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A gas turbine is a rotary machine, similar in principle to a steam turbine. A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts Thermal energy from pressurized Steam, and converts it into useful mechanical work It consists of three main components - a compressor, a combustion chamber and a turbine. The air after being compressed into the compressor is heated either by directly burning fuel in it or by burning fuel externally in a heat exchanger. The heated air with or without products of combustion is expanded in a turbine resulting in work output, a substantial part, about two-thirds, of which is used to drive the compressor. The rest, about one-third, is available as useful work output.

This machine has a single-stage centrifugal compressor and turbine, a recuperator, and foil bearings.
This machine has a single-stage centrifugal compressor and turbine, a recuperator, and foil bearings. A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the Pressure of a Gas by reducing its Volume. A recuperator is a special purpose counter-flow Heat exchanger used to recover waste heat from exhaust gases Foil bearings are a type of air bearing. A shaft is supported by a compliant spring loaded foil journal lining

A gas turbine extracts energy from a flow of hot gas produced by combustion of gas or fuel oil in a stream of compressed air. It has an upstream air compressor (radial or axial flow) mechanically coupled to a downstream turbine and a combustion chamber in between. A gas compressor is a mechanical device that increases the Pressure of a Gas by reducing its Volume. Axial compressors are rotating aerofoil based compressors in which the working fluid principally flows parallel to the axis of rotation A turbine is a rotary Engine that extracts Energy from a Fluid flow "Gas turbine" may also refer to just the turbine element. A turbine is a rotary Engine that extracts Energy from a Fluid flow

Energy is released when compressed air is mixed with fuel and ignited in the combustor. In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός Compressed air Fuel is any material that is burned or altered in order to obtain energy An ignition system is a system for igniting a fuel-air mixture A combustor is a component or area of a Gas turbine, Ramjet or Pulsejet The resulting gases are directed over the turbine's blades, spinning the turbine, and mechanically powering the compressor. Finally, the gases are passed through a nozzle, generating additional thrust by accelerating the hot exhaust gases by expansion back to atmospheric pressure. A nozzle is a mechanical device or Orifice designed to control the characteristics of a Fluid flow as it exits (or enters an enclosed chamber or Pipe.

Energy is extracted in the form of shaft power, compressed air and thrust, in any combination, and used to power aircraft, trains, ships, electrical generators, and even tanks. A train is a connected series of vehicles that move along a track ( Permanent way) to transport freight or passengers from one place to another A ship /ʃɪp/ is a large vessel that floats on water Ships are generally distinguished from Boats based on size In Electricity generation, an electrical generator is a device that converts Mechanical energy to Electrical energy, generally using Electromagnetic A tank is a tracked, Armoured fighting vehicle designed for Front-line combat which combines Operational mobility and tactical

Contents

History

Theory of operation

Gas turbines are described thermodynamically by the Brayton cycle, in which air is compressed isentropically, combustion occurs at constant pressure, and expansion over the turbine occurs isentropically back to the starting pressure. In Physics, thermodynamics (from the Greek θερμη therme meaning " Heat " and δυναμις dynamis meaning " The ' Brayton cycle' is a constant-pressure cycle that describes the workings of the Gas turbine engine basis of the Jet engine and others In Thermodynamics, an isentropic process ( iso = "equal" (Greek Entropy = "disorder" is one during which the entropy of the system Combustion or burning is a complex sequence of Exothermic chemical reactions between a Fuel and an Oxidant accompanied by the production of

In practice, friction, and turbulence cause:

  1. non-isentropic compression: for a given overall pressure ratio, the compressor delivery temperature is higher than ideal.
  2. non-isentropic expansion: although the turbine temperature drop necessary to drive the compressor is unaffected, the associated pressure ratio is greater, which decreases the expansion available to provide useful work.
  3. pressure losses in the air intake, combustor and exhaust: reduces the expansion available to provide useful work.
Brayton cycle
Brayton cycle

As with all cyclic heat engines, higher combustion temperature means greater efficiency. A heat engine is a physical or theoretical device that converts Thermal energy to mechanical output Fuel efficiency, in its basic sense is the same as Thermal efficiency, meaning the efficiency of a process that converts chemical potential energy contained in a carrier The limiting factor is the ability of the steel, nickel, ceramic, or other materials that make up the engine to withstand heat and pressure. Considerable engineering goes into keeping the turbine parts cool. Most turbines also try to recover exhaust heat, which otherwise is wasted energy. Recuperators are heat exchangers that pass exhaust heat to the compressed air, prior to combustion. A recuperator is a special purpose counter-flow Heat exchanger used to recover waste heat from exhaust gases A heat exchanger is a device built for efficient Heat transfer from one medium to another whether the media are separated by a solid wall so that they never mix or the media Combined cycle designs pass waste heat to steam turbine systems. A combined cycle is characteristic of a power producing engine or plant that employs more than one Thermodynamic cycle. A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts Thermal energy from pressurized Steam, and converts it into useful mechanical work And combined heat and power (co-generation) uses waste heat for hot water production. Energy recycling Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a Heat engine or a Power station to simultaneously generate both

Mechanically, gas turbines can be considerably less complex than internal combustion piston engines. The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a Simple turbines might have one moving part: the shaft/compressor/turbine/alternative-rotor assembly (see image above), not counting the fuel system.

