| Fungi Fossil range: Early Devonian - Recent (but see text) | ||||||
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 Clockwise from top left: Amanita muscaria, a basidiomycete; Sarcoscypha coccinea, an ascomycete; black bread mold, a zygomycete; a chytrid; a Penicillium conidiophore. The Devonian is a geologic period and system of the Paleozoic era spanning from to million years ago. Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita is a poisonous and Psychoactive Basidiomycete Fungus, Sarcoscypha is a genus of ascomycete fungus in the family Sarcoscyphaceae. Rhizopus stolonifer ( black bread mold) is a widely distributed Mucoralean Mold. Penicillium (from Latin penicillus: paintbrush) is a Genus of Ascomyceteous Fungi that includes Conidia, sometimes termed conidiospores, are asexual, non-motile Spores of a Fungus; they are also called mitospores due | ||||||
| Scientific classification | ||||||
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| Subkingdoms/Phyla | ||||||
Dikarya (inc. Chytridiomycota is a Division of the Fungi kingdom. The name refers to the chytridium (from the Greek Blastocladiomycota is phylum of zoosporic Fungi. Neocallimastigomycota is a Phylum of Anaerobic Fungi, found mainly within the Stomachs of Ruminants, but with possible Glomeromycota (informally glomeromycetes) is one of seven currently recognized phyla within the kingdom Fungi, with approximately 200 described species Zygomycota, or zygote fungi are a Phylum of fungi. The name of the phylum comes from zygosporangia, where resistant spherical spores are formed during Dikarya is a Subkingdom of Fungi that includes the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, both of which in general produce Dikaryons Deuteromycota) |
A fungus (pronounced /ˈfʌŋgəs/) is a eukaryotic organism that is a member of the kingdom Fungi (pronounced /ˈfʌndʒaɪ/). Ascomycota is a Division / Phylum of Fungi, and subkingdom Dikarya, whose members are commonly known as the Sac Fungi. Basidiomycota is one of two large phyla that together with the Ascomycota, comprise the subkingdom Dikarya, which were in general what were called Animals Plants fungi, and Protists are eukaryotes (juːˈkærɪɒt or -oʊt Organisms whose cells are organized into complex In biological Taxonomy, a kingdom or regnum is a Taxonomic rank in either (historically the highest rank or (in the new three-domain system [2] The fungi are heterotrophic organisms possessing a chitinous cell wall. A heterotrophs, or chemoorganotrophy ( Greek heterone = (another and trophe = nutrition is an Organism that requires Chitin ( C 8 H 13 O 5 N)n (ˈkaɪtən is a long-chain Polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural The majority of species grow as multicellular filaments called hyphae forming a mycelium; some fungal species also grow as single cells. Multicellular organisms are Organisms consisting of more than one cell, and having Differentiated cells that perform specialized functions A hypha (plural hyphae) is a long branching filamentous cell of a Fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. Mycelium (plural mycelia) is the vegetative part of a Fungus, consisting of a mass of branching thread-like Hyphae The mass of hyphae is sometimes called The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called Sexual and asexual reproduction of the fungi is commonly via spores, often produced on specialized structures or in fruiting bodies. In Biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions The sporocarp of a Basidiomycete is known as a Basidiocarp, while the fruiting body of an Ascomycete is known as an Ascocarp. Some species have lost the ability to form specialized reproductive structures, and propagate solely by vegetative growth. Vegetative reproduction is a type of Asexual reproduction found in plants and is also called vegetative propagation or vegetative multiplication. Yeasts, molds, and mushrooms are examples of fungi. Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described WikipediaManual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English --> Molds (or A mushroom is the fleshy Spore -bearing Fruiting body of a Fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source The fungi are a monophyletic group that is phylogenetically clearly distinct from the morphologically similar slime molds (myxomycetes) and water molds (oomycetes). A clade is a taxonomic group comprising a single Common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor Slime Mold is a broad term referring to amoeba-like organisms hence the name slime which feed on microorganisms in decaying vegetable matter hence the name Molds Slime Mold is a broad term referring to amoeba-like organisms hence the name slime which feed on microorganisms in decaying vegetable matter hence the name Molds Oomycetes also known as Water molds (or water moulds: see spelling differences) are a group of filamentous unicellular Heterokonts physically Oomycetes also known as Water molds (or water moulds: see spelling differences) are a group of filamentous unicellular Heterokonts physically The fungi are more closely related to animals than plants, yet the discipline of biology devoted to the study of fungi, known as mycology, often falls under a branch of botany. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Mycology (from the Greek μύκης meaning "fungus" is the branch of Biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life
Occurring worldwide, most fungi are largely invisible to the naked eye, living for the most part in soil, dead matter, and as symbionts of plants, animals, or other fungi. This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek They perform an essential role in all ecosystems in decomposing organic matter and are indispensable in nutrient cycling and exchange. Organic matter (or organic material) is Matter that has come from a once-living Organism; is capable of In Ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a Chemical element or Molecule moves through both biotic Some fungi become noticeable when fruiting, either as mushrooms or molds. Many fungal species have long been used as a direct source of food, such as mushrooms and truffles and in fermentation of various food products, such as wine, beer, and soy sauce. A truffle ( is the valuable and highly sought-after edible Fruiting body of a group of subterranean Ascomycete fungi of the Genus Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed Alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea Soy sauce ( US) soya sauce ( Commonwealth) shoyu ( Japan) or sillao ( Peru) is a fermented Sauce More recently, fungi are being used as sources for antibiotics used in medicine and various enzymes, such as cellulases, pectinases, and proteases, important for industrial use or as active ingredients of detergents. In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Cellulase refers to a class of Enzymes produced chiefly by Fungi, Bacteria, and Protozoans that Catalyze the cellulolysis (or Pectinase is a general term for cool Enzymes that break down Pectin, a polysaccharide substrate that is found in the cell walls of Plants. A protease is any Enzyme that conducts Proteolysis, that is begins protein Catabolism by Hydrolysis of the Peptide bonds that link A detergent (as a noun is a material intended to assist Cleaning. Many fungi produce bioactive compounds called mycotoxins, such as alkaloids and polyketides that are toxic to animals including humans. Pharmacological or biological activity is an expression describing the beneficial or adverse effects of a Drug on living matter. Mycotoxin (from the Greek μύκης (mykes mukos "fungus" is a Toxin produced by an organism of the Fungus kingdom which includes Mushrooms This article is about the chemical compounds alkaloids For the Pharmaceutical company in the Republic of Macedonia see Alkaloid (company. Polyketides are Secondary metabolites from bacteria, Fungi, Plants and Animals Polyketides are biosynthesized by the Some fungi are used recreationally or in traditional ceremonies as a source of psychotropic compounds. Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes A psychoactive drug or psychotropic substance is a Chemical substance that acts primarily upon the Central nervous system where it alters Brain Several species of the fungi are significant pathogens of humans and other animals, and losses due to diseases of crops (e. A pathogen (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering passion" and γἰγνομαι (γεν- gignomai (gen- "I give birth to" infectious A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly g. , rice blast disease) or food spoilage caused by fungi can have a large impact on human food supply and local economies. Magnaporthe grisea, also known as rice blast fungus, rice rotten neck, rice seedling blight, blast of rice, oval leaf spot Decomposition (or spoilage) refers to the break down of tissue of a formerly living Organism into simpler forms of matter Food security refers to the availability of food and one's access to it
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Etymology and definition
The English word fungus is directly adopted from the Latin fungus, meaning "mushroom", used in Horace and Pliny. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Quintus Horatius Flaccus, ( Venosa, December 8, 65 BC - Rome, November 27, 8 BC known in the English-speaking world as Horace Gaius or Caius Plinius Secundus, ( AD 23 – August 25, AD 79 better known as Pliny the Elder, was an ancient Author [3] This in turn is derived from the Greek word sphongos/σφογγος ("sponge"), referring to the macroscopic structures and morphology of some mushrooms and molds and also used in other languages (e. The Ancient Greek language is the historical stage in the development of the Hellenic language family spanning the Archaic (c Macroscopic is commonly used to describe physical objects that are measurable and observable by the Naked eye. g. , the German Schwamm ("sponge") or Schwammerl for some types of mushroom). The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages.
