A bagpiper in Scottish military clan-uniform. Bagpipes are a class of Musical instrument, Aerophones using enclosed reeds fed from a constant reservoir of air in the form of a bag Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. A military is an Organization authorized by its Nation to use force usually including use of Weapons in defending its Country (or by attacking A uniform is a set of standard Clothing worn by members of an organization while participating in that organization's activity In many parts of the West, wearing a skirt may be unacceptable as part of a male gender role, but in Scotland men have traditionally worn kilts, which are similar to skirts. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings A skirt is a tube- or cone-shaped Garment that hangs from the Waist and covers all or part of the Legs In European culture, skirts are usually Gender comprises a range of differences between men and women extending from the biological to the social Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. The kilt is a knee-length garment with pleats at the rear originating in the traditional dress of men and boys in the Scottish Highlands of the 16th century

A gender role is defined as a set of perceived behavioural norms associated particularly with males or females, in a given social group or system. Social norms have been defined as "the rules that a group uses for appropriate and inappropriate values beliefs attitudes and behaviors Male (♂ refers to the sex of an organism or part of an organism which produces small mobile Gametes called spermatozoa. Female (♀ is the Sex of an Organism, or a part of an organism which produces ova (egg cells It can be a form of division of labour by gender. Division of labour or specialization is the specialization of cooperative labour in specific circumscribed tasks and roles intended to increase the Productivity Gender comprises a range of differences between men and women extending from the biological to the social It is a focus of analysis in the social sciences and humanities. The social sciences comprise academic disciplines concerned with the study of the social life of human groups and individuals including Anthropology, Communication studies The humanities are academic disciplines which study the Human condition, using methods that are primarily Analytic, Critical, or Speculative Gender is one component of the gender/sex system, which refers to "The set of arrangements by which a society transforms biological sexuality into products of human activity, and in which these transformed needs are satisfied" (Reiter 1975: 159). Gender comprises a range of differences between men and women extending from the biological to the social Gender comprises a range of differences between men and women extending from the biological to the social An organism's sex is defined by the gametes it produces males produce male gametes (spermatozoa or Sperm) while females produce female gametes (ova or Egg cells; individual A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions All societies, to a certain effect, have a gender/sex system, although the components and workings of this system vary markedly from society to society.

Gender refers to an individual's "psychological type", it is acquired through experience. An individual can be viewed as either masculine or feminine.

Gender role refers to the attitudes and behaviours that class a person's stereotypical identity, e. g. women cook and clean, men fix cars.

To associate oneself as either masculine or feminine is identifying with gender.

Researchers recognize that the concrete behavior of individuals is a consequence of both socially enforced rules and values, and individual disposition, whether genetic, unconscious, or conscious. Some researchers emphasize the objective social system and others emphasize subjective orientations and dispositions.

Creativity may cause the rules and values to change over time. Cultures and societies are dynamic and ever changing, but there has been extensive debate as to how, and how fast, they may change. Such debates are especially contentious when they involve the gender/sex system, as people have widely differing views about how much gender depends on biological sex.

Talcott Parson's view of gender roles

Working in the United States, Talcott Parsons^[1] developed a model of the nuclear family in 1955. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Talcott Parsons ( December 13, 1902 - May 8, 1979) was an American sociologist, who served on the faculty of Harvard University The term nuclear family developed in the Western world to distinguish the Family group consisting of parents most commonly a Father and Mother (At that place and time, the nuclear family was the prevalent family structure. ) It compared a strictly traditional view of gender roles (from an industrial-age American perspective) to a more liberal view.

The Parsons model was used to contrast and illustrate extreme positions on gender roles. Model A describes total separation of male and female roles, while Model B describes the complete dissolution of barriers between gender roles. ^[2] (The examples are based on the context of the culture and infrastructure of the United States. Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids )

However, these extreme positions are rarely found in reality; actual behavior of individuals is usually somewhere between these poles. The most common 'model' followed in real life in the United States and Britain is the 'model of double burden' (See Gender roles and feminism below). The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located

According to the interactionist approach, roles (including gender roles) are not fixed, but are constantly negotiated between individuals. In North America and southern South America, this is the most common approach among families whose business is agriculture. Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture

Gender roles can influence all kinds of behavior, such as choice of clothing, choice of work and personal relationships; E. g. , parental status (See also Sociology of fatherhood). The sociology of fatherhood is a subbranch of Sociology which studies Gender role in society with particular reference to the parental role of the

Gender roles and socialization

The process through which the individual learns and accepts roles is called socialization. As commonly used, individual refers to a Person or to any specific object in a collection A role (sometimes spelled rôle) or a social role is a set of connected Behaviors Rights and Obligations as conceptualized by actors The term socialization is used by sociologists, social psychologists and Educationalists to refer to the process of learning one’s Culture Socialization works by encouraging wanted and discouraging unwanted behavior. Behavior or behaviour (see spelling differences) refers to the actions or Reactions of an object or Organism, usually These sanctions by agencies of socialization such as the family, schools, and the media make it clear to the child what is expected of the child by society. Family denotes a group of People affiliated by consanguinity affinity or co-residence A school (from Greek σχολεῖον - scholeion) is an Institution designed to allow and encourage Students (or "pupils" CHILD syndrome (or congenital hemidysplasia with ichthyosiform erythroderma and limb defects) is a genetic disorder Mostly, accepted behavior is not produced by outright reforming coercion from an accepted social system. Social structure is a term frequently used in Sociology and Social theory — yet rarely defined or clearly conceptualised (Abercrombie et al In some other cases, various forms of coercion have been used to acquire a desired response or function.

