Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the earth and its features, inhabitants, and phenomena. EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 [1] A literal translation would be "to describe or write about the Earth". The first person to use the word "geography" was Eratosthenes (276-194 B. Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( Greek; 276 BC - 194 BC was a Greek Mathematician, Poet, athlete, Geographer and C. ). Four historical traditions in geographical research are the spatial analysis of natural and human phenomena (geography as a study of distribution), area studies (places and regions), study of man-land relationship, and research in earth sciences. In Statistics, spatial analysis or spatial statistics includes any of the formal techniques which study entities using their Topological, Geometric Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the Sciences related to the planet [2] Nonetheless, modern geography is an all-encompassing discipline that foremost seeks to understand the world and all of its human and natural complexities-- not merely where objects are, but how they have changed and come to be. As "the bridge between the human and physical sciences," geography is divided into two main branches - human geography and physical geography. Human geography is a branch of Geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the environment with particular reference to Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one of the three major subfields of Geography. [3]
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Introduction
Traditionally, geographers have been viewed the same way as cartographers and people who study place names and numbers. A geographer is a Scientist whose area of study is Geography, the study of Earth 's physical environment and Human habitat Cartography is the study of map making and cartographers are map makers Although many geographers are trained in toponymy and cartology, this is not their main preoccupation. Toponymy refers to the scientific study of place-names ( toponyms) their origins meanings use and Typology. Geographers study the spatial and temporal distribution of phenomena, processes and feature as well as the interaction of humans and their environment. Space is the extent within which Matter is physically extended and objects and Events have positions relative to one another Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and [4] As space and place affect a variety of topics such as economics, health, climate, plants and animals, geography is highly interdisciplinary.
| “ | mere names of places. . . are not geography. . . know by heart a whole gazetteer full of them would not, in itself, constitute anyone a geographer. A geographer is a Scientist whose area of study is Geography, the study of Earth 's physical environment and Human habitat Geography has higher aims than this: it seeks to classify phenomena (alike of the natural and of the political world, in so far as it treats of the latter), to compare, to generalize, to ascend from effects to causes, and, in doing so, to trace out the great laws of nature and to mark their influences upon man. This is 'a description of the world'—that is Geography. In a word Geography is a Science—a thing not of mere names but of argument and reason, of cause and effect. | ” |
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— William Hughes, 1863[5]
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Geography as a discipline can be split broadly into two main sub fields: human geography and physical geography. Profesor of Gothic Studies at Bath Spa University, UK. Author of Beyond Dracula (Palgrave 2000 and co-editor of the collections Contemporary Writing and National Identity Human geography is a branch of Geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the environment with particular reference to Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one of the three major subfields of Geography. The former focuses largely on the built environment and how space is created, viewed and managed by humans as well as the influence humans have on the space they occupy. The latter examines the natural environment and how the climate, vegetation & life, soil, water, and landforms are produced and interact. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region it refers to the Ground cover provided by plants Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. [6] As a result of the two subfields using different approaches a third field has emerged, which is environmental geography. Environmental geography is the branch of Geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world Environmental geography combines physical and human geography and looks at the interactions between the environment and humans. [4]
Branches of geography
Physical geography
Physical geography (or physiogeography) focuses on geography as an Earth science. Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one of the three major subfields of Geography. Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences) is an all-embracing term for the Sciences related to the planet It aims to understand the physical lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, pedosphere, and global flora and fauna patterns (biosphere). The lithosphere (IPA, from the Greek λίθος for "rocky" + σφαίρα for "sphere" is the solid outermost shell of a rocky Planet. A hydrosphere (from Greek ύδωρ - hydor, " Water " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five The pedosphere (from the Greek πέδον soil earth + σφαίρα sphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of Soil and subject to soil In Botany, flora ( Plural: floras or florae has two meanings The first meaning flora of an area or of time period, refers to all Fauna is all of the Animal life of any particular region or time The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. Physical geography can be divided into the following broad categories:
Human geography
Human geography is a branch of geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with various environments. Biogeography is the study of the distribution of Biodiversity over Space and Time. Climatology (from Greek grc κλίμα klima, "region zone" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of Climate, scientifically Paleoclimatology (also Palaeoclimatology) is the study of Climate change taken on the scale of the entire History of Earth. Coastal geography is the study of the dynamic interface between the ocean and the land incorporating both the Physical geography (i Environmental geography is the branch of Geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world Environmental Management is not as the phrase could suggest the management of the environment as such but rather the management of interaction by the modern human societies Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Geomorphology (from Greek: γη ge, "earth" μορφή morfé, "form" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" Glaciology (from Middle French dialect (Franco-Provençal glace, "ice" or Latin glacies, "frost ice" and Greek λόγος Hydrology (from Greek Yδωρ hudōr, "water" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of the movement distribution and quality of Hydrography focuses on the measurement of physical characteristics of Waters and marginal land Landscape ecology is the science and art of studying and improving the relationship between spatial pattern and ecological processes on a multitude of scales and organizational levels (Wu 2006 2008 Oceanography (from the greek words Ωκεανός meaning Ocean and γράφω meaning to write also called oceanology or Pedology (from Greek πέδον pedon, "soil" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of soils in their natural environment Palaeogeography (sometimes spelled paleogeography) is the study of what the Geography was in times past Quaternary science is an Inter-disciplinary field of study focusing on the Quaternary period which encompasses the last 2 Human geography is a branch of Geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the environment with particular reference to Human geography is a branch of Geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the environment with particular reference to It encompasses human, political, cultural, social, and economic aspects. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic Definition In the absence of agreement about its meaning the term "social" is used in many different senses referring among other things to attitudes Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. While the major focus of human geography is not the physical landscape of the Earth (see physical geography), it is hardly possible to discuss human geography without referring to the physical landscape on which human activities are being played out, and environmental geography is emerging as a link between the two. Physical geography (also known as geosystems or physiography) is one of the three major subfields of Geography. Environmental geography is the branch of Geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world Human geography can be divided into many broad categories (for a comprehensive list see human geography), such as:
Various approaches to the study of human geography have also arisen through time and include:
Environmental geography
Environmental geography is the branch of geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world. Human geography is a branch of Geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the environment with particular reference to Cultural geography is a sub-field within Human geography. Cultural geography is the study of cultural products and norms and their variation across and relations to spaces and Development geography is the study of the Earth 's Geography with reference to the Standard of living and Quality of life of its human inhabitants Economic geography is the study of the location distribution and spatial organization of economic activities across the Earth. Health geography is the application of geographical information perspectives and methods to the study of Health, Disease, and Health care. Historical geography is the study of the human, physical, fictional, theoretical and "real" geographies of the past Time geography or time-space geography traces its roots back to the Swedish geographer Torsten Hägerstrand who stressed the temporal factor in spatial human activities Political geography is the field of Human geography that is concerned with the study of both the spatially uneven outcomes of Political processes and the ways in which Geopolitics is the study that analyzes Geography, History and Social science with reference to Spatial politics and patterns at various scales Population geography is a division of Human geography. It is the study of the ways in which spatial variations in the distribution composition migration and growth of Demography is the statistical study of all Populations. It can be a very general science that can be applied to any kind of dynamic population that is one that changes over Religion geography is the study of the distribution of Religions and how they got where they are how they were created and so on Human geography is a branch of Geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the environment with particular reference to Transportation Geography is the branch of Geography that investigates spatial interactions let them be of people freight and information Tourism Geography is the study of Travel and Tourism as an industry as a human activity and especially as a Place -based experience Urban geography is the study of Urban areas That is the study of areas which have a high concentration of Buildings and Infrastructure. Behavioral geography is an approach to Human Geography that examines human behavior using a disaggregate approach Geosophy is a concept introduced to Geography by JK Wright in 1947. Feminist geography is an approach in Human geography which applies the theories methods and critiques of Feminism to the study of the human environment society and Culture theory is the branch of Anthropology, Semiotics, and other related social science disciplines (e Environmental geography is the branch of Geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world Environmental geography is the branch of Geography that describes the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural world It requires an understanding of the traditional aspects of physical and human geography, as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the environment.
Environmental geography has emerged as a bridge between human and physical geography as a result of the increasing specialisation of the two sub-fields. Furthermore, as human relationship with the environment has changed as a result of globalization and technological change a new approach was needed to understand the changing and dynamic relationship. Globalization (or globalisation) in its literal sense is the process of transformation of local or regional phenomena into global ones Technological change (TC is a term that is used to describe the overall process of Invention, Innovation and Diffusion of Technology or Examples of areas of research in environmental geography include disaster management, environmental management, sustainability, and political ecology. Emergency management (or disaster management) is the discipline of dealing with and avoiding risks Environmental Management is not as the phrase could suggest the management of the environment as such but rather the management of interaction by the modern human societies Sustainability, in a general sense is the capacity to maintain a certain process or state indefinitely Political ecology is the study of how political economic and social factors affect environmental issues
Geomatics
Geomatics is a branch of geography that has emerged since the quantitative revolution in geography in the mid 1950s. Geomatics is the discipline of gathering storing processing and delivery of geographic information or spatially referenced information Geomatics is the discipline of gathering storing processing and delivery of geographic information or spatially referenced information Geomatics involves the use of traditional spatial techniques used in cartography and topography and their application to computers. Geomatics has become a widespread field with many other disciplines using techniques such as GIS and remote sensing. Geomatics has also led to a revitalization of some geography departments especially in Northern America where the subject had a declining status during the 1950s.