Diversity
Fungi have a worldwide distribution, and grow in a wide range of habitats, including deserts. A variety of terricolous Fungi inhabit the Biological soil crust of Arid regions Those exposed to the sun typically contain Melanin and are resistant to Most fungi grow in terrestrial environments, but several species occur only in aquatic habitats. Fungi along with bacteria are the primary decomposers of organic matter in most if not all terrestrial ecosystems worldwide. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Decomposers (or Saprotrophs) are organisms that consume dead organisms and in doing so carry out the natural process of Decomposition. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( Based on observations of the ratio of the number of fungal species to the number of plant species in some environments, the fungal kingdom has been estimated to contain about 1. 5 million species. [4] Around 70,000 fungal species have been formally described by taxonomists, but the true dimension of fungal diversity is still unknown. [5] Most fungi grow as thread-like filaments called hyphae, which form a mycelium, while others grow as single cells. A hypha (plural hyphae) is a long branching filamentous cell of a Fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. Mycelium (plural mycelia) is the vegetative part of a Fungus, consisting of a mass of branching thread-like Hyphae The mass of hyphae is sometimes called [6][7] Until recently many fungal species were described based mainly on morphological characteristics, such as the size and shape of spores or fruiting structures, and biological species concepts; the application of molecular tools, such as DNA sequencing, to study fungal diversity has greatly enhanced the resolution and added robustness to estimates of diversity within various taxonomic groups. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level The term DNA sequencing encompasses biochemical methods for determining the order of the Nucleotide bases Adenine, Guanine, Cytosine [8]
Importance for human use
Human use of fungi for food preparation or preservation and other purposes is extensive and has a long history: yeasts are required for fermentation of beer, wine [9] and bread, some other fungal species are used in the production of soy sauce and tempeh. Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Fermentation in Food processing typically refers to the conversion of Sugar to Alcohol using Yeast under Anaerobic conditions Beer is the world's oldest and most widely consumed Alcoholic beverage and the third most popular drink overall after water and tea Wine is an Alcoholic beverage made from the fermentation of Grape juice Bread is a Staple food prepared by Baking a Dough of Flour and Water. Soy sauce ( US) soya sauce ( Commonwealth) shoyu ( Japan) or sillao ( Peru) is a fermented Sauce Tempeh, or tempe in Javanese, is made by a natural culturing and controlled fermentation process that binds Soybeans into a cake form Mushroom farming and mushroom gathering are large industries in many countries. Fungiculture is the process of producing food medicine and other products by the cultivation of Mushrooms and other Fungi. Mushroom hunting, mushrooming, mushroom picking and similar terms describe the activity of gathering Mushrooms in the wild typically for eating Many fungi are producers of antibiotics, including β-lactam antibiotics such as penicillin and cephalosporin. In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa β-lactam antibiotics are a broad class of Antibiotics that include Penicillin derivatives Cephalosporins Monobactams Carbapenems Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. [10] Widespread use of these antibiotics for the treatment of bacterial diseases, such as tuberculosis, syphilis, leprosy, and many others began in the early 20th century and continues to play a major part in anti-bacterial chemotherapy. Tuberculosis (abbreviated as TB for tubercle bacillus or T u' b' erculosis Bacillus --> is a common Syphilis is a Sexually transmitted disease caused by the spirochetal Bacterium Treponema pallidum pallidum. Leprosy (from the Greek lepi (λέπι meaning scales on a fish or Hansen's disease, is a chronic disease caused by the bacterium Chemotherapy, in its most general sense refers to treatment of disease by chemicals that kill cells specifically those of micro-organisms or Cancer. The study of the historical uses and sociological impact of fungi is known as ethnomycology. Ethnomycology is the study of the historical uses and sociological impact of Fungi (a
Cultured foods
Baker's yeast or Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a single-cell fungus, is used in the baking of bread and other wheat-based products, such as pizza and dumplings. Baker's yeast is the common name for the strains of Yeast commonly used as a Leavening agent in Baking Bread and related products where it converts Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a Species of Budding Yeast. It is perhaps the most useful Yeast owing to its use since ancient times Bread is a Staple food prepared by Baking a Dough of Flour and Water. Pizza (ˈpiːtsə, in Italian:) is a popular dish made with an Oven -baked flat generally round Bread that is covered with tomatoes or a tomato-based Dumplings are "piece of Dough, sometimes filled that cooked in liquid such as water or soup" or "sweetened dough wrapped around fruit such as an apple baked [11] Several yeast species of the genus Saccharomyces are also used in the production of alcoholic beverages through fermentation. Saccharomyces is a Genus in the kingdom of fungi that includes many species of Yeast. Fermentation in Food processing typically refers to the conversion of Sugar to Alcohol using Yeast under Anaerobic conditions [12] Mycelial fungi, such as the shoyu koji mold (Aspergillus oryzae), are used in the brewing of Shoyu (soy sauce) and preparation of tempeh. Aspergillus oryzae ( Chinese: 麴菌 麴霉菌 曲霉菌 Pinyin: qū meí jùn Japanese: 麹 麹菌 or kōji-kin, Korean Soy sauce ( US) soya sauce ( Commonwealth) shoyu ( Japan) or sillao ( Peru) is a fermented Sauce Soy sauce ( US) soya sauce ( Commonwealth) shoyu ( Japan) or sillao ( Peru) is a fermented Sauce Tempeh, or tempe in Javanese, is made by a natural culturing and controlled fermentation process that binds Soybeans into a cake form [13] Quorn is a high-protein product made from the mold, Fusarium venenatum, and is used in vegetarian cooking. Quorn is the leading brand of Mycoprotein food product in the UK and a leading brand elsewhere Fusarium venenatum is a Fungus, more precisely a Mould, from which a Mycoprotein can be derived Vegetarianism is the practice of a diet that excludes Meat (including game and slaughter by-products Fish (including Shellfish and other sea
Other human uses
Fungi are also used extensively to produce industrial chemicals like lactic acid, antibiotics and even to make stonewashed jeans. Lactic acid ( IUPAC Systematic name: 2-hydroxypropanoic acid) also known as milk acid, is a Chemical compound that plays a role In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa Jeans are Trousers made from Denim. Mainly designed for work, they became popular among Teenagers starting in the 1950s. [14] Several fungal species are ingested for their psychedelic properties, both recreationally and religiously (see main article, Psilocybin mushrooms). Psychedelic drugs are Psychoactive drugs whose primary action is to alter the thought processes of the brain and perception of the mind Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes
Mycotoxins
Many fungi produce compounds with biological activity. Mycotoxin (from the Greek μύκης (mykes mukos "fungus" is a Toxin produced by an organism of the Fungus kingdom which includes Mushrooms Pharmacological or biological activity is an expression describing the beneficial or adverse effects of a Drug on living matter. Several of these compounds are toxic and are therefore called mycotoxins, referring to their fungal origin and toxic activity. A toxin ( Greek:, toxikon, lit (poison for use on arrows is a Poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms that is active at very low Mycotoxin (from the Greek μύκης (mykes mukos "fungus" is a Toxin produced by an organism of the Fungus kingdom which includes Mushrooms Of particular relevance to humans are those mycotoxins that are produced by moulds causing food spoilage and poisonous mushrooms (see below). Particularly infamous are the aflatoxins, which are insidious liver toxins and highly carcinogenic metabolites produced by Aspergillus species often growing in or on grains and nuts consumed by humans, and the lethal amatoxins produced by mushrooms of the genus Amanita. Aflatoxins are naturally occurring Mycotoxins that are produced by many species of Aspergillus, a Fungus, most notably Aspergillus The liver is a vital organ in the human body and is present in Vertebrates and some other animals The term carcinogen refers to any substance Radionuclide or radiation that is an agent directly involved in the promotion of Cancer or in the fatation of its propagation Aspergillus is a Genus of around 200 Molds found throughout much of nature worldwide Amatoxins are a subgroup of at least eight toxic compounds found in several genera of poisonous mushrooms most notably Amanita phalloides and several other The Genus Amanita contains about 600 Species of Agarics including some of the most Toxic known mushrooms found worldwide Other notable mycotoxins include ochratoxins, patulin, ergot alkaloids, and trichothecenes and fumonisins, all of which have significant impact on human food supplies or animal livestock. Ochratoxin A B and C are Mycotoxins produced by some Aspergillus species and Penicillium species like Aspergillus ochraceus Patulin is a Mycotoxin produced by a variety of molds particularly Aspergillus and Penicillium. Ergotamine is an Ergopeptine and part of the Ergot family of Alkaloids it is structurally and biochemically closely related to Ergoline. Trichothecenes are a very large family of chemically related mycotoxins produced by various species of Fusarium Myrothecium Trichoderma Trichothecium Cephalosporium Verticimonosporium Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food [15]
Mycotoxins belong to the group of secondary metabolites (or natural products). Secondary metabolites are Organic compounds that are not directly involved in the normal growth, development or Reproduction of Organisms A natural product is a Chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism - found in nature that usually has a pharmacological or biological activity for use in pharmaceutical Originally, this group of compounds had been thought to be mere byproducts of primary metabolism, hence the name "secondary" metabolites. Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. However, recent research has shown the existence of biochemical pathways solely for the purpose of producing mycotoxins and other natural products in fungi. In Biochemistry, a metabolic pathway is a series of chemical reactions occurring within a cell. [16] Mycotoxins provide a number of fitness benefits to the fungi that produce them in terms of physiological adaptation, competition with other microbes and fungi, and protection from fungivory. Fitness (often denoted w in Population genetics models is a central concept in evolutionary theory. [17][18] These fitness benefits and the existence of dedicated biosynthetic pathways for mycotoxin production suggest that the mycotoxins are important for fungal persistence and survival.
