Ardnamurchan. Skye or the Isle of Skye ( Scottish Gaelic An t-Eilean Sgitheanach əɲ tʰʲelan s̪kʲiə Please note there is also a group called "Small Isles" off south east Jura Scotland The Small Isles ( Scottish Gaelic: Na h-Eileanan St Kilda (Hiort is an isolated Archipelago 64 kilometres (40 mi west-northwest of North Uist in the North Atlantic Ocean. The Firth of Clyde forms a large area of coastal water sheltered from the Atlantic ocean by the Kintyre peninsula which encloses the outer Firth in The Isle of Arran ( Scots Gaelic: Eilean Arainn) is the largest island in the Firth of Clyde, Scotland, with an area of 430 km² (167 square Ailsa Craig ( Scottish Gaelic: Creag Ealasaid) is an Island in the outer Firth of Clyde, Scotland where granite was quarried to Ardnamurchan ( Scottish Gaelic: Àird nam Murchan: land of the great seas is a 50 Square mile Peninsula in Lochaber, ^[42] Sea levels began to fall, and for the first time the general outline of the modern British Isles was revealed. ^[43] At the beginning of this period the climate was sub-tropical and erosion was caused by chemical weathering, creating characteristic features of the Scottish landscape such as the topographical basin of the Howe of Alford near Aberdeen. Alford (pronounced "aaford" is a large village in Aberdeenshire, north-east Scotland, lying just south of the River Don. ^[44] By 35 mya the landscape included beech, oak, chestnut and sycamore trees, along with grassland. For the babyfood see Beech-Nut. Beech ( Fagus) is a genus of ten Species of Deciduous Trees in the The term oak can be used as part of the common name of any of about 400 species of Trees and Shrubs in the Genus Quercus (from Latin Chestnut ( Castanea) (including some chinkapin or Chinquapin) is a Genus of eight or nine Species of Deciduous Grass is the common word that generally describes Monocotyledonous green Plants The family Gramineae ( Poaceae) are the "true grasses" and include

Neogene period

Miocene and Pliocene epochs

In the Miocene and Pliocene epochs further uplift and erosion occurred in the Highlands. The Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene period and extends from about 23 The Pliocene epoch (spelled Pleiocene in some older texts is the period in the Geologic timescale that extends Plant and animal types developed into their modern forms, and by about 2 million years ago the landscape would have been broadly recognisable today, with Scotland lying in its present position on the globe. As the Miocene progressed, temperatures dropped and remained similar to today's. ^[45][46]

Pleistocene epoch

The 'Barns of Bynack' - tors on the summit plateau of Bynack More, Cairngorm National Park. |} Bynack More ( Scottish Gaelic: A' Bheithneag Mhòr or Beinn Bheithneag) is a Scottish Mountain that is situated in the Cairngorms The Cairngorms National Park ( Scottish Gaelic Pàirc Nàiseanta a' Mhonaidh Ruaidh) is a National park in north east Scotland, established in

Several ice ages shaped the land through glacial erosion, creating u-shaped valleys and depositing boulder clays, especially on the western seaboard. An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets In Geology, a valley (also called a vale, dale, glen or strath and near or in Appalachia, a draw) is Boulder clay, in Geology, is a deposit of Clay, often full of boulders which is formed in and beneath Glaciers and ice-sheets wherever they are found but The last major incursion of ice peaked about 18,000 years ago, leaving other remnant features such at the granite tors on the Cairngorm Mountain plateaux. A tor is a rock outcrop formed by Weathering, usually found on or near the summit of a Hill. The Cairngorms are a mountain range in the eastern Highlands of Scotland closely associated with the mountain of the same name - Cairn Gorm. ^[47][48]

Holocene epoch

Over the last twelve thousand years the most significant new geological features have been the deposits of peat and the development of coastal alluvium. Peat is an accumulation of partially Decayed Vegetation matter. Post-glacial rises in sea level have been combined with isostatic rises of the land resulting in a relative fall in sea level in most areas. Isostasy (Greek isos = "equal" stásis = "standstill" is a term used in Geology to refer to the state of gravitational equilibrium between the ^[49][50] In some places, such as Culbin in Moray, these changes in relative sea level have created a complex series of shorelines. ^[51] About half of the coastline of Scotland consists of machair habitat,^[52] a low lying dune pasture land formed as the sea level dropped leaving a raised beach. The coast is defined as the part of the land adjoining or near the Ocean. This article is about a geographic landform For the TV series see Machair (TV series The Gaelic word machair or machar refers to a fertile A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. In the present day, Scotland continues to move slowly north.