Geomatics encompasses a large area of fields involved with spatial analysis, such as Cartography, Geographic information systems (GIS), Remote sensing, and Global positioning systems (GPS). In Statistics, spatial analysis or spatial statistics includes any of the formal techniques which study entities using their Topological, Geometric Remote sensing is the small or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon by the use of either recording or real-time sensing device(s that is not in physical Basic concept of GPS operation A GPS receiver calculates its position by carefully timing the signals sent by the constellation of GPS Satellites high above the Earth
Regional geography
Regional geography is a branch of geography that studies the regions of all sizes across the Earth. Regional geography is a study of regions throughout the world in order to understand or define the unique characteristics of a particular region which consists of natural as well as Regional geography is a study of regions throughout the world in order to understand or define the unique characteristics of a particular region which consists of natural as well as EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 It has a prevailing descriptive character. The main aim is to understand or define the uniqueness or character of a particular region which consists of natural as well as human elements. Attention is paid also to regionalization which covers the proper techniques of space delimitation into regions.
Regional geography is also considered as a certain approach to study in geographical sciences (similar to quantitative or critical geographies, for more information see History of geography). The quantitative revolution was one of the four major turning points in the history of Geography (the other three being Regional geography, Environmental The development of critical geography can be seen as one of the four major turning points in the history of geography (the other three being Environmental determinism, This article explores the History of Geography. Ancient geography See also Ancient Greek geography Ancient Greeks environment
Related fields
- Urban planning, regional planning and spatial planning: use the science of geography to assist in determining how to develop (or not develop) the land to meet particular criteria, such as safety, beauty, economic opportunities, the preservation of the built or natural heritage, and so on. Regional planning is a branch of Land use planning and deals with the efficient placement of land use activities infrastructure and settlement growth across a significantly Spatial planning refers to the methods used by the Public sector to influence the distribution of people and activities in spaces of various scales The planning of towns, cities, and rural areas may be seen as applied geography.
- Regional science: In the 1950s the regional science movement led by Walter Isard arose, to provide a more quantitative and analytical base to geographical questions, in contrast to the descriptive tendencies of traditional geography programs. Regional science is a field of the Social sciences concerned with analytical approaches to problems that are specifically urban, Rural, or regional Regional science comprises the body of knowledge in which the spatial dimension plays a fundamental role, such as regional economics, resource management, location theory, urban and regional planning, transport and communication, human geography, population distribution, landscape ecology, and environmental quality. Regional science is a field of the Social sciences concerned with analytical approaches to problems that are specifically urban, Rural, or regional In Organizational studies, resource management is the efficient and effective deployment of an organization's resources when they are needed Location theory is concerned with the geographic location of economic activity it has become an integral part of Economic geography, Regional science, and Spatial Regional planning is a branch of Land use planning and deals with the efficient placement of land use activities infrastructure and settlement growth across a significantly Transport or transportation is the movement of people and goods from one place to another Communication is the process of conveying information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood the same way Human geography is a branch of Geography that focuses on the study of patterns and processes that shape human interaction with the environment with particular reference to Landscape ecology is the science and art of studying and improving the relationship between spatial pattern and ecological processes on a multitude of scales and organizational levels (Wu 2006 2008
- Interplanetary Sciences: While the discipline of geography is normally concerned with the Earth, the term can also be informally used to describe the study of other worlds, such as the planets of the solar system, and even beyond. Planetary science, also known as planetology and closely related to planetary astronomy, is the Science of Planets or Planetary systems EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 A planet, as defined by the International Astronomical Union (IAU is a celestial body Orbiting a Star or stellar remnant that is The Solar System consists of the Sun and those celestial objects bound to it by Gravity. The study of systems larger than the earth itself usually forms part of Astronomy or Cosmology. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study The study of other planets is usually called planetology. Planetary science, also known as planetology and closely related to planetary astronomy, is the Science of Planets or Planetary systems Alternative terms such as areology (the study of Mars) have been proposed but are not widely used. The geology of Mars, also known as areology (from Greek grc Ἂρης Arēs, " Ares " and grc -λογία -logia
Geographical techniques
As spatial interrelationships are key to this synoptic science, maps are a key tool. A map is a visual representation of an area—a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects, Regions, and Themes Classical cartography has been joined by a more modern approach to geographical analysis, computer-based geographic information systems (GIS).
In their study, geographers use four interrelated approaches:
- Systematic - Groups geographical knowledge into categories that can be explored globally.
- Regional - Examines systematic relationships between categories for a specific region or location on the planet.
- Descriptive - Simply specifies the locations of features and populations.
- Analytical - Asks why we find features and populations in a specific geographic area.