Edible and poisonous fungi
Some of the best known types of fungi are the edible and the poisonous mushrooms. An edible mushroom is a Mushroom that can potentially be safely eaten including thousands of types of mushrooms that are regularly harvested See also List of deadly fungi Mushroom poisoning, also known as mycetism, refers to deleterious effects from ingestion of Toxic substances present Many species are commercially raised, but others must be harvested from the wild. Agaricus bisporus, sold as button mushrooms when small or Portobello mushrooms when larger, are the most commonly eaten species, used in salads, soups, and many other dishes. Agaricus bisporus, known as table mushroom, cultivated mushroom or button mushroom, is an edible Basidiomycete Fungus which Many Asian fungi are commercially grown and have gained in popularity in the West. They are often available fresh in grocery stores and markets, including straw mushrooms (Volvariella volvacea), oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus ostreatus), shiitakes (Lentinula edodes), and enokitake (Flammulina spp. Volvariella volvacea (also known as straw mushroom or paddy straw mushroom; syn Volvariella volvacea (also known as straw mushroom or paddy straw mushroom; syn The Oyster mushroom, or Pleurotus ostreatus, is a common mushroom prized for its edibility The Oyster mushroom, or Pleurotus ostreatus, is a common mushroom prized for its edibility The shiitake ( Lentinula edodes) is an Edible mushroom native to East Asia, which is cultivated and consumed in many Asian countries as well as being dried The shiitake ( Lentinula edodes) is an Edible mushroom native to East Asia, which is cultivated and consumed in many Asian countries as well as being dried Enokitake ( Chinese: 金[[wiktionary 針|針]] 菇, Pinyin: jīnzhēngū; Japanese: えのき茸 enokitake Flammulina is a Genus of Fungus. List of Species Flammulina callistosporioides Flammulina ).
There are many more mushroom species that are harvested from the wild for personal consumption or commercial sale. Mushroom hunting, mushrooming, mushroom picking and similar terms describe the activity of gathering Mushrooms in the wild typically for eating Milk mushrooms, morels, chanterelles, truffles, black trumpets, and porcini mushrooms (Boletus edulis) (also known as king boletes) all demand a high price on the market. Lactarius deliciosus, known as the Saffron milk cap, Red pine mushroom is the one of the best known members of the large milk-cap genus Lactarius Cantharellus is a genus with many popular Edible mushrooms It is a Mycorrhizal edible Fungus, meaning it forms Symbiotic associations A truffle ( is the valuable and highly sought-after edible Fruiting body of a group of subterranean Ascomycete fungi of the Genus Craterellus is a genus of generally edible fungi similar to the closely related chanterelles, with some species recently reassigned to this genus Boletus edulis is an edible Basidiomycete Mushroom. Most commonly known as porcini (from the plural of its Italian name porcino They are often used in gourmet dishes.
For certain types of cheeses, it is also a common practice to inoculate milk curds with fungal spores to foment the growth of specific species of mold that impart a unique flavor and texture to the cheese. Cheese is a Food made from Milk, usually the milk of cows, Buffalo, Goats or sheep, by coagulation. WikipediaManual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English --> Molds (or This accounts for the blue colour in cheeses such as Stilton or Roquefort which is created using Penicillium roqueforti spores. Blue cheese (or bleu cheese) is a general classification of cow's milk sheep's milk or goat's milk Cheeses that has had Penicillium cultures Stilton is a Cheese of England. It is produced in two varieties the well-known blue and the lesser-known white. Roquefort ( AmE, BrE, French; from Occitan ròcafòrt) is a Sheep milk blue Cheese from the south Penicillium roqueforti is a common Saprotrophic Fungus, that is widespread in nature and can be isolated from soil decaying organic substances [19] Molds used in cheese production are usually non-toxic and are thus safe for human consumption; however, mycotoxins (e. g. , aflatoxins, roquefortine C, patulin, or others) may accumulate due to fungal spoilage during cheese ripening or storage. [20]
Many mushroom species are toxic to humans, with toxicities ranging from slight digestive problems or allergic reactions as well as hallucinations to severe organ failures and death. Allergy is a disorder of the Immune system often also referred to as Atopy. A hallucination, in the broadest sense is a Perception in the absence of a stimulus. Some of the most deadly mushrooms belong to the genera Inocybe, Cortinarius, and most infamously, Amanita. Inocybe is a large complex genus of mushrooms Members of Inocybe are Mycorrhizal, and some evidence shows that the high degree of speciation in the genus Cortinarius is a Genus of Mushrooms It is suspected to be the largest genus of Agarics, containing over 2000 different species and found worldwide The Genus Amanita contains about 600 Species of Agarics including some of the most Toxic known mushrooms found worldwide The latter genus includes the destroying angel (A. virosa) and the death cap (A. phalloides), the most common cause of deadly mushroom poisoning. Amanita virosa, commonly known as the destroying angel or more precisely as European destroying angel, is a poisonous Basidiomycete Fungus Amanita phalloides (generally æməˈnaɪtə fəˈlɔɪdiːz commonly known as the death cap, is a poisonous Basidiomycete Fungus, one [21] The false morel (Gyromitra esculenta) is considered a delicacy by some when cooked, yet can be highly toxic when eaten raw. Gyromitra esculenta is an ascomycete fungus from the genus Gyromitra, widely distributed across Europe and North America and one of several species [22] Tricholoma equestre was considered edible until being implicated in some serious poisonings causing rhabdomyolysis. Tricholoma equestre or Tricholoma flavovirens, also known as Man on horseback or Yellow knight is a formerly widely eaten but hazardous Rhabdomyolysis is the rapid breakdown ( Lysis) of Skeletal muscle tissue ( rhabdomyo) due to injury to muscle tissue [23]
Fly agaric mushrooms (A. Amanita muscaria, commonly known as the fly agaric or fly Amanita is a poisonous and Psychoactive Basidiomycete Fungus, muscaria) also cause occasional poisonings, mostly as a result of ingestion for use as a recreational drug for its hallucinogenic properties. Recreational drug use is the use of Psychoactive drugs for Recreational purposes rather than for work, medical or spiritual purposes The general group of pharmacological agents commonly known as hallucinogens can be divided into three broad categories Psychedelics, Dissociatives Historically Fly agaric was used by Celtic Druids in Northern Europe and the Koryak people of north-eastern Siberia for religious or shamanic purposes. Celts (ˈkɛlts or /ˈsɛlts/, see Names of the Celts A druid was a member of the priestly and learned class in the ancient Celtic societies Koryaks (or Koriak are an indigenous people of Kamchatka Krai in the Russian Far East, who inhabit the coastlands of the Bering Sea to the south of the Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving [24] It is difficult to identify a safe mushroom without proper training and knowledge, thus it is often advised to assume that a mushroom in the wild is poisonous and not to consume it.