More sophisticated turbines (such as those found in modern jet engines) may have multiple shafts (spools), hundreds of turbine blades, movable stator blades, and a vast system of complex piping, combustors and heat exchangers. A turbofan is a type of Jet engine, similar to a Turbojet. It essentially consists of a Ducted fan with a smaller diameter turbojet engine

As a general rule, the smaller the engine the higher the rotation rate of the shaft(s) needs to be to maintain tip speed. Turbine blade tip speed determines the maximum pressure that can be gained, independent of the size of the engine. Jet engines operate around 10,000 rpm and micro turbines around 100,000 rpm. specific --->A jet engine is a Reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet of Fluid to

Thrust bearings and journal bearings are a critical part of design. A thrust bearing is a particular type of rotary bearing. Like other rotary bearings they permit rotation between parts but they are designed to support a high Axial A mechanical bushing is a cylindrical lining designed to reduce friction and wear inside a hole or constrict and restrain motion of mechanical parts Traditionally, they have been hydrodynamic oil bearings, or oil-cooled ball bearings. Fluid bearings are bearings which solely support the bearing's loads on a thin layer of liquid or gas A ball bearing is an engineering term referring to a type of Rolling-element bearing which uses Balls to maintain the separation between the moving parts This is giving way to foil bearings, which have been successfully used in micro turbines and auxiliary power units. Foil bearings are a type of air bearing. A shaft is supported by a compliant spring loaded foil journal lining An auxiliary power unit ( APU) is a device on a vehicle whose purpose is to provide energy for functions other than propulsion

Jet engines

Diagram of a gas turbine jet engine
Diagram of a gas turbine jet engine

Airbreathing jet engines are gas turbines optimized to produce thrust from the exhaust gases, or from ducted fans connected to the gas turbines. specific --->A jet engine is a Reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet of Fluid to A ducted fan is a propulsion arrangement whereby a fan which is a type of Propeller, is mounted within a cylindrical shroud or duct Jet engines that produce thrust primarily from the direct impulse of exhaust gases are often called turbojets, whereas those that generate most of their thrust from the action of a ducted fan are often called turbofans or (rarely) fanjets. TurboJET (噴射飛航 is the brand name for the operations of the Hong Kong -based Shun Tak-China Travel Ship Management Limited (信德中旅船務管理有限公司 A turbofan is a type of Jet engine, similar to a Turbojet. It essentially consists of a Ducted fan with a smaller diameter turbojet engine specific --->A jet engine is a Reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet of Fluid to

Auxiliary power units

Auxiliary power units (APUs) are small gas turbines designed for auxiliary power of larger machines, such as those inside an aircraft. An auxiliary power unit ( APU) is a device on a vehicle whose purpose is to provide energy for functions other than propulsion They supply compressed air for aircraft ventilation (with an appropriate compressor design), start-up power for larger jet engines, and electrical and hydraulic power. specific --->A jet engine is a Reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet of Fluid to These are not to be confused with the auxiliary propulsion units, also abbreviated APUs, aboard the gas-turbine-powered Oliver Hazard Perry-class guided-missile frigates. The Perrys' APUs are large electric motors that provide maneuvering help in close waters, or emergency backup if the gas turbines are not working.

Gas turbines for electrical power production

GE H series power generation gas turbine. This 480-megawatt unit has a rated thermal efficiency of 60% in combined cycle configurations.
GE H series power generation gas turbine. This 480-megawatt unit has a rated thermal efficiency of 60% in combined cycle configurations. The watt (symbol W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one Joule of energy per Second. In Thermodynamics, the thermal efficiency (\eta_{th} \ is a dimensionless performance measure of a thermal device such as an Internal combustion A combined cycle is characteristic of a power producing engine or plant that employs more than one Thermodynamic cycle.

Industrial gas turbines range in size from truck-mounted mobile plants to enormous, complex systems. They can be particularly efficient——up to 60%——when waste heat from the gas turbine is recovered by a heat recovery steam generator to power a conventional steam turbine in a combined cycle configuration. A combined cycle is characteristic of a power producing engine or plant that employs more than one Thermodynamic cycle. They can also be run in a cogeneration configuration: the exhaust is used for space or water heating, or drives an absorption chiller for cooling or refrigeration. Energy recycling Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a Heat engine or a Power station to simultaneously generate both The absorption refrigerator is a Refrigerator that utilizes a heat source (e A cogeneration configuration can be over 90% efficient. The power turbines in the largest industrial gas turbines operate at 3,000 or 3,600 rpm to match the AC power grid frequency and to avoid the need for a reduction gearbox. An alternating current ( AC) is an Electric current whose direction reverses cyclically as opposed to Direct current, whose direction remains constant Electric power transmission, a process in the delivery of Electricity to consumers is the bulk transfer of electrical power Such engines require a dedicated enclosure.

Simple cycle gas turbines in the power industry require smaller capital investment than either coal or nuclear power plants and can be scaled to generate small or large amounts of power. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions Also, the actual construction process can take as little as several weeks to a few months, compared to years for base load power plants. Baseload (also base load, or baseload demand) is the minimum amount of power that a utility or distribution company must make available to its customers or the amount Their other main advantage is the ability to be turned on and off within minutes, supplying power during peak demand. Since they are less efficient than combined cycle plants, they are usually used as peaking power plants, which operate anywhere from several hours per day to a couple dozen hours per year, depending on the electricity demand and the generating capacity of the region. Peaking power plants, also known as peaker plants are Power plants that generally run only when there is a high demand known as Peak demand, for Electricity In areas with a shortage of base load and load following power plant capacity, a gas turbine power plant may regularly operate during most hours of the day and even into the evening. A load following power plant is a Power plant that adjusts its power output as demand for Electricity fluctuates throughout the day A typical large simple cycle gas turbine may produce 100 to 300 megawatts of power and have 35–40% thermal efficiency. In Thermodynamics, the thermal efficiency (\eta_{th} \ is a dimensionless performance measure of a thermal device such as an Internal combustion The most efficient turbines have reached 46% efficiency. [1]

Compressed air energy storage

Main article: Compressed air energy storage

One modern development seeks to improve efficiency in another way, by separating the compressor and the turbine with a compressed air store. Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES refers to the compression of air to be used later as energy source In a conventional turbine, up to half the generated power is used driving the compressor. In a compressed air energy storage configuration, power, perhaps from a wind farm or bought on the open market at a time of low demand and low price, is used to drive the compressor, and the compressed air released to operate the turbine when required.