Cartography
Cartography studies the representation of the Earth's surface with abstract symbols (map making). Although other subdisciplines of geography rely on maps for presenting their analyses, the actual making of maps is abstract enough to be regarded separately. Cartography has grown from a collection of drafting techniques into an actual science.
Cartographers must learn cognitive psychology and ergonomics to understand which symbols convey information about the Earth most effectively, and behavioral psychology to induce the readers of their maps to act on the information. Cognitive psychology is a branch of Psychology that investigates internal mental processes such as problem solving memory and language Behaviorism or Behaviourism, also called the learning perspective (where any physical action is a behavior is a philosophy of Psychology based on the They must learn geodesy and fairly advanced mathematics to understand how the shape of the Earth affects the distortion of map symbols projected onto a flat surface for viewing. Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and It can be said, without much controversy, that cartography is the seed from which the larger field of geography grew. Most geographers will cite a childhood fascination with maps as an early sign they would end up in the field.
Geographic information systems
Geographic information systems (GIS) deal with the storage of information about the Earth for automatic retrieval by a computer, in an accurate manner appropriate to the information's purpose. In addition to all of the other subdisciplines of geography, GIS specialists must understand computer science and database systems. Computer science (or computing science) is the study and the Science of the theoretical foundations of Information and Computation and their A Computer Database is a structured collection of records or data that is stored in a computer system GIS has revolutionized the field of cartography; nearly all mapmaking is now done with the assistance of some form of GIS software. GIS also refers to the science of using GIS software and GIS techniques to represent, analyze and predict spatial relationships. In this context, GIS stands for Geographic Information Science.
Remote sensing
Remote sensing can be defined as the art and science of obtaining information about Earth features from measurements made at a distance. Remote sensing is the small or large-scale acquisition of information of an object or phenomenon by the use of either recording or real-time sensing device(s that is not in physical Remotely sensed data comes in many forms such as satellite imagery, aerial photography and data obtained from hand-held sensors. Satellite imagery consists of photographs of Earth or other planets made by means of Artificial satellites. Aerial photography is the taking of Photographs of the ground from an elevated position Geographers increasingly use remotely sensed data to obtain information about the Earth's land surface, ocean and atmosphere because it: a) supplies objective information at a variety of spatial scales (local to global), b) provides a synoptic view of the area of interest, c) allows access to distant and/or inaccessible sites, d) provides spectral information outside the visible portion of the electromagnetic spectrum, and e) facilitates studies of how features/areas change over time. Remotely sensed data may be analyzed either independently of, or in conjunction with, other digital data layers (e. g. , in a Geographic Information System).
Geographic quantitative methods
Geostatistics deal with quantitative data analysis, specifically the application of statistical methodology to the exploration of geographic phenomena. Geostatistics evolved in Mineral exploration and mining of Minerals Ores and Coals It is currently applied in disciplines such as Petroleum Geostatistics evolved in Mineral exploration and mining of Minerals Ores and Coals It is currently applied in disciplines such as Petroleum Geostatistics is used extensively in a variety of fields including: hydrology, geology, petroleum exploration, weather analysis, urban planning, logistics, and epidemiology. Hydrology (from Greek Yδωρ hudōr, "water" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of the movement distribution and quality of Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Logistics is the management of the flow of Goods, Information and other resources including Energy and people between the point of origin and the point Epidemiology is the study of factors affecting the Health and Illness of populations and serves as the foundation and Logic of interventions made in the The mathematical basis for geostatistics derives from cluster analysis, discriminant analysis, and non-parametric statistical tests, and a variety of other subjects. Clustering is the classification of objects into different groups or more precisely the partitioning of a Data set into Subsets (clusters Linear discriminant analysis (LDA and the related Fisher's linear discriminant are methods used in Statistics and Machine learning to find the Linear Non-parametric statistics is a branch of Statistics concerned with non-parametric Statistical models and non-parametric inference, including non-parametric Applications of geostatistics rely heavily on Geographic Information Systems, particularly for the interpolation (estimate) of unmeasured points. In the mathematical subfield of Numerical analysis, interpolation is a method of constructing new data points within the range of a Discrete set of Geographers are making notable contributions to the method of quantitative techniques.