Geologists in Scotland

James Hutton, painted by Abner Lowe

Scottish geologists and non-Scots working in Scotland have played an important part in the development of the science, especially during its pioneering period in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. ^[53]

• James Hutton (1726-1797) the "father of modern geology" was born in Edinburgh. James Hutton MD (3 June 1726 OS (14 June 1726 NS) Edinburgh 26 March 1797 was a Scottish Geologist, His Theory of the Earth, published in 1788 proposed the idea of a rock cycle in which weathered rocks form new sediments and that granites were of volcanic origin. At Glen Tilt in the Cairngorm mountains he found granite penetrating metamorphic schists. Glen Tilt ( Scottish Gaelic: Gleann Teilt) is a Glen in the extreme north of Perthshire, Scotland. The Cairngorms are a mountain range in the eastern Highlands of Scotland closely associated with the mountain of the same name - Cairn Gorm. Granite (ˈɡrænɪt is a common and widely occurring type of intrusive, Felsic, igneous rock. Metamorphic rock is the result of the transformation of an existing rock type the protolith, in a process called Metamorphism, which means "change The schists form a group of medium-grade Metamorphic rocks chiefly notable for the preponderance of lamellar Minerals such as Micas chlorite This showed to him that granite formed from the cooling of molten rock, not precipitation out of water as the Neptunists of the time believed. Precipitation is the formation of a Solid in a Solution during a Chemical reaction. Neptunism is a discredited and Obsolete scientific theory of Geology proposed by Abraham Werner in the late 18th century that proposed rocks ^[54] This sight is said to have "filled him with delight". ^[55] Regarding geological time scales he famously remarked "that we find no vestige of a beginning, no prospect of an end. "^[56]
• John Playfair (1748-1819) from Angus was a mathematician who developed an interest in geology through his friendship with Hutton. Professor John Playfair FRSE ( March 10, 1748 &ndash July 20, 1819) was a Scottish Scientist. Angus ( Aonghas in Gaelic) is one of the 32 local government Council areas of Scotland, and a lieutenancy area. His 1802 Illustrations of the Huttonian Theory of the Earth were influential in the latter's success. ^[57]
• John MacCulloch (1773-1835) was born in Guernsey and like Hutton before him, studied medicine at Edinburgh University. John MacCulloch ( October 6, 1773 &ndash August 21, 1835) was a Scottish Geologist. The Bailiwick of Guernsey (Bailliage de Guernesey is a British Crown dependency in the English Channel off the coast of Normandy. The University of Edinburgh (Oilthigh Dhùn Èideann founded in 1582 is a renowned centre for teaching and research in Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. A president of the Geological Society from 1815-17, he is best remembered for producing the first geological map of Scotland, published in 1836. 'Macculloch's Tree', a 40 foot high fossil conifer in the Mull lava flows, is named after him. ^[58][59]

Charles Lyell

• Sir Charles Lyell (1797-1875) was also from Angus and his Principles of Geology built on Hutton's ideas. Sir Charles Lyell 1st Baronet, KT, FRS (14 November 1797 &ndash 22 February 1875 was a Scottish Lawyer, Geologist, and protagonist Principles of Geology is a book by the Scottish geologist Charles Lyell. Lyell's theory of uniformitarianism and his interpretation of geologic change as the steady accumulation of minute changes over enormously long spans of time was a central theme in the Principles, and a powerful influence on the young Charles Darwin. Uniformitarianism in the Philosophy of science, is the assumption that the natural processes operating in the past are the same as those that can be observed operating in the Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life (Robert FitzRoy, captain of HMS Beagle, loaned Darwin a copy of Volume 1 of the first edition just before they set out on the 'Voyage of the Beagle'. Vice-Admiral Robert FitzRoy ( 5 July 1805 – 30 April 1865) achieved lasting fame as the captain of HMS ''Beagle'' First Voyage On 27 September 1825 Beagle docked at Woolwich for repairs and fitted out for her new duties at a total cost of £5913 See also HMS Beagle The second voyage of HMS Beagle from 27 December 1831 to 2 October 1836 was the second survey expedition of HMS ''Beagle'' ) Lyell is buried in Westminster Abbey. The Collegiate Church of St Peter at Westminster, which is almost always referred to by its original name of Westminster Abbey, is a large mainly Gothic church ^[60][61][62]