In the majority of traditional and developmental social systems, an individual has a choice as to what they should or should not conform to as a representative of the socialization process. Through this process an individual willingly accepts the consequences whether they be beneficial or negative, minor or severe depending on the way an individual copes, and the extent to which they must modify their natural behavior to conform to society's accepted behavioral standards. Typical encouragements and expectations of gender role behavior are not as a powerful difference and reforming social trait to a century ago. Such developments and traditional refineries are still a socialization process to and within family values, peer pressures, at the employment centers and in every social system communication medium. Family values is a political and social concept used in various cultures to describe values that are believed to be traditional in that culture and in support of the idea Peer Pressure is a term describing the pressure exerted by a Peer group in encouraging a person to change their Attitude, Behavior and/or Morals Employment is a Contract between two parties, one being the employer and the other being the employee.

Still, once someone has accepted certain gender roles and gender differences as expected socialized behavioral norm, their behavior traits become part of their perceived responsibilities. A Gender difference is a distinction of biological and/or physiological characteristics typically associated with either males or females of a species in general Influential roles in gender relationships on a personal and social level to the individual's own socializing role or self-concept. Self-concept or self identity refers to the global understanding a sentient being has of him or herself Sanctions to unwanted behavior and role conflict can be stressful.

Gender roles with homogenization vs. ethnoconvergence difference

Changing norms of socialization: Louis XV in 1712, wearing the customary clothes of unbreeched boys, would be considered "cross-dressed" in the 21st century. Louis XV (15 February 1710 &ndash 10 May 1774 ruled as King of France and of Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774 Year 1712 ( MDCCXII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap Breeching was the occasion when a small boy was first dressed in Breeches or trousers Cross-dressing is the act of wearing clothing commonly associated with another gender within a particular Society.

It is claimed that even in monolingual, industrial societies like urban North America, some individuals do cling to a "modernized" primordial identity, apart from others and with this a more diverse gender role is recognitized or developed. Some intellectuals, such as Michael Ignatieff, argue that convergence of a general culture does not directly entail a similar convergence in ethnic, social and self identities. Michael Grant Ignatieff, MP (/ɪgˈnatʃəf/ (born May 12, 1947 in Toronto) is a Public intellectual, Historian, This can become evident in social situations, where people divide into separate groups by gender roles and cultural alignments, despite being of an identical "super-ethnicity", such as nationality. Nationality is a relationship between a Person and their State of Origin, Culture, association Affiliation and/or Loyalty

Within each smaller ethnicity, individuals may tend to see it perfectly justified to assimilate with other cultures including sexuality and some others view assimilation as wrong and incorrect for their culture or institution. This common theme, representing dualist opinions of ethnoconvergence itself, within a single ethnic or common values groups is often manifested in issues of sexual partners and matrimony, employment preferences, etc. A personal and cultural value is a Relative ethic value, an assumption upon which implementation can be extrapolated NOTICE TO WOULD-BE ROMEOS ************** These varied opinions of ethnoconvergence represent themselves in a spectrum; assimilation, homogenization, acculturation, gender identities and cultural compromise are commonly used terms for ethnoconvegence which flavor the issues to a bias. A region or society where several different groups are spontaneously assimilated is sometimes referred to as a Melting pot. Homogenization (or homogenisation) is a term used in many fields such as Chemistry, Agricultural science, Food technology, Sociology Acculturation is the exchange of cultural features that results when groups come into continuous firsthand contact the original cultural patterns of either or both groups may be altered In Arguments compromise is a concept of finding Agreement through Communication, through a mutual Acceptance of terms—often involving variations

Often it's in a secular, multi-ethnic environment that cultural concerns are both minimalized and exacerbated; Ethnic prides are boasted, hierarchy is created ("center" culture versus "periphery") but on the other hand, they will still share a common "culture", and common language and behaviors. Often the elderly, more conservative-in-association of a clan, tend to reject cross-cultural associations, and participate in ethnically similar community-oriented activities. Xenophobes tend to think of cross-cultural contact as a component of gender and assimilation and see this as terrible. Xenophobia is an intense and/or irrational dislike and sometimes fear of people from other countries A region or society where several different groups are spontaneously assimilated is sometimes referred to as a Melting pot.

Biology

The idea that differences in gender roles originate in differences in biology has found support in parts of the scientific community. 19th-century anthropology sometimes used descriptions of the imagined life of paleolithic hunter-gatherer societies for evolutionary explanations for gender differences. Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of The term Paleolithic (or Palaeolithic) (from Greek παλαιός palaios, " Old " and λίθος Lithos, "stone" A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting For example, those accounts maintain that the need to take care of offspring may have limited the females' freedom to hunt and assume positions of power.

More recently, sociobiology and evolutionary psychology have explained those differences in social roles by treating them as adaptations. Sociobiology is a neo-Darwinian and Socialism Synthesis of Scientific disciplines that attempts to explain Social behavior Evolutionary psychology ( EP) attempts to explain mental and psychological traits ��such as Memory, Perception, An adaptation is a characteristic of an Organism that has been favored by Natural selection and This approach, too, is considered controversial.