Turboshaft engines

Turboshaft engines are often used to drive compression trains (for example in gas pumping stations or natural gas liquefaction plants)and are used to power almost all modern helicopters. A turboshaft engine is a form of Gas turbine which is optimized to produce Shaft power, rather than Jet thrust. The first shaft bears the compressor and the high speed turbine (often referred to as "Gas Generator" or "N1"), while the second shaft bears the low speed turbine (or "Power Turbine" or "N2"). This arrangement is used to increase speed and power output flexibility.

Radial gas turbines

Main article: Radial turbine

1963, Norway, Jan Mowill initiated the development at Kongsberg Våpenfabrikk. Concept The difference between axial and radial turbines consists in the way the air flows through the components (compressor and turbine Norway ( Norwegian: Norge ( Bokmål) or Noreg ( Nynorsk) officially the Kingdom of Norway, is a Constitutional Various successors have made good progress in the refinement of this mechanism. Owing to a configuration that keeps heat away from certain bearings the durability of the machine is improved while the radial turbine is well matched in speed requirements to the radial compressor.

Scale jet engines

Also known as miniature gas turbines or micro-jets.

Many model engineers relish the challenge of re-creating the grand engineering feats of today as tiny working models. Naturally, the idea of re-creating a powerful engine such as the jet, fascinated hobbyists since the very first full size engines were powered up by Hans von Ohain and Frank Whittle back in the 1930s. Hans Joachim Pabst von Ohain ( December 14 1911 March 13 1998) was one of the inventors of jet propulsion. Air Commodore Sir Frank Whittle, OM, KBE, FRS, Hon FRAeS (1 June 1907 &ndash 9 August 1996 was an English Royal

Recreating machines such as engines to a different scale is not easy. Because of the square-cube law, the behaviour of many machines does not always scale up or down at the same rate as the machine's size (and often not even in a linear way), usually at best causing a dramatic loss of power or efficiency, and at worst causing them not to work at all. The square-cube law is a principle drawn from the mathematics of proportion, that is applied in Engineering and Biomechanics. An automobile engine, for example, will not work if reproduced in the same shape at the size of a human hand.

With this in mind the pioneer of modern Micro-Jets, Kurt Schreckling, produced one of the world's first Micro-Turbines, the FD3/67. Kurt Schreckling (born 1939 is a German who pioneered home constructed Turbojet engines for Model aircraft. [2] This engine can produce up to 22 newtons of thrust, and can be built by most mechanically minded people with basic engineering tools, such as a metal lathe. The newton (symbol N) is the SI derived unit of Force, named after Isaac Newton in recognition of his work on Classical Metal lathe or metalworking lathe are generic terms for any of a large class of Lathes designed for precisely Machining relatively Its radial compressor, which is cold, is small and the hot axial turbine is large experiencing more centrifugal forces, meaning that this design is limited by Mach number. Mach number (\mathrm{Ma} or M (generally ˈmɑːk sometimes /ˈmɑːx/ or /ˈmæk/ is the speed of an object moving through air or any Fluid Guiding vanes are used to hold the starter, after the compressor and before the turbine, but not after that. No bypass within the engine is used.

Microturbines

A micro turbine designed for DARPA by M-Dot
A micro turbine designed for DARPA by M-Dot

Also known as:

Microturbines are becoming widespread for distributed power and combined heat and power applications. Distributed generation, also called on-site generation, dispersed generation, embedded generation, decentralized generation, decentralized Energy recycling Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a Heat engine or a Power station to simultaneously generate both They are one of the most promising technologies for powering series hybrid electric vehicles. A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV is a Hybrid vehicle which combines a conventional propulsion system with a Rechargeable energy storage system (RESS They range from hand held units producing less than a kilowatt to commercial sized systems that produce tens or hundreds of kilowatts. The watt (symbol W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one Joule of energy per Second.

Part of their success is due to advances in electronics, which allows unattended operation and interfacing with the commercial power grid. Electronic power switching technology eliminates the need for the generator to be synchronized with the power grid. This allows the generator to be integrated with the turbine shaft, and to double as the starter motor.

Microturbine systems have many advantages over reciprocating engine generators, such as higher power density (with respect to footprint and weight), extremely low emissions and few, or just one, moving part. A reciprocating engine, also often known as a piston engine, is a Heat engine that uses one or more reciprocating Pistons to convert Those designed with foil bearings and air-cooling operate without oil, coolants or other hazardous materials. Foil bearings are a type of air bearing. A shaft is supported by a compliant spring loaded foil journal lining A coolant is a fluid which flows through a device in order to prevent its overheating transferring the heat produced by the device to other devices that utilize or dissipate it Microturbines also have the advantage of having the majority of their waste heat contained in their relatively high temperature exhaust, whereas the waste heat of recriprocating engines is split between its exhaust and cooling system. [3] However, reciprocating engine generators are quicker to respond to changes in output power requirement and are usually slightly more efficient, although the efficiency of microturbines is increasing. Microturbines also lose more efficiency at low power levels than reciprocating engines.