Murchison's memorial tablet in Perm. Perm (Пермь pʲɛrmʲ is a city and administrative center of Perm Krai, Russia. "To Roderick Impey Murchison, Scottish geologist, explorer of Perm Krai, who gives to the last period of Paleozoic era the name of Perm. "

• Sir Roderick Murchison (1792–1871) was born in Ross and Cromarty and served under Wellesley in the Peninsular War. Sir Roderick Impey Murchison 1st Baronet KCB FRS ( 19 February, 1792 &ndash 22 October, 1871) was an influential Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS ( c The Peninsular War or Spanish War of Independence pitted an alliance of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal against France Knighted in 1846, his main achievements were the investigation of Silurian rocks published as The Silurian System in 1839 and of Permian deposits in Russia. The Silurian is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Ordovician period about 443 The Permian is a geologic period and system that extends from 299 Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The Murchison crater on the Moon and at least fifteen geographical locations on Earth are named after him. Murchison is a lunar crater on the north edge of the Sinus Medii. ^[63][64]
• Hugh Miller (1802-56) from Cromarty was a stonemason and self-taught geologist. Hugh Miller (1802 &ndash 1856 was a self-taught Scottish Geologist and writer Folklorist and an Evangelical Christian. The Royal Burgh of Cromarty ( Cromba in Gaelic) is a Burgh in Ross and Cromarty, Highland, Scotland. His 1841 publication The Old Red Sandstone became a bestseller. The fossils founds in these rocks were one of his fascinations, although his deep religious convictions led him to oppose the idea of biological evolution. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 ^[65]
• James Croll (1821-90) developed a theory of climate change based on changes in the earth's orbit. James Croll ( 2 January 1821 &ndash 15 December 1890) was a 19th century Scottish Scientist who developed a theory Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of In Physics, an orbit is the gravitationally curved path of one object around a point or another body for example the gravitational orbit of a planet around a star Born near Perth, he was self-educated and his interest in science led to his becoming appointed as a janitor in the museum at the Andersonian College and Museum, Glasgow in 1859. Perth (Peairt is a town and former Royal burgh in central Scotland. The University of Strathclyde (Oilthigh Srath Chluaidh is a university in Glasgow, Scotland. His 1864 paper On the Physical Cause of the Changes of Climate during Glacial Epochs led to a position in the Edinburgh office of the Geological Survey of Scotland, as keeper of maps and correspondence, where Sir Archibald Geikie, encouraged his research. Edinburgh ( ˈɛdɪnb(ərə Dùn Èideann) is the Capital of Scotland and is its second largest city after Glasgow. The British Geological Survey (BGS is a partly publicly-funded body which aims to advance geoscientific knowledge of the United Kingdom landmass and its Continental Sir Archibald Geikie, OM, PRS ( December 28, 1835 - November 10, 1924) Scottish Geologist, was born He was eventually to become a Fellow of the Royal Society. The Royal Society of London for the Improvement of Natural Knowledge, known simply as The Royal Society, is a Learned society for science that was founded in 1660 ^[66]
• Sir Archibald Geikie (1835-1924) was the first to recognise that there had been multiple glaciations, and his 1863 paper On the glacial drift of Scotland was a landmark in the emergent theories of glaciation. Sir Archibald Geikie, OM, PRS ( December 28, 1835 - November 10, 1924) Scottish Geologist, was born "Glacial" and "Glaciation" redirect here For the geological periods see Glacial period. He became Director-General of the Geological Survey of the United Kingdom in 1888 and was also well-known for his work on vulcanism. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the ^[67]
• Arthur Holmes (1890-1965) was born in England and became Regius Professor of Geology at the University of Edinburgh in 1943. Arthur Holmes ( January 14 1890 &ndash September 20 1965) was a British Geologist. The University of Edinburgh (Oilthigh Dhùn Èideann founded in 1582 is a renowned centre for teaching and research in Edinburgh, Scotland, UK. His magnum opus was Principles of Physical Geology, first published in 1944, in which he proposed the idea that slow moving convention currents in the Earth's mantle created 'continental drift' as it was then called. He also pioneered the discipline of geochronology. In the Natural sciences under the umbrella of Natural history, Geochronology is the Science of determining the absolute age of rocks, Fossils He lived long enough to see the theory of plate tectonics become widely accepted, and he is regarded as one of the most influential geologists of the 20th century. Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere ^[68]