Due to the influence of (among others) Simone de Beauvoir's feminist works and Michel Foucault's reflections on sexuality, the idea that gender was unrelated to sex gained ground during the 1980's, especially in sociology and cultural anthropology. "La Beauvoir" redirects here also see Beauvoir (disambiguation Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. Gender comprises a range of differences between men and women extending from the biological to the social The 1980s was the decade spanning from January 1 1980 to December 31 1989. This view claims that a person could therefore be born with male genitals but still be of feminine gender. In 1987, R.W. Connell did extensive research on whether there are any connections between biology and gender role^[3] and concluded that there were none. Raewyn Connell (formerly Robert William Connell, born January 3, 1944) is an Australian social scientist known for her work in the disciplines Most scientists reject Connell's research because concrete evidence exists proving the effect of hormones on behavior. However, hormone levels vary, and disorders can cause an intersex status. The debate continues to rage on. Simon Baron-Cohen, a Cambridge Univ. Simon Baron-Cohen is a professor of Developmental psychopathology in the departments of Psychiatry and Experimental psychology, a Fellow of Trinity professor of psychology and psychiatry, has said that "the female brain is predominantly hard-wired for empathy, while the male brain is predominantly hard-wired for understanding and building systems. " Some researchers, such as Bruce Lipton, believe that neural synapses in early childhood are formed due to the environment of the child, so if parents were to treat the child as to his or her assigned gender, then the brain would develop for that gender role and thus would be "hard-wired". Traditionally the term neural network had been used to refer to a network or circuit of biological neurons.

Dr. Sandra Lipsitz Bem is a psychologist who developed the gender schema theory to explain how individuals come to use gender as an organizing category in all aspects of their life. Sandra Ruth Lipsitz Bem (born June 22, 1944) is a Pennsylvanian psychologist known for her works in Androgyny and Gender studies It is based on the combination of aspects of the social learning theory and the cognitive-development theory of sex role acquisition. The Theory of Cognitive Development (one of the most historically influential theories was developed by Jean Piaget, a Swiss Philosopher (1896–1980 In 1971, she created the Bem Sex Role Inventory to measure how well you fit into your traditional gender role by characterizing your personality as masculine, feminine, androgynous, or undifferentiated. She believed that through gender-schematic processing, a person spontaneously sorts attributes and behaviors into masculine and feminine categories. Therefore, an individual processes information and regulate their behavior based on whatever definitions of femininity and masculinity their culture provides. ^[4]

The current trend in Western societies toward men and women sharing similar occupations, responsibilities and jobs suggests that the sex one is born with does not directly determine one's abilities. While there are differences in average capabilities of various kinds (E. g. , physical strength) between the sexes, the capabilities of some members of one sex will fall within the range of capabilities needed for tasks conventionally assigned to the other sex.

In addition, research at the Yerkes National Primate Research Center has also shown that gender roles may be biological. Yerkes researchers studied the interactions of 11 male and 23 female Rhesus monkeys with human toys, both wheeled and plush. The Rhesus Macaque ( Macaca mulatta) often called the Rhesus Monkey, is one of the best known species of Old World monkeys Adult males measure The males played mostly with the wheeled toys while the females played with both types equally. ^[5] Psychologist Kim Wallen has, however, warned against overinterpeting the results as the color and size of the toys may also be factors in the monkey's behavior. ^[6]

Changing roles

A person's gender role is composed of several elements and can be expressed through clothing, behaviour, choice of work, personal relationships and other factors. The Cement Garden is a 1978 novel by Ian McEwan. It was adapted into a 1993 film of the same name by Andrew Birkin, starring " What It Feels Like for a Girl " is the third and final single by American singer-songwriter Madonna from her 8th studio album Music These elements are not concrete and have evolved through time (for example women's trousers).

Traditionally only feminine and masculine gender roles existed, however, over time many different acceptable male or female gender roles have emerged. An individual can either identify themselves with a subculture or social group which results in them having diverse gender roles. Historically, for example, eunuchs had a different gender role because their biology was changed.

A woman publicly witnessing at a Quaker meeting seemed an extraordinary feature of the Religious Society of Friends, worth recording for a wider public. Engraving by Bernard Picart, ca 1723.

Androgyny, a term denoting the display of both male and female behaviour, also exists. Androgyny is a term derived from the Greek words ανήρ ( anér, meaning man and γυνή ( gyné, meaning woman that can refer to either of two Many terms have been developed to portray sets of behaviors arising in this context. The masculine gender role in the West has become more malleable since the 1950s. One example is the "sensitive new age guy", which could be described as a traditional male gender role with a more typically "female" empathy and associated emotional responses. Another is the metrosexual, a male who adopts or claims to be born with similarly "female" grooming habits. Metrosexual is a Neologism generally applied to heterosexual men with a strong concern for their appearance or whose lifestyles display attributes stereotypically seen among Some have argued that such new roles are merely rebelling against tradition more so than forming a distinct role. However, traditions regarding male and female appearance have never been concrete, and men in other eras have been equally interested with their appearance. The popular conceptualization of homosexual men, which has become more accepted in recent decades, has traditionally been more androgynous or effeminate, though in actuality homosexual men can also be masculine and even exhibit machismo characteristics. One could argue that since many homosexual men and women fall into one gender role or another or are androgynous, that gender roles are not strictly determined by a person's physical sex. Whether or not this phenomenon is due to social or biological reasons is debated. Many homosexual people find the traditional gender roles to be very restrictive, especially during childhood. Also, the phenomenon of intersex people, which has become more publicly accepted, has caused much debate on the subject of gender roles. Intersexuality is the state of a living thing of a gonochoristic species whose Sex chromosomes, Genitalia, and/or Secondary sex characteristics Many intersexual people identify with the opposite sex, while others are more androgynous. Some see this as a threat to traditional gender roles, while others see it as a sign that these roles are a social construct, and that a change in gender roles will be liberating.