They accept most commercial fuels, such as gasoline, natural gas, propane, diesel, and kerosene as well as renewable fuels such as E85, biodiesel and biogas. Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, Propane is a three- Carbon Alkane, normally a gas but compressible to a liquid that is transportable Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum Kerosene, sometimes spelled kerosine in scientific and industrial usage is a Combustible Hydrocarbon liquid Renewable fuels, such as Biofuels (eg Vegetable oil used as fuel, Ethanol, or Biodiesel) and hydrogen (when produced with renewable E85 is an Alcohol fuel mixture that typically contains a mixture of up to 85% denatured fuel ethanol and Gasoline or other hydrocarbon (HC by Biodiesel refers to a non-petroleum-based Diesel fuel consisting of short chain Alkyl ( Methyl or ethyl) Esters made by See also Natural gas, Biofuel Biogas typically refers to a Gas produced by the biological breakdown of Organic matter in the

Microturbine designs usually consist of a single stage radial compressor, a single stage radial turbine and a recuperator. Concept The difference between axial and radial turbines consists in the way the air flows through the components (compressor and turbine A recuperator is a special purpose counter-flow Heat exchanger used to recover waste heat from exhaust gases Recuperators are difficult to design and manufacture because they operate under high pressure and temperature differentials. Exhaust heat can be used for water heating, space heating, drying processes or absorption chillers, which create cold for air conditioning from heat energy instead of electric energy. The absorption refrigerator is a Refrigerator that utilizes a heat source (e

Typical microturbine efficiencies are 25 to 35%. When in a combined heat and power cogeneration system, efficiencies of greater than 80% are commonly achieved. Energy recycling Cogeneration (also combined heat and power, CHP) is the use of a Heat engine or a Power station to simultaneously generate both

MIT started its millimeter size turbine engine project in the middle of the 1990s when Professor of Aeronautics and Astronautics Alan H. Epstein considered the possibility of creating a personal turbine which will be able to meet all the demands of a modern person's electrical needs, just like a large turbine can meet the electricity demands of a small city. According to Professor Epstein current commercial Li-ion rechargeable batteries deliver about 120-150 Wh/kg. MIT's millimeter size turbine will deliver 500-700 Wh/kg in the near term, rising to 1200-1500 Wh/kg in the longer term. [4]

Australian inventors are working on micro-electromechanical systems technology that could provide a miniature power source to replace batteries in portable electronic devices. These micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) use fuels such as hydrogen or butane to spin a tiny turbine at very high speeds of up to 2 million RPM. The turbine is made using techniques from the microchip industry and is usually constructed of Silicon. The rotation of the turbine is then used to power a generator that supplies electricity. [5]

One advantage of micro-electromechanical systems technology is that it can also be powered by hydrogen, just like fuel cells, meaning that the exhaust would be primarily water. The drawback is that the fuel source for the microturbine is flammable, meaning that such portable power devices may not be allowed on airplanes or other places where explosives might pose a safety risk. [6]

External combustion

Most gas turbines are internal combustion engines but it is also possible to build an external combustion gas turbine which is, effectively, a turbine version of a hot air engine. Hot air engine (historically simply 'air engine' or ' Caloric engine' is a catch-all term for any Heat engine which uses the expansion and contraction of

External combustion has been used for the purpose of using pulverized coal as a fuel. Coal dust is a fine powdered form of Coal, which is created by the crushing grinding or pulverizing of coal If this fuel were used in a conventional gas turbine there would be rapid erosion of the turbine blades by particles of ash. The solution is to have two separate circuits:

  1. a combustion circuit in which the fuel is burned
  2. a turbine circuit which contains pure air

Heat is transferred from circuit (1) to circuit (2) by a heat exchanger. A shell and tube heat exchanger is a class of Heat exchanger designs The thermal efficiency will be lower than with internal combustion but this may be acceptable if it permits the use of cheap fuel. In Thermodynamics, the thermal efficiency (\eta_{th} \ is a dimensionless performance measure of a thermal device such as an Internal combustion

Gas turbines in vehicles

The 1950 Rover JET1
The 1950 Rover JET1
The 1967 STP Oil Treatment Special on display at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame Museum, with the Pratt & Whitney gas turbine shown.
The 1967 STP Oil Treatment Special on display at the Indianapolis Motor Speedway Hall of Fame Museum, with the Pratt & Whitney gas turbine shown. The Indianapolis Motor Speedway, located in Speedway Indiana (an Enclave of Indianapolis) in the United States, is the home of the Pratt & Whitney is an American Aircraft engine manufacturer of products widely used in both civil and military aircraft.
A 1968 Howmet TX, the only turbine-powered race car to have achieved victory.
A 1968 Howmet TX, the only turbine-powered race car to have achieved victory. The Howmet TX ( T urbine e' X' perimental was an American Sports prototype racing car designed in 1968 to test the competitive use of

Gas turbines are used on ships, locomotives, helicopters, and in tanks. A ship /ʃɪp/ is a large vessel that floats on water Ships are generally distinguished from Boats based on size A locomotive is a railway Vehicle that provides the motive power for a Train. History Since 400 AD Chinese children have played with bamboo flying toys. A tank is a tracked, Armoured fighting vehicle designed for Front-line combat which combines Operational mobility and tactical A number of experiments have been conducted with gas turbine powered automobiles.

In 1950, designer F. R. Bell and Chief Engineer Maurice Wilks from British car manufacturers Rover unveiled the first car powered with a gas turbine engine. The Rover Company was a British Motor vehicle manufacturing company originating in Coventry in 1904 which moved to Solihull after World War II The two-seater JET1 had the engine positioned behind the seats, air intake grilles on either side of the car, and exhaust outlets on the top of the tail. During tests, the car reached top speeds of 140 km/h, at a turbine speed of 50,000 rpm. The car ran on petrol, paraffin or diesel oil, but fuel consumption problems proved insurmountable for a production car. In chemistry paraffin is the common name for the Alkane Hydrocarbons with the general formula C n H2 n +2 Diesel or Diesel fuel (ˈdiːzəl in general is any Fuel used in Diesel engines The most common is a specific fractional distillate of petroleum It is currently on display at the London Science Museum. For science museums in general check out Science museum. The Science Museum on Exhibition Road, South Kensington, London is part