Important sites

'Hutton's Unconformity' at Siccar Point

• Siccar Point, Berwickshire is world famous as one of the sites that proved Hutton's views about the immense age of the Earth. Hutton's Unconformity is the name given to various famous Geological sites in Scotland. Siccar Point is a rocky promontory in the county of Berwickshire on the east coast of Scotland. Siccar Point is a rocky promontory in the county of Berwickshire on the east coast of Scotland. Berwickshire or the County of Berwick is a Registration county, a Committee area of the Scottish Borders Council, and a lieutenancy Here Silurian rocks have been tilted almost to the vertical. Younger Devonian rocks lie unconformably over the top of them, dipping gently, indicating that an enormous span of time must have passed between the creation of the two beds. An unconformity is a buried Erosion surface separating two rock masses or strata of different ages indicating that Sediment deposition was not When Hutton and James Hall visited the site in 1788 their companion Playfair wrote:^[69][70]

• The Moine Thrust in Assynt is one of the most studied geological features in the world. The Moine Thrust Belt is a linear geological feature in the Scottish Highlands which runs from Loch Eriboll on the north coast 190 km south-west to the Sleat peninsula Assynt ('Asainte' is a parish in west Sutherland, Highland, Scotland &ndash north of Ullapool. Its discovery in the 1880s was a milestone in the history of geology as it was one of the first thrust belts in the world to be identified. ^[29] Investigations by John Horne and Benjamin Peach resolved a dispute between Murchison and Geikie on the one hand and James Nicol and Charles Lapworth on the other. John Horne ( 1 January 1848 - 30 May 1928) was a Scottish geologist Benjamin Neeve Peach ( 6 September 1842 - 29 January 1926) was a British Geologist. Charles Lapworth ( September 20, 1842 &ndash March 13, 1920) was an English geologist. The latter believed that older Moine rocks lay on top of younger Cambrian rocks at Knockan Crag, and Horne and Peach's work confirmed this in their classic paper The Geological Structure of the Northwest Highlands of Scotland, which was published in 1907. Knockan Crag is a line of cliffs in Assynt, Scotland 21 kilometres (13 miles north of Ullapool. ^[72][73] A statue to these two pioneers of fieldwork was erected at Inchnadamph near the hotel there which played a prominent part in the annals of early geology. Inchnadamph is a hamlet in Assynt, Sutherland, Scotland. The name is an anglicisation of the Gaelic name Innis nan Damh meaning 'meadow ^[74] This area is at the heart of the 'North West Highlands Geopark'. ^[75]
• Lapworth also had a prominent role to play in the fame of Dob's Linn, a small gorge in the Scottish Borders, which contains the 'golden spike' (i. Dob's Linn, near Moffat, Scotland, is the location of the Global Boundary Stratotype Section and Point (GSSP which marks the boundary between the The Scottish Borders, often referred to simply as the Borders, is one of 32 local government council areas of Scotland. e. the official international boundary or stratotype) between the Ordovician and Silurian periods. Lapworth's work in this area, especially his examination of the complex stratigraphy of the Silurian rocks by comparing fossil graptolites, was crucial in to the early understanding of these epochs. Stratigraphy, a branch of Geology, studies rock layers and layering ( stratification) Graptolites (Graptolithina are Fossil colonial Animals known chiefly from the Upper Cambrian through the Lower Carboniferous ( Mississippian

Sgurr nan Gillean and the Pinnacle Ridge from Basteir gorge, Skye. Sgurr nan Gillean is a mountain in the Cuillin range on the Isle of Skye in Scotland. Skye or the Isle of Skye ( Scottish Gaelic An t-Eilean Sgitheanach əɲ tʰʲelan s̪kʲiə James Forbes and Duncan MacIntyre completed the first recorded climb of this mountain in 1836. ^[76]