According to sociology research, traditional feminine gender roles have become less relevant and hollower in Western societies since industrialization started. For example, the cliché that women do not follow a career is obsolete in many Western societies. On the other hand, in the media there are attempts to portray women who adopt an extremely classical role as a subculture. Women take on many roles that were traditionally reserved for men, as well as behaviors and fashions, which may cause pressure on many men to be more masculine and thus confined within an even smaller gender role, while other men react against this pressure. For example, men's fashions have become more restrictive than in other eras, while women's fashions have become more broad. One consequence of social unrest during the Vietnam War era was that men began to let their hair grow to a length that had previously (within recent history) been considered appropriate only for women. Somewhat earlier, women had begun to cut their hair to lengths previously considered appropriate only to men.

Some famous people known for their androgynous appearances in the 20th century include Brett Anderson, Gladys Bentley, David Bowie, Pete Burns, Boy George, Norman Iceberg, k.d. lang, Annie Lennox, Jaye Davidson, Marilyn Manson (musician), Freddie Mercury, Marlene Dietrich, Mylène Farmer, Gackt, Mana (musician), Michael Jackson, Grace Jones, Marc Bolan, Brian Molko, Julia Sweeney (as Pat (fictional character)), Genesis P-Orridge, Prince and Kristen McMenamy. Brett Lewis Anderson (born September 29, 1967) is an English Singer-songwriter, best-known as the former lead vocalist of Britpop Gladys Bentley ( 12 August 1907 - 18 January 1960) was an American blues singer during the Harlem Renaissance. David Bowie (ˈboʊiː born David Robert Jones on 8 January 1947 is an English Musician, actor producer, and arranger. Peter "Pete" Burns (b August 5 1959, Port Sunlight, Wirral, England and now living in Ramsey, Cambridgeshire Boy George (born George Alan O'Dowd 14 June 1961 in Eltham London) is an English Singer-songwriter, who was part of the English New Norman Iceberg (born Norman Joseph Bédard on July 30 1962 is a Canadian singer and songwriter kd lang, OC (born Kathryn Dawn Lang, November 2, 1961) is a Grammy Award -winning Canadian Singer and Annie Lennox (born 25 December 1954 is a Scottish born British Musician, Vocalist and Academy Award -winning Songwriter Jaye Davidson (born Alfred Amey, March 21 1968) is an American -born British Oscar -nominated former Actor Brian Hugh Warner (born January 5, 1969) better known by his Stage name Marilyn Manson, is an American Musician and Freddie Mercury (born Farrokh Bulsara; 5 September 1946 – 24 November 1991 was a Zanzibar -born British Musician, best known as the lead Marlene Dietrich maɐˈleːnə ˈdiːtrɪç (December 27 &ndashMay 6) was a German -born American Actress, Singer and Entertainer Mylène Farmer born Mylène Jeanne Gautier (12 September 1961 in Montreal, Canada is a French Singer, Songwriter, occasional is a Japanese Musician, Songwriter and Actor. Usually referred to by his Stage name only he is best known for his work with Malice Mizer Mana is a Japanese musician and fashion designer famed for his role as a leader and guitarist of the influential Visual kei band Malice Mizer. Michael Joseph Jackson (born August 29 1958 is an American musician entertainer and businessman Grace Jones (born May 19, 1948) is a Jamaican �� American Singer, model and actress Marc Bolan (born Mark Feld; 30 September 1947 – 16 September 1977) was an English singer songwriter and Guitarist Brian Molko (born December 10, 1972, in Belgium) is a Songwriter, Lead vocalist and Guitarist of the band Placebo Julia Sweeney (born October 10, 1959) is an American actress and Comedian who lives in Hollywood California. Pat was an androgynous Fictional character created and performed by Julia Sweeney for the American Sketch comedy show Saturday "Neil Megson" redirects here For the soccer player see Neil Megson (soccer. Prince, from the Latin root Princeps, is a general term for a Monarch, for a member of a monarch's or former monarch's family and is a Kristen McMenamy (born December 13, 1966 in Easton Pennsylvania) is a Supermodel.

Culture and gender roles

During World War II, women filled job positions some of which would otherwise be male dominated. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including

Ideas of appropriate behavior according to gender vary among cultures and era, although some aspects receive more widespread attention than others. An interesting case is described by R.W. Connell in Men, Masculinities and Feminism:

"There are cultures where it has been normal, not exceptional, for men to have homosexual relations. Raewyn Connell (formerly Robert William Connell, born January 3, 1944) is an Australian social scientist known for her work in the disciplines There have been periods in 'Western' history when the modern convention that men suppress displays of emotion did not apply at all, when men were demonstrative about their feeling for their friends. Mateship in the Australian outback last century is a case in point. "

Other aspects, however, may differ markedly with time and place. In pre-industrial Europe, for example, the practice of medicine (Other than midwifery) was generally seen as a male prerogative. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the However, in Russia, health care was more often seen as a feminine role. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending A role (sometimes spelled rôle) or a social role is a set of connected Behaviors Rights and Obligations as conceptualized by actors The results of these views can still be seen in modern society, where European medicine is most often practiced by men, while the majority of Russian doctors are women.