Rover and the BRM Formula One team joined forces to produce a gas turbine powered coupe, which entered the 1963 24 Hours of Le Mans, driven by Graham Hill and Richie Ginther. The 1963 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 31st Grand Prix of Endurance and took place on June 15 and 16, 1963. Norman Graham Hill ( February 15, 1929 – November 29, 1975) was a British racing driver and two-time Formula One World Paul Richard "Richie" Ginther (born in Granada Hills, California, 5 August 1930 - died 20 September 1989 in It averaged 107. 8 mph (173 km/h) and had a top speed of 142 mph (229 km/h). American Ray Heppenstall joined Howmet Corporation and McKee Engineering together to develop their own gas turbine sports car in 1968, the Howmet TX, which ran several American and European events, including two wins, and also participated in the 1968 24 Hours of Le Mans. The Howmet TX ( T urbine e' X' perimental was an American Sports prototype racing car designed in 1968 to test the competitive use of The 1968 24 Hours of Le Mans was the 36th Grand Prix of Endurance and took place on September 28 and 29, 1968. The cars used Continental gas turbines, which eventually set six FIA land speed records for turbine-powered cars. Continental Motors ( Teledyne Continental Motors) is an engine manufacturer located in Mobile Alabama. [7]

For open wheel racing, 1967's revolutionary STP Oil Treatment Special four-wheel drive turbine-powered special fielded by racing and entrepreneurial legend Andy Granatelli and driven by Parnelli Jones nearly won the Indianapolis 500; the STP Pratt & Whitney powered turbine car was almost a lap ahead of the second place car when a gearbox bearing failed just three laps from the finish line. Open-wheel car (Often single-seater car, in UK English describes cars with the wheels outside the car's main body and in most cases one seat Four-wheel drive, 4WD, or 4x4 ("four by four" is a four-wheeled Vehicle with a drivetrain that allows all four Wheels to Anthony "Andy" Granatelli (born March 18, 1923 in Dallas TX) was the CEO of STP. The Indianapolis 500-Mile Race, often shortened to Indianapolis 500 or Indy 500, and historically known simply as "The 500" is an American Pratt & Whitney is an American Aircraft engine manufacturer of products widely used in both civil and military aircraft. In 1971 Lotus principal Colin Chapman introduced the Lotus 56B F1 car, powered by a Pratt & Whitney gas turbine. 1950s Colin Chapman established Lotus Engineering Ltd in 1952 at Hornsey, UK. Anthony Colin Bruce Chapman ( 19 May 1928 - 16 December 1982) was an influential British designer inventor and builder in the automotive Pratt & Whitney is an American Aircraft engine manufacturer of products widely used in both civil and military aircraft. Chapman had a reputation of building radical championship-winning cars, but had to abandon the project because there were too many problems with turbo lag.

The original General Motors Firebird was a series of concept cars developed for the 1953, 1956 and 1959 Motorama auto shows, powered by gas turbines. For the latter General Motors-produced vehicle see Pontiac Firebird. Motorama was an Auto show staged by General Motors from 1949 to 1961.

American car manufacturer Chrysler demonstrated several prototype gas turbine-powered cars from the early 1950s through the early 1980s. Chrysler LLC is an American Automobile manufacturer that has been producing Automobiles since 1925 Chrysler created several Turbine engines that were used in road vehicles CR1 1954&ndash1956 Plymouth Belvedere 4-door Chrysler built fifty Chrysler Turbine Cars in 1963 and conducted the only consumer trial of gas turbine-powered cars. Chrysler Turbine Cars were Automobiles powered by Gas turbine engines that the Chrysler Corporation assembled in a small plant in Detroit Michigan [8] Their turbines employed unique rotating recuperator that significantly increased efficiency. A recuperator is a special purpose counter-flow Heat exchanger used to recover waste heat from exhaust gases

Japanese car manufacturer Toyota demonstrated several gas turbine powered prototype vehicles such as the Century gas turbine hybrid in 1975, the Sports 800 GT in 1977 and the GTV in 1985. (pronounced) is a Multinational corporation headquartered in Japan, and is currently the world's largest Automaker. The Toyota Century is a large four-door Limousine produced by Kanto Auto Works Ltd. The Toyota Sports 800 was Toyota Motor Corporation's first production sports car The Toyota GTV was a concept vehicle by Toyota with a Gas turbine engine No production vehicles were made.

The fictional Batmobile is often said to be powered by a gas turbine or a jet engine. The Batmobile is the fictional personal Automobile of Comic book Superhero Batman. specific --->A jet engine is a Reaction engine that discharges a fast moving jet of Fluid to In fact, in 1989s filmed Batman, the production department built a working turbine vehicle for the Batmobile prop. [9] Its fuel capacity, however, was reportedly only enough for 15 seconds of use at a time.

In 1993 General Motors introduced the first commercial gas turbine powered hybrid vehicle—as a limited production run of the EV-1 series hybrid. Year 1993 ( MCMXCIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1993 Gregorian calendar) General Motors Corporation ( GM) ( is a multinational automobile manufacturer founded in 1908 and headquartered in the United States. A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to propel the vehicle The EV1 was the first modern production electric vehicle from a major automaker and also the first purpose-built Electric car produced by General Motors (GM in the A Williams International 40 kW turbine drove an alternator which powered the battery-electric powertrain. Williams International is a manufacturer of small Gas turbine engines based in Walled Lake Michigan, United States. For the UK engine manufacturer see Powertrain Ltd. In a Motor vehicle, the term drivetrain, powertrain or powerplant The turbine design included a recuperator.

The arrival of the Capstone Microturbine has led to several hybrid bus designs from US and New Zealand manufacturers, starting with HEV-1 by AVS of Chattanooga, Tennessee in 1999, and closely followed by Ebus and ISE Research in California, and Designline in New Zealand. Capstone Turbine Corporation, incorporated in 1988 is a California based Gas turbine manufacturer that specializes in microturbine power and heat cogeneration Designline is a Bus and coach manufacturer based in Ashburton New Zealand. AVS turbine hybrids were plagued with reliability and quality control problems, resulting in liquidation of AVS in 2003. Today, the most successful design by Designline is now operated in 5 cities in 6 countries, with over 30 buses in operation worldwide.