• The Skye Cuillin mountains provide classic examples of glacial topography and were the subject of an early published account by James Forbes in 1846 (who had become a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh aged only nineteen). This article is about the Cuillin of Skye See Rùm for the Cuillin of Rùm James David Forbes ( April 20, 1809 - December 31, 1868) was a Scottish Physicist who worked extensively on the conduction The Royal Society of Edinburgh is Scotland 's National academy of science and letters ^[77][78] He partnered Louis Agassiz on his trip to Scotland in 1840 and although they subsequently argued, Forbes went on to publish other important papers on Alpine glaciers. Jean Louis Rodolphe Agassiz ( May 28 1807 — December 14 1873) was a Swiss - American Zoologist, Glaciologist ^[79]
• In 1904 Alfred Harker published The Tertiary Igneous Rocks of Skye, the first detailed scientific study of an extinct volcano. Alfred Harker was the first man to successfully determine the distance between the Earth and the Moon to within a tenth of a mile ^[80][81]
• In the hills to the north of the village of Strontian the mineral strontianite was discovered, from which the element strontium was first isolated by Sir Humphry Davy in 1808. Strontian is the main Village in Sunart, an area in western Lochaber, Highland, Scotland, on the A861 road. Strontianite ( Sr[[Carbon C]] O 3 is a Mineral consisting of Strontium carbonate, named after the village of Strontian, Strontium (ˈstrɒntiəm /ˈstrɒnʃiəm/) is a Chemical element with the symbol Sr and the Atomic number 38 Sir Humphry Davy 1st Baronet FRS MRIA (17 December 1778 &ndash 29 May 1829 was a British Chemist and inventor ^[82][83]
• The island of Staffa, contains Fingal's Cave made up of massive rectangular columns of Tertiary basalt and Mackinnon's Cave, one of the longest sea caves in the world. Staffa ( Scottish Gaelic: Stafa, s̪t̪afa from the Old Norse for stave or pillar island is an island of the Inner Hebrides in Argyll and Fingal's Cave is a Sea cave on the uninhabited island of Staffa, in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland, part of a National Nature Reserve owned The chuprichondira geological time interval covers roughly the time span between the demise of the non- avian Dinosaurs and beginning of the most recent Ice Age, approximately ^[84]
• The Munro Schiehallion's isolated position and regular shape led Nevil Maskelyne to use the deflection caused by the mass of the mountain to estimate the mass of the Earth in a ground-breaking experiment carried out in 1774. A Munro is a Scottish mountain with a height over 3000 feet (914 Schiehallion ( Gaelic: Sìdh Chailleann, ʃiˈxaʎən̪ˠ is a prominent Mountain in Perth and Kinross, Scotland. The Reverend Dr Nevil Maskelyne ( 6 October[[ 732]] &ndash 9 February[[ 811]] was the fifth English Astronomer Royal. Mass is a fundamental concept in Physics, roughly corresponding to the Intuitive idea of how much Matter there is in an object EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Following Maskelyne's survey, Schiehallion became the first mountain to be mapped using contour lines. A contour line (also Level set, isopleth, isoline, isogram or isarithm) of a function of two ^[85]
• The village of Rhynie in Aberdeenshire is the site of an important sedimentary deposit - Rhynie chert. Rhynie is a village in Aberdeenshire, Scotland which the A97 road runs through situated 14 miles northwest of Alford. Aberdeenshire (Siorrachd Obar Dheathain is one of the 32 unitary Council areas in Scotland. The Rhynie chert is an Early Devonian Lagerstätte found near the village of Rhynie, Aberdeenshire, Scotland, containing exceptionally The bulk of this fossil bed consists of primitive plants that had water-conducting cells and sporangia but no leaves, along with arthropods: Collembola, Opiliones (harvestmen), pseudoscorpions and the extinct, spider-like Trigonotarbids. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. In Vascular plants xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue Phloem being the other In Biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis. Arthropods are Animals belonging to the Phylum Arthropoda (from Greek ἄρθρον arthron, " Joint " Springtails ( Collembola) form the largest of the three lineages of modern hexapods that are no longer considered Insects (the other two are the Harvestmen are eight-legged Invertebrate animals belonging to the order Opiliones (formerly Phalangida) in the class Arachnida in the subphylum Harvestmen are eight-legged Invertebrate animals belonging to the order Opiliones (formerly Phalangida) in the class Arachnida in the subphylum A pseudoscorpion, (also known as a false scorpion or book scorpion) is an Arachnid belonging to the order Pseudoscorpionida, also known The Order Trigonotarbida is an extinct group of Arachnids whose Fossil record extends from the Silurian to the Lower Permian and are This fossil bed is remarkable for two reasons. Firstly, the age of the find (early Devonian circa 410 mya)^[86][87] makes this one of the earliest sites anywhere containing terrestrial fossils, coinciding with the first stages of the colonisation of land by plants and animals. The Devonian is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic era spanning from to  million years ago. Secondly, these cherts are famous for their exceptional state of ultrastructural preservation, with individual cell walls easily visible in polished specimens. Chert (ˈtʃɝt is a fine-grained Silica -rich Microcrystalline, Cryptocrystalline or Microfibrous Sedimentary rock that may contain Ultrastructure (or ultra-structure is the detailed structure of a biological specimen such as a cell, tissue, or organ, that can be observed by Electron For example, stomata have been counted and lignin remnants detected in the plant material. In Botany, a stoma (also stomate; plural stomata) is a tiny opening or pore found mostly on the underside of a Plant Leaf Lignin or lignen is a complex Chemical compound most commonly derived from Wood and an integral part of the secondary Cell walls of Plants
• A disused quarry at East Kirkton in the Bathgate Hills is the location where the Carboniferous fossil of Westlothiana lizziae (aka 'Lizzie') was found in 1984. Bathgate is a rapidly growing town in West Lothian, Scotland, on the M8 motorway five miles (8 km west of Livingston. Westlothiana lizziae was a Reptile -like Tetrapod that bore a superficial resemblance to modern-day Lizards It lived during the Carboniferous This lizard is one of the earliest known ancestors of the reptiles. Reptiles, or members of the class Reptilia are air-breathing Cold-blooded Vertebrates that have skin covered in scales as opposed to hair or feathers The specimen was purchased in part by public subscription and is now on display in the National Museum of Scotland. National Museums Scotland is the family of several National museums in Scotland. The site was originally discovered in the early nineteenth century and has also provided fossil eurypterids, sharks and a variety of primitive acanthodian fish. The eurypterids (sea scorpions include the largest known Arthropod that ever lived (with the possible exception of Arthropleuridae) Sharks ( Superorder Selachimorpha) are a type of Fish with a full cartilaginous Skeleton and a highly streamlined body Acanthodii (sometimes called spiny sharks) is a class of extinct Fishes having features of both bony fish ( Osteichthyes) and cartilaginous fish ( ^[88]
• In 2008 the ejected material from a meteorite impact crater was discovered near Ullapool in Wester Ross. A meteorite is a natural object originating in Outer space that survives an impact with the Earth 's surface Evidence for a bolide impact centered on Ullapool was published by a combined team of scientists from the University of Oxford and the University of Aberdeen, in March Preserved within sedimentary layers of sandstone, this is the largest known bolide impact from what are now the British Isles. The British Isles (Irish variously Na hOileáin Bhriotanacha, Oileáin Iarthair Eorpa, Éire agus an Bhreatain Mhór; Ellanyn Goaldagh Eileanan ^[89]