In many other cases, the elements of convention or tradition seem to play a dominant role in deciding which occupations fit in with which gender roles. In the United States, physicians have traditionally been men, and the few people who defied that expectation received a special job description: "woman doctor". Similarly, there are special terms like "male nurse", "woman lawyer", "lady barber", "male secretary," etc. But in the former Soviet Union countries, medical doctors are predominantly women, and in Germany and Taiwan it is very common for all of the barbers in a barber shop to be women. Also, throughout history, some jobs that have been typically male or female have switched genders. For example, clerical jobs. Clerical jobs used to be considered a man's job, but when several women began filling men's job positions due to World War II, clerical jobs quickly became dominated by women. It became more feminized, and women workers became known as "typewriters" or "secretaries". There are many other jobs that have switched gender roles. Many jobs are continually evolving as far as being dominated by women or men.

In Western society, people whose gender appears masculine and whose inferred and/or verified external genitalia are male are often criticized and ridiculed for exhibiting what the society regards as a woman's gender role. For instance, someone with a masculine voice, a five o'clock shadow (or a fuller beard), an Adam's apple, etc. , wearing a woman's dress and high heels, carrying a purse, etc. , would most likely draw ridicule or other unfriendly attention in ordinary social contexts (the stage and screen excepted^[7]). It is seen by some in that society that such a gender role for a man is not acceptable. ^[8] This, and other societies, impose expectations on the behaviour of the members of society, and specifically on the gender roles of individuals, resulting in prescriptions regarding gender roles. In most if not all societies there are prescriptions regarding Gender roles.

Transgendered and intersexed people

As long as a person's perceived physiological sex is consistent with that person's gender identity, the gender role of a person is so much a matter of course in a stable society that people rarely even think of it. Only in cases where, for whatever reason, an individual has a gender role that is inconsistent with his or her sex will the matter draw attention.

Not entertaining, but usually highly problematic, however, are cases wherein the external genitalia of a person, that person's perceived gender identity, and/or that person's gender role are not consistent. A sex organ, or primary sexual characteristic, as narrowly defined is any of the anatomical parts of the body which are involved in sexual reproduction and constitute People naturally, but too easily, assume that if a person has a penis, scrotum, etc. The penis (plural penises, penes In some Male Mammals the scrotum - also 'scrutum' or 'scrootum' - is a protuberance of Skin and Muscle containing the Testicles , then that person is chromosomally male (I. A chromosome is an organized structure of DNA and Protein that is found in cells. e. , that person has one X chromosome and one Y chromosome), and that the person, in introspection, feels like a male. The X chromosome is one of the two sex-determining Chromosomes in many animal species including mammals (the other is the Y chromosome) The Y chromosome is the sex-determining Chromosome in most Mammals including Humans In mammals it contains the gene SRY, which triggers

In one example, a person may have a penis and scrotum, but may be a female (With XX chromosomal sexual identity and with normal female sexual organs internally). When that person reaches puberty, "his" breasts may enlarge to ordinary female proportions, and "he" may begin to menstruate, passing menstrual blood through "his" penis. ^[9] In addition, this person may have always accepted a gender identity that is consistent with "his" external genitalia or with "her" internal genitalia. When the true sex of the individual becomes revealed at puberty, the individual and/or the community will be forced to reconsider what gender role is to be considered appropriate. Biological conditions that cause a person's physiological sex to be not easily determined are collectively known as intersex.

Another example to consider is transgender people, who mix gender roles to form a personally comfortable androgynous combination or transcend the scheme of gender roles completely, regardless of their physiological sex . Transgender (trænzˈdʒɛndɚ from ( Latin) derivatives Transgender people can also be physically androgynous or identify as androgynous. Transsexualism also exists, where a person who is born as one sex and is brought up in that sex, but has gender identity of the opposite sex and wishes to live as that sex (but does not necessarily wish to adopt that particular gender role, depending upon whether the person in question believes that gender roles are innate). Transsexualism is a condition in which a person identifies with a physical Sex different from the one with which they were born Gender identity (or core gender identity) is a person's own sense of Identification as Male or Female.

When we consider these more unusual products of nature's inventiveness, the simple picture that we saw originally, in which there was a high degree of consistency among external genitalia, gender identity, and gender role, then dissolves into a kind of jigsaw puzzle that is difficult to put together correctly. The extra parts of this jigsaw puzzle fall into two closely related categories, atypical gender identities and atypical gender roles. Gender identity (or core gender identity) is a person's own sense of Identification as Male or Female. Gender role is a term used in the social sciences and humanities to denote a set of behavioral norms associated with a given gendered status in a given social group or system

In Western society, there is a growing acceptance of intersexed and transgendered people. Intersexuality is the state of a living thing of a gonochoristic species whose Sex chromosomes, Genitalia, and/or Secondary sex characteristics Transgender (trænzˈdʒɛndɚ from ( Latin) derivatives However, there are some who do not accept these people and may react violently and persecute them: this kind of negative value judgment is sometimes known as transphobia.

Nevertheless, such cases of mismatch between a person's physiology, identity and role are rare. A large majority of people have matching genitalia and gender identities. For many people their gender role is commensurate with their genitalia.