It is worth noting that a key advantage of jets and turboprops for aeroplane propulsion - their superior performance at high altitude compared to piston engines, particularly naturally-aspirated ones - is irrelevant in automobile applications. A turboprop engine is a type of aircraft powerplant that uses a Gas turbine engine to drive a Propeller. A naturally-aspirated engine or normally-aspirated engine (or "N/A" - Aspiration meaning breathing refers to an Internal combustion engine Their power-to-weight advantage is far less important.

Gas turbines offer a high-powered engine in a very small and light package. However, they are not as responsive and efficient as small piston engines over the wide range of RPMs and powers needed in vehicle applications. In hybrids, gas turbines reduce the responsiveness problem, and the emergence of the continuously variable transmission may also help alleviate this. A recent idea is the 'Multi-Pressure' turbine proposed by Robin Mackay of Agile Turbines. This concept is expected to provide three different power level ranges - each of them exhibiting high efficiency and low emission levels. The engine has two compressor spindles and an intercooler. By a system of three-way valves, it can be operated with both 'wings' in super atmospheric pressure mode (high power) or one 'wing' super atmospheric and the other sub atmospheric (cruising power) or both 'wings' in sub atmospheric mode (idling). Since there is no change in direction or speed of gas flow at transition from one power level to another (only mass flow changes) transition is almost instantaneous - thus overcoming the slow throttle response characteristic of gas turbines in land vehicle applications.

Turbines have historically been more expensive to produce than piston engines, though this is partly because piston engines have been mass-produced in huge quantities for decades, while small gas turbine engines are rarities; but turbines are mass produced in the closely related form of the turbocharger. A turbocharger, or turbo, is an air Compressor used for forced-induction of an Internal combustion engine.

The MTT Turbine SUPERBIKE appeared in 2000 (hence the designation of Y2K Superbike by MTT) and is the first production motorcycle powered by a turbine engine - specifically, a Rolls-Royce Allison model 250 turboshaft engine, producing about 283 kW (380 bhp). MTT Turbine SUPERBIKE, also known as Y2K Turbine SUPERBIKE, is the world's second wheel driven Motorcycle powered by a Turbine engine created by Ted McIntyre Speed-tested to 365 km/h or 227 mph (according to some stories, the testing team ran out of road during the test), it holds the Guinness World Records for most powerful production motorcycle and most expensive production motorcycle, with a price tag of US$185,000.

Several locomotive classes have been powered by gas turbines, the most recent incarnation being Bombardier's JetTrain. Bombardier Inc (bɔ̃baʁdje is a Canadian conglomerate, founded by Joseph-Armand Bombardier as L'Auto-Neige Bombardier Limitée in 1942 The JetTrain is an experimental high-speed passenger train built by Bombardier Transportation in an attempt to make See gas turbine-electric locomotive for more information. gas turbine-electric locomotive or GTEL is a Locomotive that uses a Gas turbine to drive an Electric generator or Alternator.

Tank use

Gas turbine engines have been used as auxiliary power units (APUs) in some tanks and as main powerplants in Soviet/Russian T-80s and U. An auxiliary power unit ( APU) is a device on a vehicle whose purpose is to provide energy for functions other than propulsion The T-80 is a Main battle tank which was designed in the Soviet Union and entered service in 1976 S. M1 Abrams tanks, among others. The M1 Abrams is a main battle tank produced in the United States. They are lighter and smaller than diesels at the same sustained power output but the models installed to date are less fuel efficient than the equivalent diesel, especially at idle, requiring more fuel to achieve the same combat range. A diesel engine is an Internal combustion engine which operates using the Diesel cycle (named after Dr Different models of M1 have addressed this problem with battery packs or secondary generators to power the tank's systems while stationary, saving fuel by reducing the need to idle the main turbine. T-80s can mount three large external fuel drums to extend their range. Russia has stopped production of the T-80 in favour of the diesel-powered T-90 (based on the T-72), while Ukraine has developed the diesel-powered T-80UD and T-84 with nearly the power of the gas-turbine tank. The GPO Uralvagonzavod T-90 is a Russian main battle tank derived from the T-72, and is currently the most modern tank in the Russian

A turbine is theoretically more reliable and easier to maintain than a piston engine, since it has a simpler construction with fewer moving parts but in practice turbine parts experience a higher wear rate due to their higher working speeds. The turbine blades are highly sensitive to dust and fine sand, so that in desert operations air filters have to be fitted and changed several times daily. An improperly fitted filter, or a bullet or shell fragment that punctures the filter can damage the engine. Piston engines also need well-maintained filters, but they are more resilient if the filter does fail.

Like most modern diesel engines used in tanks, gas turbines are usually multi-fuel engines.

Naval use

Gas turbines are used in many naval vessels, where they are valued for their high power-to-weight ratio and their ships' resulting acceleration and ability to get underway quickly. Power-to-weight ratio (specific power is a calculation commonly applied to Engines and other mobile power sources to enable the comparison of one unit or design to another The first gas-turbine-powered naval vessel was the Royal Navy's Motor Gun Boat MGB 2009 (formerly MGB 509) converted in 1947. The Royal Navy of the United Kingdom is the oldest of the British armed services (and is therefore known as the Senior Service) Motor Gun Boat was a Royal Navy term for a small military vessel of the Second World War. The first large, gas-turbine powered ships, were the Royal Navy's Type 81 (Tribal class) frigates, the first of which (HMS Ashanti) was commissioned in 1961. History The Tribals were designed during the 1950s as a response to the increasing cost of single-role vessels such as the Type 14s. For the bird see Frigatebird. A frigate /ˈfrɪgɪt/ is a warship Year 1961 ( MCMLXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar.