Geographic qualitative methods
Geographic qualitative methods, or ethnographical; research techniques, are used by human geographers. Ethnography ( Greek ethnos = people and graphein = writing is a genre of writing that uses Fieldwork to provide a descriptive In cultural geography there is a tradition of employing qualitative research techniques also used in anthropology and sociology. Cultural geography is a sub-field within Human geography. Cultural geography is the study of cultural products and norms and their variation across and relations to spaces and Qualitative research is a field of inquiry that crosscuts disciplines and subject matters. Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Participant observation and in-depth interviews provide human geographers with qualitative data. Participant observation is a set of Research strategies which aim to gain a close and intimate familiarity with a given group of individuals (such as a religious occupational
History of geography
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History of geography
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The ideas of Anaximander of Miletus (c. This article explores the History of Geography. Ancient geography See also Ancient Greek geography Ancient Greeks environment This article explores the History of Geography. Ancient geography See also Ancient Greek geography Ancient Greeks environment pre-Hellenistic Classical Greece Scylax of Caryanda Anaximander Hecataeus of Miletus Massaliote Periplus See also Geography of China Native Chinese geography begins in the Warring States period (5th century BC The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century during which Europeans explored Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write has been an integral part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8000 years Environmental determinism, also known as climatic determinism or geographical determinism, is the view that the physical environment rather than social conditions Regional geography is a study of regions throughout the world in order to understand or define the unique characteristics of a particular region which consists of natural as well as The quantitative revolution was one of the four major turning points in the history of Geography (the other three being Regional geography, Environmental The development of critical geography can be seen as one of the four major turning points in the history of geography (the other three being Environmental determinism, 610 B. C. -c. 545 B. C. ), considered by later Greek writers to be the true founder of geography, come to us through fragments quoted by his successors. Anaximander is credited with the invention of the gnomon,the simple yet efficient Greek instrument that allowed the early measurement of latitude. Thales, Anaximander is also credited with the prediction of eclipses. The foundations of geography can be traced to the ancient cultures, such as the ancient, medieval, and early modern Chinese. Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era The Greeks, who were the first to explore geography as both art and science, achieved this through Cartography, Philosophy, and Literature, or through Mathematics. The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Cartography or mapmaking (in Greek chartis = map and graphein = write has been an integral part of the human story for a long time (maybe 8000 years Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Ancient Greek literature refers to Literature written in the Greek language until the 4th century AD The area of study known as the history of mathematics is primarily an investigation into the origin of new discoveries in Mathematics and to a lesser extent an investigation There is some debate about who was the first person to assert that the Earth is spherical in shape, with the credit going either to Parmenides or Pythagoras. Parmenides of Elea ( Greek:, early 5th century BC was an Ancient Greek Philosopher born in Elea, a Greek city on the southern coast of "Pythagoras of Samos" redirects here For the Samian statuary of the same name see Pythagoras (sculptor. Anaxagoras was able to demonstrate that the profile of the Earth was circular by explaining eclipses. Anaxagoras ( Greek: Ἀναξαγόρας c 500 BC &ndash 428 BC was a Pre-Socratic Greek philosopher famous for introducing the Cosmological An eclipse is an astronomical event that occurs when one Celestial object moves into the shadow of another However, he still believed that the Earth was a flat disk, as did many of his contemporaries. One of the first estimates of the radius of the Earth was made by Eratosthenes. Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( Greek; 276 BC - 194 BC was a Greek Mathematician, Poet, athlete, Geographer and [7]
The first rigorous system of latitude and longitude lines is credited to Hipparchus. Hipparchus ( Greek; ca 190 BC &ndash ca 120 BC was a Greek Astronomer, Geographer, and Mathematician of the Hellenistic He employed a sexagesimal system that was derived from Babylonian mathematics. Sexagesimal ( base-sixty) is a Numeral system with sixty as the base. Babylonian mathematics refers to any mathematics of the peoples of Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) from the days of the early Sumerians to the fall of The parallels and meridians were sub-divided into 360°, with each degree further subdivided 60′ (minutes). Minutes also known as protocols are the instant written record of a Meeting or hearing. To measure the longitude at different location on Earth, he suggested using eclipses to determine the relative difference in time. [8] The extensive mapping by the Romans as they explored new lands would later provide a high level of information for Ptolemy to construct detailed atlases. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca An atlas is a collection of Maps typically of Earth or a region of Earth but there are atlases of the other planets (and their satellites in the solar system He extended the work of Hipparchus, using a grid system on his maps and adopting a length of 56. Hipparchus ( Greek; ca 190 BC &ndash ca 120 BC was a Greek Astronomer, Geographer, and Mathematician of the Hellenistic 5 miles for a degree. A mile is a unit of Length, usually used to measure Distance, in a number of different systems including Imperial units United States [9]