Gender roles and feminism

Main article: Feminism

For approximately the last 100 years women have been fighting for the same rights as men (especially around the turn from 19th to 20th century with the struggle for women's suffrage and in the 1960s with second-wave feminism and radical feminism) and were able to make changes to the traditionally accepted feminine gender role. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Suffrage (from the Latin suffragium, meaning "voting tablet" and figuratively "right to vote" probably from suffrago "hough" and originally Second-wave feminism refers to a period of Feminist activity which began during the 1960s and lasted through the late 1970s Radical feminism is a "current" within Feminism that focuses on the theory of Patriarchy as a system of power that organizes society into a complex However, most feminists today say there is still work to be done.

Numerous studies and statistics show that even though the situation for women has improved during the last century, discrimination is still widespread: Women earn a smaller percentage of aggregate income than men, occupy lower-ranking job positions than men and do most of the housekeeping work. Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is However, there may be some reason for this, as some studies have indicated that many jobs which were traditionally perceived to be male-dominated usually have longer hours, necessitate long periods of exposure to the elements, are higher risk and require a fair amount of physical strength.

When feminism became a conspicuous protest movement in the 60's, critics often argued that women who wanted to follow a traditional role would be discriminated against in the future and forced to join the workforce. This has not proven true as such: although some women, especially single parents are denied this choice due to economic necessity, there is little or no discrimination against women who remain in traditional roles. A single parent (also lone parent and sole parent) is a Parent who cares for one or more children without the assistance of another parent in the home In theory, feminism is the belief that a woman should have the right to make her own decision. However, in contemporary society those who choose to adhere to traditional female gender roles (sometimes termed being femme or a "girly girl") were discriminated against and were considered not living up to the female role. Girly girl is a Slang term for a Girl or Woman who chooses to dress and behave in a traditionally feminine style such as wearing Furthermore, Women who choose to pursue careers and higher education are also similarly stigmatized.

Terminology

Note that many people consider some or all of the following terms to have negative connotations. This word has distinct meanings in other fields see Connotation (semiotics and Connotation and denotation.

• A male adopting (or who is perceived as adopting) a female gender role might be described as effeminate, foppish, or sissy. Effeminacy is a trait in males that generally contradicts traditional male ( masculine) Gender roles It is a derogatory term frequently applied to Femininity For the meanings of the acronym FOP see FOP (disambiguation. The fop (also known as a fribble, popinjay, fashion-monger Sissy (sometimes just Sis) is a relationship Nickname formed from sister, given to Girls to indicate their role in the family especially the Even more pejorative terms include mollycoddle, milquetoast, milksop, sop, mamma's boy, and namby-pamby. Words and phrases are pejorative if they imply disapproval or contempt
• A female adopting (or who is perceived as adopting) a male role might be described as butch, as a tomboy, or as a mannish woman. Tomboy is a Girl who behaves according to the Gender role of a Boy. More pejorative terms include amazon (See amazon feminism). Amazon feminism is dedicated to the image of the female hero in Fiction and in fact as expressed in the Physiques and feats of female athletes martial artists

Sexual orientation and gender roles

Traditional gender roles include male attraction to females, and vice versa. Gay, lesbian and bisexual people, among others, usually don't conform to these expectations. In the English language, gay is an Adjective that in modern usage refers to Homosexuality. A lesbian is a Woman who is romantically or sexually attracted only to other women Bisexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of both sexes or to a bisexual orientation An active conflict over the cultural acceptability of non-heterosexuality rages worldwide. Heterosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the opposite sex or to a heterosexual orientation (See Societal attitudes towards homosexuality. Societal attitudes towards homosexuality vary greatly in different cultures and different historical periods as do attitudes toward sexual desire activity and relationships in general ) The belief or assumption that heterosexual relationships and acts are "normal" is described — largely by the opponents of this viewpoint — as heterosexism or in queer theory, heteronormativity. Heterosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the opposite sex or to a heterosexual orientation Heterosexism is a term that applies to attitudes, Bias, and Discrimination in favor of opposite-sex sexuality and relationships Queer theory is a field of Gender Studies that emerged in the early 1990s out of the fields of gay and Lesbian studies and feminist studies Heteronormativity is a term to describe the marginalization of Non-heterosexual lifestyles and the view that Heterosexuality is the normal Sexual orientation

Perhaps it is an attempt to reconcile this conflict that leads to a common assumption that one same-sex partner assumes a pseudo-male gender role and the other assumes a pseudo-female role. For a gay male relationship, this might lead to the assumption that the "wife" handled domestic chores, was the receptive sexual partner in anal sex, adopted effeminate mannerisms, and perhaps even dressed in women's clothing. This assumption is flawed, as many homosexual couples tend to have more equal roles, and the effeminate behavior of some gay men is usually not adopted consciously, and is often more subtle. Feminine or masculine behaviors in some homosexual people might be a product of the socialization process, adopted unconsciously due to stronger identification with the opposite sex during development. The role of both this process and the role of biology is debated. The existence of these separate identities (dominant masculine vs more passive feminine), where present, can establish the dynamics of the relationship, according to the heterosexual patterns; this is not always the case, especially in relationships with less clearly defined sexual/identity roles. A related assumption is that all androphilic people, including gay men, should or do adopt feminine mannerisms and other gender-role elements, and that all gynophilic people, including lesbians, should or do adopt masculine mannerisms and other gender-role elements; it is unclear how bisexuality fits into this framework, but it can be assumed they have a dragging towards both gender roles as they do in sexuality, towards both sexes. Gynephilia (or gynophilia) (From Greek gunē, "women" + -philia, "love" is the romantic and/or sexual attraction to adult Gynephilia (or gynophilia) (From Greek gunē, "women" + -philia, "love" is the romantic and/or sexual attraction to adult Bisexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of both sexes or to a bisexual orientation However, this idea is based on generalizations of homosexual people, which tend to be biased, as feminine gays and masculine lesbians are more widely visible than masculine gays or feminine lesbians.