Fungi in the biological control of pests
In agricultural settings, fungi that actively compete for nutrients and space with, and eventually prevail over, pathogenic microorganisms, such as bacteria or other fungi, via the competitive exclusion principle,[25] or are parasites of these pathogens, may be beneficial agents for human use. A pathogen (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering passion" and γἰγνομαι (γεν- gignomai (gen- "I give birth to" infectious In Community ecology, the competitive exclusion principle, sometimes referred to as Gause's Law of competitive exclusion or just Gause's Law Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. For example, some fungi may be used to suppress growth or eliminate harmful plant pathogens, such as insects, mites, weeds, nematodes and other fungi that cause diseases of important crop plants. Mites, along with Ticks belong to the subclass Acarina (also known as Acari and the class Arachnida Mites are among the most diverse and successful WEED (1390 AM) is a Radio station broadcasting a Spanish format The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common [26] This has generated strong interest in the use and practical application of these fungi for the biological control of these agricultural pests. Biological control of pests in Agriculture is a method of controlling pests (including Insects Mites Weeds and plant diseases Entomopathogenic fungi can be used as biopesticides, as they actively kill insects. An entomopathogenic fungus is a Fungus that can act as a Parasite of Insects and kills or seriously disables them The term biopesticide is often used for microbial Biological control agents that are applied in a similar manner to chemical Pesticides. [27] Examples of fungi that have been used as biological insecticides are Beauveria bassiana, Metarhizium anisopliae, Hirsutella spp, Paecilomyces spp, and Verticillium lecanii. Recent efforts to reduce the impact of broad-spectrum chemical Pesticides have brought biological insecticides back into vogue Beauveria bassiana is a Fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout the world and acts as a Parasite on various Insect species causing Metarhizium anisopliae, formerly known as Entomophthora anisopliae ( Basionym) is a Fungus that grows naturally in soils throughout the Paecilomyces is a Nematophagous fungus which kills (harmful nematodes by Pathogenesis, or causing disease in the nematodes Verticillium is a Genus of Fungi in the division Ascomycota. Within the genus diverse groups are formed comprising saprotrophs and parasites [28] [29] Endophytic fungi of grasses of the genus Neotyphodium, such as N. coenophialum produce alkaloids that are toxic to a range of invertebrate and vertebrate herbivores. Neotyphodium is a form Genus containing species of Endophytic Fungi. Neotyphodium coenophialum is a systemic and seed-transmissible Symbiont (endophyte of Lolium arundinaceum (= Festuca arundinacea; tall Fescue This article is about the chemical compounds alkaloids For the Pharmaceutical company in the Republic of Macedonia see Alkaloid (company. Herbivory is a form of Predation in which an Organism, known as a herbivore, consumes principally Autotrophs ref name=Campbell>Campbell These alkaloids protect the infected grass plants from herbivory, but some endophyte alkaloids can cause poisoning of grazing animals, such as cattle and sheep. [30] Infection of grass cultivars of turf or forage grasses with isolates of the grass endophytes that produce only specific alkaloids to improve grass hardiness and resistance to herbivores such as insects, while being non-toxic to livestock, is being used in grass breeding programs. A lawn is an area of recreational or amenity land planted with grass, and sometimes Clover and other plants which are maintained at a low even height Plant breeding is the art and science of changing the genetics of plants for the benefit of humankind [31]
Bioremediation
Certain fungi, in particular 'white rot' fungi, can degrade insecticides, herbicides, pentachlorophenol, creosote, coal tars, and heavy fuels and turn them into carbon dioxide, water, and basic elements. Mycoremediation is a form of Bioremediation, the process of using Mushrooms to return an environment (usually soil contaminated by Pollutants [32] Research has recently discovered that fungi can be used to lock uranium into mineral form. [33]
Ecology
Although often inconspicuous, fungi occur in every environment on Earth and play very important roles in most ecosystems. Polypores are a group of tough leathery poroid Mushrooms similar to Boletes, but typically lacking a distinct stalk EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( Along with bacteria, fungi are the major decomposers in most terrestrial (and some aquatic) ecosystems, and therefore play a critical role in biogeochemical cycles and in many food webs. Decomposers (or Saprotrophs) are organisms that consume dead organisms and in doing so carry out the natural process of Decomposition. In Ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a Chemical element or Molecule moves through both biotic Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. As decomposers, they play an indispensable role in nutrient cycling, especially as saprotrophs and symbionts, degrading organic matter to inorganic molecules, which can then re-enter anabolic metabolic pathways in plants or other organisms. In Ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a Chemical element or Molecule moves through both biotic This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek [34][35]
Symbiosis
Many fungi have important symbiotic relationships with organisms from most if not all Kingdoms. This article is about the biological phenomenon for other uses see Symbiosis (disambiguation The term symbiosis (from the Greek In biological Taxonomy, a kingdom or regnum is a Taxonomic rank in either (historically the highest rank or (in the new three-domain system [36][37][38] These interactions can be mutualistic or antagonistic in nature, or in case of commensal fungi are of no apparent benefit or detriment to the host. [39][40][41]
With plants
Mycorrhizal symbiosis between plants and fungi is one of the most well-known plant-fungus associations and is of significant importance for plant growth and persistence in many ecosystems; over 90% of all plant species engage in some kind of mycorrhizal relationship with fungi and are dependent upon this relationship for survival. A mycorrhiza (Greek for fungus roots coined by Frank 1885 typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas) is a symbiotic (occasionally Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. [42][43][44] The mycorrhizal symbiosis is ancient, dating to at least 400 million years ago. [45] It often increases the plant's uptake of inorganic compounds, such as nitrate and phosphate from soils having low concentrations of these key plant nutrients. In Inorganic chemistry, a nitrate is a salt of Nitric acid with an Ion composed of one Nitrogen and three Oxygen atoms A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. [34] In some mycorrhizal associations, the fungal partners may mediate plant-to-plant transfer of carbohydrates and other nutrients. Such mycorrhizal communities are called "common mycorrhizal networks". [46]
Lichens are formed by a symbiotic relationship between algae or cyanobacteria (referred to in lichens as "photobionts") and fungi (mostly various species of ascomycetes and a few basidiomycetes), in which individual photobiont cells are embedded in a tissue formed by the fungus. Lichens (ˈlaɪkən or /lɪtʃən/ are symbiotic associations of a Fungus (the mycobiont with a photosynthetic partner (the photobiont also known as Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a phylum of Bacteria that obtain their energy [47] As in mycorrhizas, the photobiont provides sugars and other carbohydrates, while the fungus provides minerals and water. A mycorrhiza (Greek for fungus roots coined by Frank 1885 typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas) is a symbiotic (occasionally The functions of both symbiotic organisms are so closely intertwined that they function almost as a single organism.