During the Middle Ages, the fall of the Roman empire led to a shift in the evolution of geography from Europe to the Islamic world. The Decline of the Roman Empire, leading to the Fall of the Roman Empire, or the Fall of Rome, was the end of the Western Roman Empire. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. [10] Scholars such as Idrisi (produced detailed maps), Yaqut al-Hamawi,Ibn Batutta, and Ibn Khaldun provided detailed accounts of their journeys and the geogarphy of the regions they visited. IDRISI is a Geographic information system (GIS developed by Clark Labs for the analysis and display of digital spatial information Yaqut ibn-'Abdullah al-Rumi al-Hamawi) (1179-1229 (ياقوت الحموي الرومي was a Syrian Biographer and Geographer. Abu Abdullah Muhammad Ibn Abdullah Al Lawati Al Tanji Ibn Battuta (أبو عبد الله محمد ابن عبد الله اللواتي الطنجي بن بطوطة (born February Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 Turkish geigrapher, Mahmud al-Khashghari drew a world mapon linguistic basis. Further, Islamic scholars translated and interpreted the earlier works of the Romans and Greeks and established the House of Wisdom in Baghdad for this purpose. Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC The term ancient Greece refers to the period of Greek history lasting from the Greek Dark Ages ca The House of Wisdom ( Arabic: بيت الحكمة; Bait al-Hikma) was a library and translation institute in Abbassid -era Baghdad, Baghdad (بغداد) is the Capital of Iraq and of Baghdad Governorate, with which it is also coterminous [11] From the 3rd century onwards, Chinese methods of geographical study and writing of geographical literature became much more complex than what was found in Europe at the time (until the 13th century). Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era [10] Chinese geographers such as Liu An, Pei Xiu, Jia Dan, Shen Kuo, Fan Chengda, Zhou Daguan, and Xu Xiake wrote important treatises, yet by the 17th century, advanced ideas and methods of Western-style geography were adopted in China. Líu Ān ( 179 - 122 BC was a Chinese Prince and advisor to his nephew Emperor Wu of Han (武帝 of Han Dynasty in China and the Pei Xiu (224&ndash271 was a minister geographer, and cartographer of the Kingdom of Wei during the Three Kingdoms Period of China Jia Dan ( 730&ndash805 Courtesy name Dunshi (敦诗 was a Chinese scholar-official, geographer, and cartographer Shen Kuo or Shen Kua ( (1031&ndash1095 style name Cunzhong and pseudonym Mengqi Weng, was a Polymathic Chinese Fan Chengda ( 1126–1193 Courtesy name Zhineng (致能 was one of the best-known Chinese poets of the Song Dynasty (960-1279 AD a government official Diplomatic Journey to Cambodia On 20 February 1296, Zhou Daguan set sail from Wenzhou of Zhejiang province on a compass guided ship passed Xu Xiake ( January 5 1587 — March 8 1641) born Xu Hongzu (徐弘祖 Courtesy name Zhenzhi (振之
The Age of discovery during the 16th and 17th centuries where many new lands were discovered and accounts by explorers such as Christopher Columbus, Marco Polo and James Cook, revived a desire for both accurate geographic detail, and more solid theoretical foundations. The Age of Discovery or Age of Exploration was a period from the early 15th century and continuing into the early 17th century during which Europeans explored As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar Christopher Columbus (1451 &ndash May 20 1506 was an Italian Navigator, colonizer Marco Polo ( September 15 1254 – January 9 1324 at earliest but no later than June 1325 was a Venetian trader and explorer Captain James Cook FRS RN ( – 14 February 1779) was an English Explorer, Navigator and
The 18th and 19th centuries were the times when geography became recognized as a discrete academic discipline and became part of a typical university curriculum in Europe (especially Paris and Berlin). The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system The 19th century of the Common Era began on January 1, 1801 and ended on December 31, 1900, according to the Gregorian calendar A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. The development of many geographic societies also occurred during the 19th century with the foundations of the Société de Géographie in 1821,[12] the Royal Geographical Society in 1830,[13] Russian Geographical Society in 1845,[14] American Geographical Society in 1851,[15] and the National Geographic Society in 1888. The Société de Géographie, Paris is the world's oldest geographical society History Founding members of the Society include Sir John Barrow, Sir John Franklin and Francis Beaufort. The Russian Geographical Society (RGO is a Learned society, founded on 6 August, 1845 in Saint Petersburg, Russia. The American Geographical Society (AGS is an organization of professional Geographers It was founded in 1851 in New York City. Overview The NGS's historical mission is "to increase and diffuse geographic knowledge while promoting the conservation of the world's cultural historical and natural [16] The influence of Immanuel Kant, Alexander von Humbolt, Carl Ritter and Paul Vidal de la Blache can be seen as a major turning point in geography from a philosophy to an academic subject. Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg (September 14 1769 &ndash May 6 1859 was a German naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of the Prussian minister philosopher and linguist Carl Ritter ( August 7, 1779 &ndash September 28, 1859) was a German geographer Paul Vidal de la Blache ( Pézenas, 22 January 1845 - Tamaris, 5 April 1918) was a French geographer