Same-sex domestic partners also challenge traditional gender roles because it is impossible to divide up household responsibilities if both partners attempt to fill the same gender role. A domestic partnership is a legal or Personal relationship between two individuals who live together and share a common domestic life but are neither joined by a traditional Like all live-in couples, same-sex partners usually do come to some arrangement with regard to household responsibilities. Sometimes these arrangements do assign traditional female responsibilities to one partner and traditional male responsibilities to the other, but non-traditional divisions of labor are also quite common. For instance, cleaning and cooking, traditionally both female responsibilities, might be assigned to different people. Some people do adopt the sexual role of bottom or top, due to their own sexual identity or for convenience; but this is not universal, and does not necessarily correspond to assignment of household responsibilities. The terms top, bottom and switch are used by many people including Heterosexual and LGBT people BDSM practitioners and others in The terms top, bottom and switch are used by many people including Heterosexual and LGBT people BDSM practitioners and others in

Cross-dressing is also quite common in gay and lesbian culture, but it is usually restricted to festive occasions, though there are people of all sexual orientations who routinely engage in various types of cross-dressing, either as a fashion statement or for entertainment. Cross-dressing is the act of wearing clothing commonly associated with another gender within a particular Society. Distinctive styles of dress, however, are commonly seen in gay and lesbian circles. These fashions sometimes emulate the traditional styles of the opposite gender (For example, lesbians who wear t-shirts and boots instead of skirts and dresses, or gay men who wear clothing with traditionally feminine elements, including displays of jewelry or coloration), but others do not. Fashion choices also do not necessarily align with other elements of gender identity. Some fashion and behavioral elements in gay and lesbian culture are novel, and do not really correspond to any traditional gender roles. For example, the popularity of rainbow jewelry, or the gay techno/dance music subculture. In addition to the stereotypically effeminate one, another significant gay male subculture is homomasculinity, emphasizing certain traditionally masculine or hypermasculine traits. Straight-acting is a term used to describe a person who does not exhibit the appearance or mannerisms of the gay stereotype. (See Sexuality and gender identity-based cultures. Poliamory pride in San Francisco 2004jpg|thumb|Representatives of the Polyamory community at a San Francisco parade ) These may be natural traits for an individual, or they may be adopted to conform to mainstream culture or to distance oneself from the more effeminate gays, as masculinity is often seen as a positive trait among gay men. . A quick look through gay personals websites, such as Gaydar, will reveal that many gay men's personals are discouraging effeminate men from replying to their ad. (Fat, effeminate or bald, please do not disturb).

The term dyke, commonly used to mean lesbian, sometimes carries associations of a butch or masculine identity, and the variant bulldyke certainly does. Other gender-role-charged lesbian terms include lipstick lesbian, chapstick lesbian, and Stone Femme. A lipstick lesbian is a Slang term used to describe Lesbian and Bisexual women who exhibit feminine gender attributes such as wearing A soft butch &mdash also known as a chapstick lesbian &mdash is a woman who exhibits some stereotypical butch lesbian traits without fitting the masculine stereotype associated A stone femme is a dyke identity used to describe a femme who is the receiver in Sexual interactions and is sexually untouchable "Butch," "femme," and novel elements are also seen in various lesbian subcultures.

External social pressures may lead some people to adopt a persona which is perceived as more appropriate for a heterosexual (For instance, in an intolerant work environment) or homosexual (for instance, in a same-sex dating environment), while maintaining a somewhat different identity in other, more private circumstances. The acceptance of new gender roles in Western societies, however, is rising. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings ^[10] However, during childhood and adolescence, gender identities which differ from the norm are often the cause of ridicule and ostracism, which often results in psychological problems. Some are able to disguise their differences, but others are not. Even though much of society has become more tolerant, gender roles are still very prevalent in the emotionally charged world of children and teenagers, which makes life very difficult for those who differ from the established norms.

See also: Straight acting. Straight-acting is a term used to describe a person who does not exhibit the appearance or mannerisms of the gay stereotype.

The role of ideology in the enculturation of gender roles

High levels of agreement on the characteristics different cultures to males and females reflects consensus in gender role ideology. The Netherlands, Germany and Finland are among the most egalitarian modern societies concerning gender roles, whereas the most traditional roles found in Nigeria, Pakistan, and India. Men and women cross-culturally rate the ideal self as more masculine than their self. The American difference on spatial reasoning between males and females does not apply in all cultures. One example of where it does not is the Inuit culture in Canada. Male superiority is found in tight, sedentary, agriculturally based, while females are superior in cultures that are loose, nomadic, and hunter-gathering based. US females are more conforming to others than are males. Males are more aggressive in all cultures for which data exists. This is related to, but not solely determined by, age and hormones though some researchers would suggest that women are not necessarily less aggressive then men but tend to show their aggression in more subtle and less overt ways(Bjorkqvist et al. 1994, Hines and Saudino 2003). . Male aggression may be a "gender marking" issue breaking away from the instruction of the mother during adolescence. Asian-American females adhere to traditional gender roles. Males are aloof, unemotional and authoritative. In the family, women have high control of decisions. Hispanic Americans males exhibit machismo. Acculturation is creeping into these families, however. Native American gender roles depend on the cultural history of the tribe. ^[11]