With insects
Many insects also engage in mutualistic relationships with various types of fungi. Ant-fungus mutualism is a Symbiosis seen in certain Ant and fungal species where ants actively cultivate fungus much like humans farm crops Several groups of ants cultivate fungi in the order Agaricales as their primary food source, while ambrosia beetles cultivate various species of fungi in the bark of trees that they infest. The order Agaricales, also known as gilled mushrooms (for their distinctive gills, or euagarics, contains some of the most familiar types of Mushrooms Ambrosia beetles are beetles of the Weevil subfamilies Scolytinae and Platypodinae ( Coleoptera, Curculionidae) which live in [48] Termites on the African Savannah are also known to cultivate fungi. [49]
As pathogens and parasites
However, many fungi are parasites on plants, animals (including humans), and other fungi. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Serious fungal pathogens of many cultivated plants causing extensive damage and losses to agriculture and forestry include the rice blast fungus Magnaporthe oryzae,[50] tree pathogens such as Ophiostoma ulmi and Ophiostoma novo-ulmi causing Dutch elm disease,[51] and Cryphonectria parasitica responsible for chestnut blight, [52] and plant-pathogenic fungi in the genera Fusarium, Ustilago, Alternaria, and Cochliobolus; [40] fungi with the potential to cause serious human diseases, especially in persons with immuno-deficiencies, are in the genera Aspergillus, Candida, Cryptoccocus,[53][41][54] Histoplasma,[55] and Pneumocystis. Magnaporthe grisea, also known as rice blast fungus, rice rotten neck, rice seedling blight, blast of rice, oval leaf spot Magnaporthe grisea, also known as rice blast fungus, rice rotten neck, rice seedling blight, blast of rice, oval leaf spot Dutch elm disease (DED is a fungal disease of Elm trees which is spread by the Elm bark beetle. Dutch elm disease (DED is a fungal disease of Elm trees which is spread by the Elm bark beetle. Dutch elm disease (DED is a fungal disease of Elm trees which is spread by the Elm bark beetle. The chestnut blight is a fungal disease caused by the sac fungus ( Ascomycota) Cryphonectria parasitica (formerly Endothia parasitica) which The chestnut blight is a fungal disease caused by the sac fungus ( Ascomycota) Cryphonectria parasitica (formerly Endothia parasitica) which Fusarium is a large genus of filamentous Fungi widely distributed in soil and in association with plants Ustilago is a genus of smut fungi parasitic on grasses.There is a large research community that works on Ustilago maydis including researchers Alternaria is a genus of ascomycete fungi Alternaria species are known as major plant pathogens. The Genus Cochliobolus includes 55 Species Http//wwwspeciesfungorum An immune system is a collection of mechanisms within an Organism that protects against Disease by identifying and killing Pathogens and Tumor Aspergillus is a Genus of around 200 Molds found throughout much of nature worldwide Candida is a Genus of Yeasts Many species of this genus are Endosymbionts Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast-like Fungus that can live in both Plants and Animals This species also known by its Histoplasma is a Genus of dimorphic Fungi commonly found in bird and bat Pneumocystis pneumonia ( PCP) is a form of Pneumonia caused by the yeast-like Fungus, Pneumocystis jirovecii (Jirovecii is pronounced [56] Several pathogenic fungi are also responsible for relatively minor human diseases, such as athlete’s foot and ringworm. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Athlete's foot, also called Tinea Pedis, is a Parasitic fungal infection of the epidermis of the human foot Ringworm (also called serpigo) is an infection of the skin characterized by a reddish to brownish raised or bumpy patch of skin that may be lighter in the center Some fungi are predators of nematodes, which they capture using an array of specialized structures, such as constricting rings or adhesive nets. The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common [57]
Nutrition and possible autotrophy
Growth of fungi as hyphae on or in solid substrates or single cells in aquatic environments is adapted to efficient extraction of nutrients from these environments, because these growth forms have high surface area to volume ratios. A hypha (plural hyphae) is a long branching filamentous cell of a Fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. In Chemical reactions involving a solid material the surface area to volume ratio is an important factor for the Reactivity, that is the rate at which the chemical These adaptations in morphology are complemented by hydrolytic enzymes secreted into the environment for digestion of large organic molecules, such as polysaccharides, proteins, lipids, and other organic substrates into smaller molecules. The term morphology in Biology refers to the outward appearance ( Shape, Structure, Colour, Pattern) of an Organism Cellulase refers to a class of Enzymes produced chiefly by Fungi, Bacteria, and Protozoans that Catalyze the cellulolysis (or Polysaccharides are relatively complex Carbohydrates They are Polymers made up of many Monosaccharides joined together by Glycosidic bonds Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Lipids are broadly defined as any fat- Soluble ( lipophilic) naturally-occurring Molecule, such as fats oils waxes cholesterol sterols fat-soluble [58][59][60] These molecules are then absorbed as nutrients into the fungal cells. The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called
Traditionally, the fungi are considered heterotrophs, organisms that rely solely on carbon fixed by other organisms for metabolism. A heterotrophs, or chemoorganotrophy ( Greek heterone = (another and trophe = nutrition is an Organism that requires Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. Fungi have evolved a remarkable metabolic versatility that allows many of them to use a large variety of organic substrates for growth, including simple compounds as nitrate, ammonia, acetate, or ethanol. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 In Inorganic chemistry, a nitrate is a salt of Nitric acid with an Ion composed of one Nitrogen and three Oxygen atoms Ammonia is a compound with the formula N[[hydrogen H3]] It is normally encountered as a Gas with a characteristic pungent Odor An acetate, or ethanoate, is either a salt or Ester of Acetic acid. [61] [62] Recent research raises the possibility that some fungi utilize the pigment melanin to extract energy from ionizing radiation, such as gamma radiation for "radiotrophic" growth. Melanin is a class of compounds found in the Plant, Animal and Protista kingdoms, where it serves predominantly as a Pigment. Image talkNew_radiation_symbol_ISO_21482svg for details --> Ionizing radiation Gamma rays (denoted as &gamma) are a form of Electromagnetic radiation or light emission of frequencies produced by sub-atomic particle interactions Radiotrophic fungi are a recent discovery first seen as black Molds growing inside and around the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant. [63] It has been proposed that this process might bear some similarity to photosynthesis in plants, [63] but detailed biochemical data supporting the existence of this hypothetical pathway are presently lacking.
Morphology
Microscopic structures
Though fungi are part of the opisthokont clade, all phyla except for the chytrids have lost their posterior flagella. The opisthokonts ( Greek: (opisthō- = "rear posterior" + (kontos = "pole" i Chytridiomycota is a Division of the Fungi kingdom. The name refers to the chytridium (from the Greek [64] Fungi are unusual among the eukaryotes in having a cell wall that, besides glucans (e. A glucan molecule is a Polysaccharide of D- Glucose monomers linked by glycosidic bonds. g. , β-1,3-glucan) and other typical components, contains the biopolymer chitin. Biopolymers are a class of Polymers produced by living organisms Chitin ( C 8 H 13 O 5 N)n (ˈkaɪtən is a long-chain Polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine [65]
Many fungi grow as thread-like filamentous microscopic structures called hyphae, and an assemblage of intertwined and interconnected hyphae is called a mycelium. A hypha (plural hyphae) is a long branching filamentous cell of a Fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. Mycelium (plural mycelia) is the vegetative part of a Fungus, consisting of a mass of branching thread-like Hyphae The mass of hyphae is sometimes called [6] Hyphae can be septate, i. e. , divided into hyphal compartments separated by a septum, each compartment containing one or more nuclei or can be coenocytic, i. A septum ( Latin: something that encloses; plural Septa) is a partition separating two cavities or spaces In Cell biology, the nucleus (pl nuclei; from Latin la ''nucleus'' or la ''nuculeus'' "little nut" or kernel is a membrane-enclosed A coenocyte is a Multinucleate cell. It can result from multiple nuclear divisions without accompanying Cell divisions or from cellular aggregation followed e. , lacking hyphal compartmentalization. However, septa have pores, such as the doliporus in the basidiomycetes that allow cytoplasm, organelles, and sometimes nuclei to pass through. [6] Coenocytic hyphae are essentially multinucleate supercells. Multinucleate (also multinucleated, coenocytic) cells have more than one nucleus per cell, which is the result of nuclear division not being [66] In some cases, fungi have developed specialized structures for nutrient uptake from living hosts; examples include haustoria in plant-parasitic fungi of nearly all divisions, and arbuscules of several mycorrhizal fungi,[67] which penetrate into the host cells for nutrient uptake by the fungus. In botany a haustorium (plural haustoria) is the Hyphal tip of a parasitic Fungus or of the root of a Parasitic plant (such A mycorrhiza (Greek for fungus roots coined by Frank 1885 typically seen in the plural forms mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas) is a symbiotic (occasionally
Macroscopic structures
Fungal mycelia can become visible macroscopically, for example, as concentric rings on various surfaces, such as damp walls, and on other substrates, such as spoilt food (see figure), and are commonly and generically called mould (American spelling, mold); fungal mycelia grown on solid agar media in laboratory petri dishes are usually referred to as colonies, with many species exhibiting characteristic macroscopic growth morphologies and colours, due to spores or pigmentation. WikipediaManual_of_Style#National_varieties_of_English --> Molds (or Phonology North American English regional phonology In many ways compared to English English, North American English is conservative in its Phonology. Agar or agar agar is a Gelatinous substance derived from Seaweed. A Petri dish is a shallow Glass or Plastic Cylindrical lidded dish that biologists use to culture cells It was named after For the drug referred to as "pigment" see Black tar heroin.