Over the past two centuries the advancements in technology such as computers, have led to the development of geomatics and new practices such as participant observation and geostatistics being incorporated into geography's portfolio of tools. Geomatics is the discipline of gathering storing processing and delivery of geographic information or spatially referenced information In the West during the 20th century, the discipline of geography went through four major phases: environmental determinism, regional geography, the quantitative revolution, and critical geography. Environmental determinism, also known as climatic determinism or geographical determinism, is the view that the physical environment rather than social conditions Regional geography is a study of regions throughout the world in order to understand or define the unique characteristics of a particular region which consists of natural as well as The quantitative revolution was one of the four major turning points in the history of Geography (the other three being Regional geography, Environmental The development of critical geography can be seen as one of the four major turning points in the history of geography (the other three being Environmental determinism, The strong interdisciplinary links between geography and the sciences of geology and botany, as well as economics, sociology and demographics have also grown greatly especially as a result of Earth System Science that seeks to understand the world in a holistic view. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Demographics or demographic data refers to selected population characteristics as used in government Marketing or opinion research or the Demographic profiles
Some influential geographers
- Eratosthenes (276BC - 194BC) - calculated the size of the Earth. This list of Geographers is presented in English alphabetical Transliteration order (by Surnames. Johannes or Jan Vermeer (baptized in Delft with the name Joannis on October 31 1632, and buried in the same city under the name Jan Eratosthenes of Cyrene ( Greek; 276 BC - 194 BC was a Greek Mathematician, Poet, athlete, Geographer and
- Ptolemy (c. Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca 90–c. 168) - compiled Greek and Roman knowledge into the book Geographia. The Geographia or Geography is Ptolemy 's main work besides the Almagest.
- Gerardus Mercator (1512-1594) - innovative cartographer produced the mercator projection
- Alexander Von Humboldt (1769–1859) - Considered Father of modern geography, published the Kosmos and founder of the sub-field biogeography. A separate article is about the mathematician Nicholas Mercator. The Mercator projection is a cylindrical map projection presented by the Flemish geographer and cartographer Gerardus Mercator, in 1569 (September 14 1769 &ndash May 6 1859 was a German naturalist and explorer, and the younger brother of the Prussian minister philosopher and linguist
- Carl Ritter (1779-1859) - Considered Father of modern geography. Carl Ritter ( August 7, 1779 &ndash September 28, 1859) was a German geographer Occupied the first chair of geography at Berlin University.
- Arnold Henry Guyot (1807-1884) - noted the structure of glaciers and advanced understanding in glacier motion, especially in fast ice flow. Arnold Henry Guyot ( September 28, 1807 – February 8, 1884) Swiss - American Geologist and Geographer
- William Morris Davis (1850-1934) - father of American geography and developer of the cycle of erosion. William Morris Davis ( February 12 1850 - February 5 1934) was an American Geographer, Geologist, and
- Paul Vidal de la Blache (1845-1918) - founder of the French school of geopolitics and wrote the principles of human geography. Paul Vidal de la Blache ( Pézenas, 22 January 1845 - Tamaris, 5 April 1918) was a French geographer
- Sir Halford John Mackinder (1861-1947) - Co-founder of the LSE, Geographical Association of which he later became president, Reading University and author of The Geographical Pivot of History and Heartland Theory. The London School of Economics and Political Science, more commonly referred to as The London School of Economics or LSE, is a specialist college of the The Geographical Association is a Sheffield, United Kingdom -based organisation that aims to further the teaching of Geography and to communicate the value The University of Reading is a University in the English town of Reading Berkshire The Geographical Pivot of History was an article submitted by Halford John Mackinder in 1904 to the Royal Geographical Society that advanced his
- Walter Christaller (1893-1969) - human geographer and inventor of Central Place Theory. Walter Christaller (1893 &ndash 1969 was a German Geographer whose principal contribution to the discipline is Central Place Theory, first published
- Yi-Fu Tuan (1930-) - Chinese-American scholar credited with starting Humanistic Geography as a discipline. Yi-Fu Tuan (Traditional Chinese 段義孚 born 5 December 1930) is a Chinese-American geographer.
- David Harvey (1935-) - Marxist geographer and author of theories on spatial and urban geography. David Harvey (born 1935 is the Distinguished Professor of Anthropology at the Graduate Center of the City University of New York (CUNY
- Michael Frank Goodchild (1944-) - prominent GIS scholar and winner of the RGS founder's medal in 2003. Michael Frank Goodchild (born February 24, 1944) is a British-American Geographer.
- Nigel Thrift (1949-) - originator of non-representational theory. Professor Nigel John Thrift is the current Vice Chancellor of the University of Warwick and a leading academic in the field of Human geography.
References
- ^ Geography. The American Heritage Dictionary/ of the English Language, Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Company. Retrieved on October 9, 2006.