Gender roles in prison

Gender roles in male prisons go further than the "Don't drop the soap"-joke. Don't Drop the Soap is a controversial Prison -themed Board game, designed by art student John Sebelius as a class project at the Rhode Island The truth is that some prisoners, either by choice or by force, take on strict 'female roles' according to prison set guidelines. For instance, a 'female' in prison is seen as timid, submissive, passive, and a means of sexual pleasure. When entering the prison environment some inmates "turn out" on their own free will, meaning they actively pursue the 'female role' in prison to gain some form of social power and/or prestige. Other, unlucky inmates, are forced to partake in 'female role' activities through coercion; the most common means being physical abuse. The inmates that are forced to "turn out" are commonly referred to as "punks". Other terms used to describe 'female' inmates are "girls", "kids", and "gumps". Some of the labels may be used as a means of describing one's ascribed status. For example, a "kid" is one that is usually dominated by their owner, or "daddy". The "daddy" is usually one with a high social status and prestige within the prison (E. g. gang leader). The "female" gender role is constructed through the mirror image of what the inmates perceive as a male. For instance, inmates view men as having strength, power, prestige, and an unyielding personality. However, the inmates don't refer to the female guards, who have power and prestige over the inmates, as males. The female guards are commonly referred to as "dykes", "ditch lickers", and lesbians. These roles are also assumed in female prisons. ^[12]

Women who enter prison society often voluntarily enter into lesbianism, as a means of protection from gangs or stronger females. In doing so, they will take on the submissive role to a dominant female in exchange for that dominating female keeping them safe. Submissiveness is the incidence or trait of yielding to the expressed will of another person or some display of force Those who do not enter voluntarily into lesbianism might at one time or another be group raped, to introduce them into that circle, and sometimes they will be referred to as sheep, meaning anyone can have them. It is to avoid that status that most female inmates choose a mate, or allow themselves to be chosen as a mate, which can make them available to only a minimal number of partners during their incarceration, as opposed to a large number. So, in a sense, an inmate undergoes a "female role" in the prison system either by choice or by yielding to excessive coercion, and it is that yielding that terms the once male inmates as "females", and which identifies the stronger females in a female prison system as "males". ^[12]

References

See also

External links

• International Foundation (For) Gender Education,
• Gender PAC. Alimony, maintenance or spousal support is an obligation established by Law in many countries that is based on the premise that both spouses have an absolute For the album by The Creatures see Anima Animus The Anima and Animus are in Carl Jung 's school of Analytical psychology, the Gender role is a term used in the social sciences and humanities to denote a set of behavioral norms associated with a given gendered status in a given social group or system " Barefoot and pregnant " is a phrase most commonly associated with the controversial idea that women should not work outside the home and should have many children during Breeching was the occasion when a small boy was first dressed in Breeches or trousers Childhood gender nonconformity or CGN is pronounced behavior of the opposite Gender in children Throughout history Christians have regarded Marriage as ordained by God for the lifelong union of a Man Courtship is the traditional dating period before engagement and marriage Going Dutch is a Slang term that means that each person eating at a restaurant or paying admission for entertainment pays for himself or herself rather than one person The Good Wife's Guide is a Magazine article rumored to have been published in the May 13, 1955 issue of Housekeeping Monthly, describing Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Gender studies is a field of Interdisciplinary study which analyzes the phenomenon of Gender. Gender studies is a field of Interdisciplinary study which analyzes the phenomenon of Gender. Gender identity (or core gender identity) is a person's own sense of Identification as Male or Female. Gender identity (or core gender identity) is a person's own sense of Identification as Male or Female. Transgender is a complex topic where consensual and precise definitions have not yet been reached The marriage gap describes observed economic and political disparities between those who are married and those who are single. Masculism (or Masculinism) has two contrasting meanings When used by self-identified masculists the term refers to social theories, Political movements Matriarchy is a term which is applied to gynocentric form of Society, in which the leading role is by the Female and especially by the Mothers Men's and fathers' rights masculism See also Men's rights, Fathers' rights, Masculism The men's rights and fathers' rights differ in their Misandry ( IPA) is hatred (or contempt of Men or Boys. Misandry is parallel to Misogyny —the hatred of women Patriarchy is the structuring of Society on the basis of Family units where fathers have primary responsibility for the welfare of hence authority over Queer theory is a field of Gender Studies that emerged in the early 1990s out of the fields of gay and Lesbian studies and feminist studies Queer has traditionally meant odd or unusual but is now also used to refer to anyone who is not heteronormative. A role (sometimes spelled rôle) or a social role is a set of connected Behaviors Rights and Obligations as conceptualized by actors Sex and gender distinction is a concept in Feminist theory, political Feminism, and Sociology which distinguishes Sex, a natural or biological Sexual orientation is believed to refer to "an enduring pattern of emotional romantic and/or sexual attractions to men women or both sexes Sociology of gender is a prominent subfield of Sociology. Since 1950 an increasing part of the academic literature and of the public discourse uses gender Symbolic interactionism is a major sociological perspective that is influential in many areas of the discipline