Specialized fungal structures important in sexual reproduction are the apothecia, perithecia, and cleistothecia in the ascomycetes, and the fruiting bodies of the basidiomycetes, and a few ascomycetes. The Evolution of sexual reproduction is a major puzzle The first Fossilized evidence of sexually reproducing Organisms is from Eukaryotes of the Stenian An ascocarp, or ascoma (plural ascomata) is the fruiting body ( Sporocarp) of an Ascomycete fungus An ascocarp, or ascoma (plural ascomata) is the fruiting body ( Sporocarp) of an Ascomycete fungus The sporocarp of a Basidiomycete is known as a Basidiocarp, while the fruiting body of an Ascomycete is known as an Ascocarp. These reproductive structures can sometimes grow very large, and are well known as mushrooms. A mushroom is the fleshy Spore -bearing Fruiting body of a Fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source
Morphological and physiological features for substrate penetration
Fungal hyphae are specifically adapted to growth on solid surfaces and within substrates, and can exert astoundingly large penetrative mechanical forces. The plant pathogen, Magnaporthe grisea, forms a structure called an appressorium specifically designed for penetration of plant tissues, and the pressure generated by the appressorium, which is directed against the plant epidermis can exceed 8 MPa (80 bars). Magnaporthe grisea, also known as rice blast fungus, rice rotten neck, rice seedling blight, blast of rice, oval leaf spot An appressorium is a flattened Hyphal "pressing" organ from which a minute infection peg grows and enters the host using Turgor pressure capable of The epidermis is the outer single-layered group of cells covering a Plant, especially the Leaf and young tissues of a Vascular plant including stems The bar (symbol bar) decibar (symbol dbar) and the millibar (symbol mbar, also mb are units of Pressure. [68] The generation of these mechanical pressures is the result of an interplay between physiological processes to increase intracellular turgor by production of osmolytes such as glycerol, and the morphology of the appressorium. ' Turgor pressure' or turgidity is the main pressure of the cell contents against the Cell wall in Plant cells and bacteria cells determined by the water Osmolytes are organic compounds affecting Osmosis. They are soluble in the solution within a cell [69]
Reproduction
Reproduction of fungi is complex, reflecting the heterogeneity in lifestyles and genetic make up within this group of organisms. [6] Many fungi reproduce either sexually or asexually, depending on conditions in the environment. These conditions trigger genetically determined developmental programs leading to the expression of specialized structures for sexual or asexual reproduction. These structures aid both reproduction and efficient dissemination of spores or spore-containing propagules.
Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction via vegetative spores or through mycelial fragmentation is common in many fungal species and allows more rapid dispersal than sexual reproduction. Asexual reproduction is a form of reproduction which does not involve Meiosis, Ploidy reduction or Fertilization. In Biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions In the case of the "Fungi imperfecti" or Deuteromycota, which lack a sexual cycle, it is the only means of propagation. Asexual spores, upon germination, may found a population that is clonal to the population from which the spore originated, and thus colonize new environments. Germination is the process whereby growth emerges from a period of dormancy Molecular cloning refers to the procedure of isolating a defined DNA sequence and obtaining multiple copies of it In vivo.
Sexual reproduction
Sexual reproduction with meiosis exists in all fungal phyla, except the Deuteromycota. In Biology or life science meiosis (pronounced my-oh-sis is a process of reductional division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half It differs in many aspects from sexual reproduction in animals or plants. Many differences also exist between fungal groups and have been used to discriminate fungal clades and species based on morphological differences in sexual structures and reproductive strategies. Experimental crosses between fungal isolates can also be used to identify species based on biological species concepts. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. The major fungal clades have initially been delineated based on the morphology of their sexual structures and spores; for example, the spore-containing structures, asci and basidia, can be used in the identification of ascomycetes and basidiomycetes, respectively. ascusgif|thumb|right|Ascus of Saccharomyces cerevisiae containing a tetrad of four spores]]An ascus (plural asci) is the sexual spore-bearing cell produced in A basidium (pl basidia) is a microscopic spore-producing structure found on the Hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi Many fungal species have elaborate vegetative incompatibility systems that allow mating only between individuals of opposite mating type, while others can mate and sexually reproduce with any other individual or itself. In Biology, mating is the pairing of opposite- Sex or hermaphroditic Organisms for copulation and in Social animals also to raise their Mating types occur in Eukaryotes that undergo Sexual reproduction via Isogamy. Species of the former mating system are called heterothallic, and of the latter homothallic. Heterothallic Species have Sexes that reside in different individuals [70]
Most fungi have both a haploid and diploid stage in their life cycles. "Haplo" redirects here For the fictional character see The Death Gate Cycle. "Haplo" redirects here For the fictional character see The Death Gate Cycle. In all sexually reproducing fungi, compatible individuals combine by cell fusion of vegetative hyphae by anastomosis, required for the initiation of the sexual cycle. An anastomosis (plural anastomoses, from gr ἀναστόμωσις communicating opening) is a Network of streams that both branch out and reconnect Ascomycetes and basidiomycetes go through a dikaryotic stage, in which the nuclei inherited from the two parents do not fuse immediately after cell fusion, but remain separate in the hyphal cells (see heterokaryosis). Dikaryon is from Greek, di meaning 2 and karyon meaning nut, referring to the Cell nucleus. In Cell biology, the nucleus (pl nuclei; from Latin la ''nucleus'' or la ''nuculeus'' "little nut" or kernel is a membrane-enclosed Heterokaryosis (from the Greek heteros, meaning other and karyon, meaning kernel) is a term used in Mycology meaning to have two or
In ascomycetes, dikaryotic hyphae of the hymenium form a characteristic hook at the hyphal septum. The hymenium is the tissue layer on the Hymenophore of a Fungal Fruiting body where the cells develop into basidia or asci, which During cell division formation of the hook ensures proper distribution of the newly divided nuclei into the apical and basal hyphal compartments. Cell division is a process by which a cell, called the parent cell divides into two or more cells called daughter cells. An ascus (plural asci) is then formed, in which karyogamy (nuclear fusion) occurs. ascusgif|thumb|right|Ascus of Saccharomyces cerevisiae containing a tetrad of four spores]]An ascus (plural asci) is the sexual spore-bearing cell produced in Karyogamy is the fusion of nuclei of two cells as part of Syngamy. These asci are embedded in an ascocarp, or fruiting body, of the fungus. An ascocarp, or ascoma (plural ascomata) is the fruiting body ( Sporocarp) of an Ascomycete fungus Karyogamy in the asci is followed immediately by meiosis and the production of ascospores. The ascospores are disseminated and germinate and may form a new haploid mycelium. [71]
Sexual reproduction in basidiomycetes is similar to that of the ascomycetes. Compatible haploid hyphae fuse to produce a dikaryotic mycelium. However, the dikaryotic phase is more extensive in the basidiomycetes, in many cases also present in the vegetatively growing mycelium. A specialized anatomical structure, called a clamp connection, is formed at each hyphal septum. A type of connection found within a single hyphal strand of a Basidiomycete Fungus. As with the structurally similar hook in the ascomycetes, formation of the clamp connection in the basidiomycetes is required for controlled transfer of nuclei during cell division, to maintain the dikaryotic stage with two genetically different nuclei in each hyphal compartment. [71] A basidiocarp is formed in which club-like structures known as basidia generate haploid basidiospores after karyogamy and meiosis. A basidiocarp, basidiome or basidioma (plural basidiomata) is the sporocarp of a Basidiomycete, the Multi-cellular A basidium (pl basidia) is a microscopic spore-producing structure found on the Hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi A basidiospore is a reproductive Spore produced by Basidiomycete Fungi. [72] The most commonly known basidiocarps are mushrooms, but they may also take many other forms (see Morphology section).
In zygomycetes, haploid hyphae of two individuals fuse, forming a zygote, which develops into a zygospore. For other meanings see Zygote (disambiguation. A zygote (from Greek ζυγωτός zugōtos "joined" or "yoked" A zygospore is a reproductive part of a Fungus, a Chlamydospore that is created by the nuclear fusion of Haploid Hyphae of different mating types When the zygospore germinates, it quickly undergoes meiosis, generating new haploid hyphae, which in turn may form asexual sporangiospores. In Biology or life science meiosis (pronounced my-oh-sis is a process of reductional division in which the number of chromosomes per cell is cut in half A sporangium (pl sporangia) is a Plant or fungal structure producing and containing Spores Sporangia occur in angiosperms, These sporangiospores are means of rapid dispersal of the fungus and germinate into new genetically identical haploid fungal colonies, able to mate and undergo another sexual cycle followed by the generation of new zygospores, thus completing the lifecycle.