See also

• Geography of Scotland
• Geology of the British Isles

• Geology of Ireland
• Geology of England
• Geology of Wales

• British Geological Survey
• Geologic timescale
• Coal Measures
• Old Red Sandstone
• New Red Sandstone

References

General references:

• Gillen, Con (2003) Geology and landscapes of Scotland. Geology and geomorphology See also Geology of Scotland The land area of Scotland is 78 772 km² (30414 square miles roughly 30% of the area of The Geology of Great Britain is hugely varied and complex and gives rise to the wide variety of landscapes found across the islands The geography of Ireland describes an Island in Northwest Europe in the north Atlantic Ocean. The Geology of England is mainly sedimentary. The youngest rocks are in the south east around London, progressing in age in a north westerly Wales is a Peninsula in the south-west of the island of Great Britain. The British Geological Survey (BGS is a partly publicly-funded body which aims to advance geoscientific knowledge of the United Kingdom landmass and its Continental The geologic time scale is a chronologic schema (or idealized Model) relating Stratigraphy to time that is used by Geologists and other The Coal Measures is a lithostratigraphical term used mainly in the British Isles for the coal-bearing part of the Upper Carboniferous System The Old Red Sandstone is a Rock formation of considerable importance to early Paleontology. The New Red Sandstone is a chiefly British geological term for the beds of red sandstone laid throughout the Permian (280 million years ago to the beginning Harpenden. Terra Publishing.
• Jones, Rosalind (1997) Mull in the Making. Aros. R Jones. ISBN 0953189007
• Keay, J. & Keay, J. (1994) Collins Encyclopaedia of Scotland. London. HarperCollins.
• McKirdy, Alan Gordon, John & Crofts, Roger (2007) Land of Mountain and Flood: The Geology and Landforms of Scotland. Edinburgh. Birlinn.
• "Scottish Geology" Scottishgeology. com. Retrieved 30 September 2007. Events 1399 - Henry IV is proclaimed King of England. 1744 - France and Spain defeat the Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century.

Footnotes

External links

• Scottish Geology.com