The Swedish Navy produced 6 Spica class torpedoboats between 1966 and 1967 powered by 3 Bristol Siddeley Proteus 1282, each delivering 4300 hp. The Royal Swedish Navy ( Swedish: Marinen) is the naval branch of the Swedish Armed Forces. Bristol Siddeley was a British aero-engine manufacturer formed in 1959 from the merger of Bristol Aero Engines and Armstrong Siddeley Motors. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout They were later joined by 12 upgraded Norrköping class ships, still with the same engines. With their aft torpedo tubes replaced by antishipping missiles they served as missile boats until the last was retired in 2005. [10]

The Finnish Navy issued two Turunmaa class corvettes, Turunmaa and Karjala, in 1968. The Finnish Navy ( Finnish: Suomen merivoimat, Swedish: Finlands sjöstridskrafter) is one of the branches of the History Development of the class started in 1963 Five hull designs and over thirty propulsion variants were looked at during development A corvette is a small maneuverable lightly armed Warship, originally smaller than a Frigate and larger than a coastal patrol craft, although many They were equipped with one 16 000 shp Rolls-Royce Olympus TMB3 gas turbine and two Wärtsilä marine diesels for slower speeds. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout Before the waterjet-propulsion Helsinki class missile boats, they were the fastest vessels in the Finnish Navy; they regularly achieved 37 knot speeds, but they are known to have achieved 45 knots when the restriction mechanism of the turbine was geared off. Vessels;FNS Helsinki Pennant number 60 Builder Wärtsilä. Ordered November 5, 1980. The Turunmaas were paid off in 2002. Karjala is today a museum ship in Turku, and Turunmaa serves as a flotating machine shop and training ship for Satakunta Polytechnical College. Turku, in Swedish Åbo ( pronounced,) is a city and the original capital of Finland on the southwest coast of Finland at the

The next series of major naval vessels were the four Canadian Iroquois class helicopter carrying destroyers first commissioned in 1972. Original design The ships were originally intended for long-range anti-submarine warfare They used 2 ft-4 main propulsion engines, 2 ft-12 cruise engines and 3 Solar Saturn 750 kW generators.

The first U. S. gas-turbine powered ships were the U.S. Coast Guard's Hamilton-class High Endurance Cutters the first of which (USCGC Hamilton) commissioned in 1967. Hamilton Class High Endurance Cutters by homeport Alameda California: USCGC ''Boutwell'' (WHEC-719 USCGC ''Morgenthau'' The designation of High endurance cutter (WHEC was created in 1965 when the United States Coast Guard adopted its own designation system Design The Coast Guard designed a high level of habitability into. Year 1967 ( MCMLXVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the 1967 Gregorian calendar. Since then, they have powered the U.S. Navy's Perry-class frigates, Spruance-class and Arleigh Burke-class destroyers, and Ticonderoga-class guided missile cruisers. Ships The ships were designed by Maine shipyard Bath Iron Works in partnership with New York-based naval architects Gibbs & Cox. Class The class was designed for anti-submarine warfare (ASW with point defense Anti-aircraft warfare (AAW missiles upgrades provided anti-ship and land attack Characteristics The Arleigh Burke class are among the largest and most powerful destroyers ever built both larger and more heavily armed than many previous cruisers In naval terminology a destroyer is a fast and maneuverable yet long-endurance Warship intended to escort larger vessels in a fleet, Convoy Vertical Launching System See also Vertical Launching System In addition to the added Radar capability the Ticonderoga class built after the USS Makin Island, a modified Wasp-class amphibious assault ship, is to be the Navy's first amphib powered by gas turbines. Ships, Norfolk Virginia, Sasebo Japan, Norfolk Virginia, San Diego California An amphibious assault ship (also referred to as an amphibious assault carrier or commando carrier) is a type of Helicopter carrier employed to land The marine gas turbine operates in a more corrosive atmosphere due to presence of sea salt in air and fuel and use of cheaper fuels.

Industrial or Aero derivative

Gas turbines are traditionally divided into two categories: Industrial and Aero Derivative Where Industrial Gas turbines are used for heavy duty such as power plants using journal bearings and heavy construction. Aero derivative comes as the name indicates from light weight air traffic constructons, using rolling element bearings. Aero derivative gas turbines will typically be used in offshore industry where light weight is of importance.

Commercial Use

Stena Carisma, an HSS 900 class gas turbine powered ferry.
Stena Carisma, an HSS 900 class gas turbine powered ferry. The High-speed Sea Service, or Stena HSS is the name commonly given to type of High-speed craft developed and operated by the Stena Shipping Line

Three Vericor gas turbines power the 118 WallyPower, a 118-foot (36 m) super-yacht. These engines combine for a total of 16,800 hp allowing this 118-foot (36 m) boat to maintain speeds of 60 knots or 70mph.

There have been a number of experiments in which gas turbines were used to power seagoing commercial vessels. The earliest of these experiments may have been the oil tanker "Aurus" (Anglo Saxon Petroleum) - circa 1949.

Between 1970 and 1982, Seatrain Container Lines operated a scheduled container service across the North Atlantic with four 26,000 tonne dwt. container ships. Those ships were powered by twin Prat & Whitney gas turbines of the FT 4 series. The four ships in the class were named "Euroliner", "Eurofreighter", "Asialiner" and "Asiafreighter". They operated a transatlantic container service between ports on the eastern seaboard of the United States and ports in north west Europe. Following the dramatic OPEC price increases of the mid-nineteen seventies, operations were constrained by rising fuel costs. Some modification of the engine systems on those ships was undertaken to permit the burning of a lower grade of fuel (i. e. marine diesel). The modifications were partially successful. It was proved that particular fuel could be used in a marine gas turbine but, savings made were less than anticipated due to increased maintenance requirements. After 1982 the ships were sold, then re-engined with more economical diesel engines. Because the new engines were much larger, there was a consequential loss of some cargo space.