Spore dispersal
Both asexual and sexual spores or sporangiospores of many fungal species are actively dispersed by forcible ejection from their reproductive structures. This ejection ensures exit of the spores from the reproductive structures as well as travelling through the air over long distances. Many fungi thereby possess specialized mechanical and physiological mechanisms as well as spore-surface structures, such as hydrophobins, for spore ejection. Hydrophobins are a class of small Cysteine rich Proteins (~ 100 Amino acids) that are expressed only by filamentous fungi. These mechanisms include, for example, forcible discharge of ascospores enabled by the structure of the ascus and accumulation of osmolytes in the fluids of the ascus that lead to explosive discharge of the ascospores into the air. Osmolytes are organic compounds affecting Osmosis. They are soluble in the solution within a cell [73] The forcible discharge of single spores termed ballistospores involves formation of a small drop of water (Buller's drop), which upon contact with the spore leads to its projectile release with an initial acceleration of more than 10,000 g. g-force (also G-force, g-load) is a measurement of an object's Acceleration expressed in g s [74] Other fungi rely on alternative mechanisms for spore release, such as external mechanical forces, exemplified by puffballs. A puffball is a member of any of a number of groups of fungus in the division Basidiomycota. Attracting insects, such as flies, to fruiting structures, by virtue of their having lively colours and a putrid odour, for dispersal of fungal spores is yet another strategy, most prominently used by the stinkhorns. The Phallaceae or stinkhorns, are a family of Basidiomycetes which produce a foul-scented Phallus -shaped Mushroom.
Other sexual processes
Besides regular sexual reproduction with meiosis, some fungal species may exchange genetic material via parasexual processes, initiated by anastomosis between hyphae and plasmogamy of fungal cells. Ascomycota is a Division / Phylum of Fungi, and subkingdom Dikarya, whose members are commonly known as the Sac Fungi. Plasmogamy is a stage in the sexual reproduction of fungi In this stage the cytoplasm of two parent Mycelia fuse together without the fusion of nuclei as occurs in higher The frequency and relative importance of parasexual events is unclear and may be lower than other sexual processes. However, it is known to play a role in intraspecific hybridization [75] and is also likely required for hybridization between fungal species, which has been associated with major events in fungal evolution. [76]
Phylogeny and classification
For a long time taxonomists considered fungi to be members of the Plant Kingdom. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. This early classification was based mainly on similarities in lifestyle: both fungi and plant are mainly sessile, have similarities in general morphology and growth habitat (like plants, fungi often grow in soil, in the case of mushrooms forming conspicuous fruiting bodies, which sometimes bear resemblance to plants such as mosses). Sessile is a term in Biology with two distinct meanings In botany and medicine In Botany, sessile means "without a stalk The term morphology in Biology refers to the outward appearance ( Shape, Structure, Colour, Pattern) of an Organism A mushroom is the fleshy Spore -bearing Fruiting body of a Fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source The sporocarp of a Basidiomycete is known as a Basidiocarp, while the fruiting body of an Ascomycete is known as an Ascocarp. Mosses are small soft Plants that are typically 1–10 cm (0 Moreover, both groups possess a cell wall, which is absent in the Animal Kingdom. A cell wall is a tough flexible and sometimes fairly rigid layer surrounding a cell, located external to the Cell membrane, which provides the cell with structural However, the fungi are now considered a separate kingdom, distinct from both plants and animals, from which they appear to have diverged approximately one billion years ago. [77] Many studies have identified several distinct morphological, biochemical, and genetic features in the Fungi, clearly delineating this group from the other kingdoms. For these reasons, the fungi are placed in their own kingdom.
Physiological and morphological traits
Similar to animals and unlike most plants, fungi lack the capacity to synthesize organic carbon by chlorophyll-based photosynthesis; whereas plants store the reduced carbon as starch, fungi, like animals and some bacteria, use glycogen [78] for storage of carbohydrates. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most A major component of the cell wall in many fungal species is the nitrogen-containing carbohydrate, chitin,[79] also present in some animals, such as the insects and crustaceans, while the plant cell wall consists chiefly of the carbohydrate cellulose. Carbohydrates (from ' Hydrates of Carbon ' or saccharides ( Greek σάκχαρον meaning " Sugar " are the most Chitin ( C 8 H 13 O 5 N)n (ˈkaɪtən is a long-chain Polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine Insects ( Class Insecta) are a major group of Arthropods and the most diverse group of Animals on the Earth with over a million described Structure of crustaceans As Arthropods crustaceans have a stiff Exoskeleton, which must be shed to allow the animal to grow ( Ecdysis or molting Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 The defining and unique characteristics of fungal cells include growth as hyphae, which are microscopic filaments of between 2-10 microns in diameter and up to several centimetres in length, and which combined form the fungal mycelium. A hypha (plural hyphae) is a long branching filamentous cell of a Fungus, and also of unrelated Actinobacteria. Mycelium (plural mycelia) is the vegetative part of a Fungus, consisting of a mass of branching thread-like Hyphae The mass of hyphae is sometimes called Some fungi, such as yeasts, grow as single ovoid cells, similar to unicellular algae and the protists. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms Protists (ˈproʊtɨst are a diverse group of eukaryotic Microorganisms Historically protists were treated as the kingdom Protista but this
Unlike many plants, most fungi lack an efficient vascular system, such as xylem or phloem for long-distance transport of water and nutrients; as an example for convergent evolution, some fungi, such as Armillaria, form rhizomorphs or mycelial cords,[80] resembling and functionally related to, but morphologically distinct from, plant roots. This is an article about vascular tissue in plants For transport in animals see Circulatory system. In Vascular plants xylem is one of the two types of transport tissue Phloem being the other In Vascular plants phloem is the living tissue that carries organic Nutrients (known as photosynthate particularly Sucrose, a sugar to Convergent evolution describes the acquisition of the same biological trait in unrelated lineages Honey fungus or Armillaria is a Genus of parasitic fungi that live on trees and woody shrubs Mycelial cords are linear aggregations of parallel-oriented hyphae. ROOT is an object-oriented program and library developed by CERN.