- ^ Pattison, W. D. (1990). "The Four Traditions of Geography". Journal of Geography 89 (5): pp. 202–6. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. ISSN 0022-1341. An International Standard Serial Number ( ISSN) is a unique eight-digit number used to identify a print or electronic Periodical publication. Reprint of a 1964 article.
- ^ web. clas. ufl. edu/users/morgans/lecture_2. prn. pdf.
- ^ a b Hayes-Bohanan, James. What is Environmental Geography, Anyway?. Retrieved on October 9, 2006.
- ^ Hughes, William. Profesor of Gothic Studies at Bath Spa University, UK. Author of Beyond Dracula (Palgrave 2000 and co-editor of the collections Contemporary Writing and National Identity (1863). The Study of Geography. Lecture delivered at King's College, London by Sir Marc Alexander. Quoted in Baker, J. N. L (1963). The History of Geography. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, p. 66.
- ^ What is geography?. AAG Career Guide: Jobs in Geography and related Geographical Sciences. Association of American Geographers. Retrieved on October 9, 2006.
- ^ Jean-Louis and Monique Tassoul (1920). A Concise History of Solar and Stellar Physics. London: Princeton University Press.
- ^ Hipparcos of Rhodes. Technology Museum of Thessaloniki (2001). Retrieved on 2006-10-16. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 456 - Magister militum Ricimer defeats the Emperor Avitus at Piacenza and becomes master of the western
- ^ Sullivan, Dan (2000). Mapmaking and its History. Rutgers University. Retrieved on 2006-10-16. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 456 - Magister militum Ricimer defeats the Emperor Avitus at Piacenza and becomes master of the western
- ^ a b Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 3. Taipei: Caves Books, Ltd. Page 512.
- ^ IslamiCity.com - Education
- ^ Société de Géographie, Paris, France (French). Retrieved on 2007-01-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 588 BC - Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon lays siege to Jerusalem under Zedekiah 's reign
- ^ About Us. Royal Geographical Society. Retrieved on 2007-01-15. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 588 BC - Nebuchadrezzar II of Babylon lays siege to Jerusalem under Zedekiah 's reign
- ^ Русское Географическое Общество (основано в 1845 г.)
- ^ The American Geographical Society
- ^ National Geographic - Inspiring People to Care About the Planet
See also
- Main lists: List of basic geography topics and List of geography topics
- Geographical term stubs
- List of countries
- Geography reference tables
- Map
- World map
- Gazetteer
- Geographical renaming
- National Geographic Society (United States)
- National Geographic Bee (United States)
- Royal Geographical Society (United Kingdom)
- Royal Canadian Geographical Society (Canada)
- List of explorers
- Geographer
- List of geographers
External links
- Teaching Geography
- GeoKnow.net - Geography news, information and resources at your fingertips
- Juicy Geography - ideas and resources for teachers
- GeoInteractive - shared resources for teachers
- Geography case studies for students
- The Geography-Site
- Geography Teaching Today - Curriculum development project
- geographyalltheway.com - Online Geography Resources
- Seterra - Free Geography Software
- Multimedia Geography Resources
- Geographical Associations and Pressure Groups
- International Geographical Union
- National Geographic Online
- Royal Geographical Society
- Association of American Geographers
- Royal Canadian Geographical Society
- Canadian Association of Geographers
- Russian Geographical Society (Moscow Centre)
- International Geographical Union - Russian National Committee
- Colegio de Geógrafos - España
- Col.legi de Geògrafs - Catalunya
Geography is the study of the World and its features and of the distribution of life on the earth including human life and the effects of human activity Wikipedia talkFeatured lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This list of countries, arranged alphabetically A map is a visual representation of an area—a symbolic depiction highlighting relationships between elements of that space such as objects, Regions, and Themes If you are looking for an editable blank World political map go to A world map is a Map of the surface of the Earth, which may be A gazetteer is a geographical Dictionary or directory, an important reference for information about places and place names (see Toponomy) used in conjunction Geographical renaming is the act of changing the name of a geographical feature or area Overview The NGS's historical mission is "to increase and diffuse geographic knowledge while promoting the conservation of the world's cultural historical and natural The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The National Geographic Bee (previously called the National Geography Bee) is an annual Geography contest sponsored by the National Geographic Society History Founding members of the Society include Sir John Barrow, Sir John Franklin and Francis Beaufort. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Royal Canadian Geographical Society ( RCGS) (in French, La Société géographique royale du Canada ( SRGC) is a Canadian non-profit Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page This list of explorers is sorted by surname See also the links below. A geographer is a Scientist whose area of study is Geography, the study of Earth 's physical environment and Human habitat This list of Geographers is presented in English alphabetical Transliteration order (by Surnames. A navigator is the person onboard a ship or aircraft responsible for its Navigation.
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