The first passenger ferry to use a gas turbine was the GTS Finnjet, built in 1977 and powered with two Pratt & Whitney FT 4C-1 DLF turbines, generating 55000 kW and propelling the ship to a speed of 31 knots. Overview Finnjet was built at the Wärtsilä shipyard (now Aker Finnyards) (Build-No Pratt & Whitney is an American Aircraft engine manufacturer of products widely used in both civil and military aircraft. However, the Finnjet also illustrated the shortcomings of gas turbine propulsion in commercial craft, as high fuel prices made operating her unprofitable. After just four years of service additional diesel engines were installed on the ship to allow less costly operations during off-season. Another example of commercial usage of gas turbines in a passenger ship are Stena Line's HSS class fastcraft ferries. Stena Line is one of the world's largest ferry operators with Ferry services serving Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Great Britain The High-speed Sea Service, or Stena HSS is the name commonly given to type of High-speed craft developed and operated by the Stena Shipping Line HSS 1500-class Stena Explorer, Stena Voyager and Stena Discovery vessels use combined gas and gas (COGAG) setups of twin GE LM2500 plus GE LM1600 power for a total of 68,000 kW. Combined gas turbine and gas turbine (COGAG is a type of propulsion system for ships using two Gas turbines connected to a single Propeller shaft. The General Electric LM2500 industrial and marine Turboshaft Gas turbine is a derivative of GE Aircraft Engines ' CF6-6 aircraft engine The slightly smaller HSS 900-class Stena Charisma, uses twin ABB–STAL GT35 turbines rated at 34,000 kW gross. } ABB, formerly Asea Brown Boveri, is a Multinational corporation headquartered in Zürich, Switzerland, operating mainly in the power The Stena Discovery was withdrawn from service in 2007, another victim of too high fuel costs.

In July 2000, the Millennium became the first cruise ship to be propelled by gas turbines, in a COGAS configuration. A cruise ship or cruise liner is a Passenger ship used for pleasure voyages where the voyage itself and the ship's amenities are part of the experience Combined gas and steam (COGAS is the name given to marine compound powerplants comprising gas and Steam turbines the latter being driven by steam The RMS Queen Mary 2 uses a CODAG configuration. Characteristics The Queen Mary 2 is the current Cunard Flagship and makes regular Transatlantic crossings Combined diesel and gas (CODAG is a type of propulsion system for Ships which need a maximum speed that is considerably faster than their cruise speed [11]

Amateur gas turbines

A popular hobby is to construct a gas turbine from an automotive turbocharger. A turbocharger, or turbo, is an air Compressor used for forced-induction of an Internal combustion engine. A combustion chamber is fabricated and plumbed between the compressor and turbine. Like many technology based hobbies, they tend to give rise to manufacturing businesses over time. Several small companies manufacture small turbines and parts for the amateur. See external links for resources.

Advances in technology

Gas turbine technology has steadily advanced since its inception and continues to evolve; research is active in producing ever smaller gas turbines. Computer design, specifically CFD and finite element analysis along with material advances, has allowed higher compression ratios and temperatures, more efficient combustion, better cooling of engine parts and reduced emissions. Computational fluid dynamics (CFD is one of the branches of Fluid mechanics that uses Numerical methods and algorithms to solve and analyze problems that involve On the emissions side, the challenge in technology is actually getting a catalytic combustor running properly in order to achieve single digit NOx emissions to cope with the latest regulations. Additionally, compliant foil bearings were commercially introduced to gas turbines in the 1990s. Foil bearings are a type of air bearing. A shaft is supported by a compliant spring loaded foil journal lining They can withstand over a hundred thousand start/stop cycles and eliminated the need for an oil system.

On another front, microelectronics and power switching technology have enabled commercially viable micro turbines for distributed and vehicle power.

Advantages and disadvantages of gas turbine engines

Advantages of gas turbine engines

[12]

Disadvantages of gas turbine engines

These disadvantages explain why road vehicles, which are smaller, cheaper and follow a less regular pattern of use than tanks, helicopters, large boats and so on, do not use gas turbine engines, regardless of the size and power advantages imminently available.

See also

References

  1. ^ Mechanical Engineering "Power & Energy," June 2004 - "A Year of Turbulence," Feature Article
  2. ^ Gas Turbine Engines for Model Aircraft by Kurt Schreckling, ISBN 0-9510589-1-6 Traplet Publications
  3. ^ http://www.ichpa.com/CHP_in_Ireland/Prime_Movers.php
  4. ^ http://www.tfot.info/content/view/114/58/
  5. ^ http://www.naturalnews.com/013298.html
  6. ^ http://www.naturalnews.com/013298.html
  7. ^ The history of the Howmet TX turbine car of 1968, still the world's only turbine powered race winner. A Gas turbine locomotive is a Locomotive powered by a Gas turbine. gas turbine-electric locomotive or GTEL is a Locomotive that uses a Gas turbine to drive an Electric generator or Alternator. The Gas Turbine Modular Helium Reactor (GTMHR is a nuclear power reactor design under development by General Atomics. Distributed generation, also called on-site generation, dispersed generation, embedded generation, decentralized generation, decentralized Pete Stowe Motorsport History (June 2006). Retrieved on 2008-01-31. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1504 - France cedes Naples to Aragon. 1606 - Gunpowder Plot: Guy Fawkes
  8. ^ Chrysler turbine information
  9. ^ http://www.chickslovethecar.com/car.asp?mode=turbine
  10. ^ Fast missile boat
  11. ^ http://www.geae.com/aboutgeae/presscenter/marine/marine_20040316.html
  12. ^ people.bath.ac.uk/ab2stb/Dis%20or%20Advantages.htm.

Further reading

External links

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Dictionary

gas turbine

-noun

  1. An internal combustion engine consisting of a compressor, a combustion chamber and a turbine, where the turbine mechanically powers the compressor.
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