Some characteristics shared between plants and fungi include the presence of vacuoles in the cell,[81] and a similar pathway in the biosynthesis of terpenes using mevalonic acid and pyrophosphate as biochemical precursors; plants however use an additional terpene biosynthesis pathway in the chloroplasts that is apparently absent in fungi. In general vacuole functions include Removing unwanted structural debris Isolating materials that might be harmful or a threat to the cell Containing Terpenes are a large and varied class of Hydrocarbons, produced primarily by a wide variety of plants particularly Conifers though also by some insects such Mevalonic acid is a key Organic compound in biochemistry It is a precursor in the biosynthetic pathway known as the HMG-CoA reductase pathway, that produces In Chemistry, the Anion, the Salts and the Esters of Pyrophosphoric acid are called pyrophosphates. In Chemistry, a precursor is a compound that participates in the Chemical reaction that produces another compound Chloroplasts are Organelles found in Plant cells and eukaryotic Algae that conduct Photosynthesis. [82] Ancestral traits shared among members of the fungi include chitinous cell walls and heterotrophy by absorption. Chitin ( C 8 H 13 O 5 N)n (ˈkaɪtən is a long-chain Polymer of a N-acetylglucosamine [71] A further characteristic of the fungi that is absent from other eukaryotes, and shared only with some bacteria, is the biosynthesis of the amino acid, L-lysine, via the α-aminoadipate pathway. Lysine (abbreviated as Lys or K) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2(CH24NH2 [83]
Similar to plants, fungi produce a plethora of secondary metabolites functioning as defensive compounds or for niche adaptation; however, biochemical pathways for the synthesis of similar or even identical compounds often differ markedly between fungi and plants. Secondary metabolites are Organic compounds that are not directly involved in the normal growth, development or Reproduction of Organisms [84][85]
Evolutionary history
The first organisms having features typical of fungi date to , the Proterozoic. As fungi rarely fossilise speculation on their evolution is necessarily limited [86] However, fungal fossils do not become common and uncontroversial until the early Devonian, when they are abundant in the Rhynie chert. [87]
Even though traditionally included in many botany curricula and textbooks, fungi are now thought to be more closely related to animals than to plants and are placed with the animals in the monophyletic group of opisthokonts. A clade is a taxonomic group comprising a single Common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor The opisthokonts ( Greek: (opisthō- = "rear posterior" + (kontos = "pole" i [71] For much of the Paleozoic Era, the fungi appear to have been aquatic, and consisted of organisms similar to the extant Chytrids in having flagellum-bearing spores. The Paleozoic or Palaeozoic Era (from the Greek palaio (παλαιο "old" and zoe (ζωη "life" meaning "ancient life" Extant is a term commonly used to refer to Taxa (such as Species, genera or families) that are still in existence (living [88] The early fossil record of the fungi is fragmentary, to say the least. The fungi probably colonized the land during the Cambrian, long before land plants. The Cambrian is a geologic period and system that began about Ma (million years ago at the end of the Proterozoic eon and ended about Ma with [87] For some time after the Permian-Triassic extinction event, a fungal spike, originally thought to be an extraordinary abundance of fungal spores in sediments formed shortly after this event, suggested that they were the dominant life form during this period—nearly 100% of the fossil record available from this period. The Permian–Triassic (P–Tr extinction event, informally known as the Great Dying, was an Extinction event that occurred, and 70 percent of terrestrial Sediment is any particulate matter that can be transported by fluid flow and which eventually is deposited as a layer of solid particles on the bed or bottom of a body of FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. [89] However, the relative proportion of fungal spores relative to spores formed by algal species is difficult to assess, [90] the spike did not appear world-wide, [91][92] and in many places it did not fall on the Permian-Triassic boundary. [93]
Analyses using molecular phylogenetics support a monophyletic origin of the Fungi. A clade is a taxonomic group comprising a single Common ancestor and all the descendants of that ancestor [8] The taxonomy of the Fungi is in a state of constant flux, especially due to recent research based on DNA comparisons. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos These current phylogenetic analyses often overturn classifications based on older and sometimes less discriminative methods based on morphological features and biological species concepts obtained from experimental matings. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. In Biology, mating is the pairing of opposite- Sex or hermaphroditic Organisms for copulation and in Social animals also to raise their [94][95]
There is no unique generally accepted system at the higher taxonomic levels and there are constant name changes at every level, from species upwards. However, efforts among fungal researchers are now underway to establish and encourage usage of a unified and more consistent nomenclature. Botanical nomenclature is the formal naming of plants from a scientific point of view [8] Fungal species can also have multiple scientific names depending on its life cycle and mode (sexual or asexual) of reproduction. Web sites such as Index Fungorum and ITIS define preferred up-to-date names (with cross-references to older synonyms), but do not always agree with each other. Index Fungorum, an international project to index all formal names ( Scientific names in the Kingdom Fungi. Integrated Taxonomic Information System ( ITIS) is a partnership designed to provide consistent and reliable information on the Taxonomy of biological Species
Cladogram
| Unikonta |
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The taxonomic groups of fungi
The major divisions (phyla) of fungi have been classified based mainly on their sexual reproductive structures. Unikonts are members of the Unikonta a taxonomic group proposed by Thomas Cavalier-Smith. The Amoebozoa are a major group of Amoeboid protozoa including the majority that move by means of internal Cytoplasmic flow The opisthokonts ( Greek: (opisthō- = "rear posterior" + (kontos = "pole" i Choanozoa ( Greek: (choanos = "funnel" + (zōon = "animal" is the name of a Phylum of protists that belongs Chytridiomycota is a Division of the Fungi kingdom. The name refers to the chytridium (from the Greek Blastocladiomycota is phylum of zoosporic Fungi. Neocallimastigomycota is a Phylum of Anaerobic Fungi, found mainly within the Stomachs of Ruminants, but with possible Zygomycota, or zygote fungi are a Phylum of fungi. The name of the phylum comes from zygosporangia, where resistant spherical spores are formed during Glomeromycota (informally glomeromycetes) is one of seven currently recognized phyla within the kingdom Fungi, with approximately 200 described species Dikarya is a Subkingdom of Fungi that includes the phyla Ascomycota and Basidiomycota, both of which in general produce Dikaryons Ascomycota is a Division / Phylum of Fungi, and subkingdom Dikarya, whose members are commonly known as the Sac Fungi. Basidiomycota is one of two large phyla that together with the Ascomycota, comprise the subkingdom Dikarya, which were in general what were called A phylum ( Plural: phyla) is a Taxonomic rank between Kingdom and above Class. Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced Currently, seven fungal divisions are proposed:[8]
- The Chytridiomycota are commonly known as chytrids. Chytridiomycota is a Division of the Fungi kingdom. The name refers to the chytridium (from the Greek These fungi are ubiquitous with a worldwide distribution; chytrids produce zoospores that are capable of active movement through aqueous phases with a single flagellum. A zoospore is a motile asexual Spore utilizing a Flagellum for Locomotion. A flagellum ( plural flagella) is a tail-like structure that projects from the Cell body of certain Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells and it Consequently, some taxonomists had earlier classified them as protists on the basis of the flagellum. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos Protists (ˈproʊtɨst are a diverse group of eukaryotic Microorganisms Historically protists were treated as the kingdom Protista but this Molecular phylogenies, inferred from the rRNA-operon sequences representing the 18S, 28S, and 5. 8S ribosomal subunits, suggest that the Chytrids are a basal fungal group divergent from the other fungal divisions, consisting of four major clades with some evidence for paraphyly or possibly polyphyly. [88]
- The Blastocladiomycota were previously considered a taxonomic clade within the Chytridiomycota. Blastocladiomycota is phylum of zoosporic Fungi. Recent molecular data and ultrastructural characteristics, however, place the Blastocladiomycota as a sister clade to the Zygomycota, Glomeromycota, and Dikarya (Ascomycota and Basiomycota). The blastocladiomycetes are fungi that are saprotrophs and parasites of all eukaryotic groups and undergo sporic meiosis unlike their close relatives, the chytrids, which mostly exhibit zygotic meiosis. [88]
- The Neocallimastigomycota were earlier placed in the phylum Chytridomycota. Neocallimastigomycota is a Phylum of Anaerobic Fungi, found mainly within the Stomachs of Ruminants, but with possible Members of this small phylum are anaerobic organisms, living in the digestive system of larger herbivorous mammals and possibly in other terrestrial and aquatic environments. They lack mitochondria but contain hydrogenosomes of mitochondrial origin. In Cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed Organelle found in most eukaryotic cells. A hydrogenosome is a membrane-enclosed Organelle of some anaerobic Ciliates trichomonads and Fungi. As the related chrytrids, neocallimastigomycetes form zoospores that are posteriorly uniflagellate or polyflagellate. [8]
- The Zygomycota contain the taxa, Zygomycetes and Trichomycetes, and reproduce sexually with meiospores called zygospores and asexually with sporangiospores. Zygomycota, or zygote fungi are a Phylum of fungi. The name of the phylum comes from zygosporangia, where resistant spherical spores are formed during A taxon (plural taxa) or taxonomic unit, is a name designating an organism or a group of Organisms In Biological nomenclature according to In Biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions A sporangium (pl sporangia) is a Plant or fungal structure producing and containing Spores Sporangia occur in angiosperms, Black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer) is a common species that belongs to this group; another is Pilobolus, which is capable of ejecting spores several meters through the air. Rhizopus stolonifer ( black bread mold) is a widely distributed Mucoralean Mold. Rhizopus stolonifer ( black bread mold) is a widely distributed Mucoralean Mold. This article is about the fungal Genus; for information on the Dance company, see Pilobolus (dance company. In Biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions Medically relevant genera include Mucor, Rhizomucor, and Rhizopus. Mucor is a genus of about 40 species of Molds commonly found in soil and on plant surfaces as well as in rotten vegetable matter Rhizopus is very interesting to watch grow Rhizopus is a genus of Molds that includes cosmopolitan filamentous fungi found in soil decaying fruit and Molecular phylogenetic investigation has shown the Zygomycota to be a polyphyletic phylum with evidence of paraphyly within this taxonomic group. In Phylogenetics, a Taxon is polyphyletic ( Greek for "of many races" if the trait its members have in common evolved separately in different In Phylogenetics, a group of organisms is said to be paraphyletic if the group contains its most recent common ancestor but does not contain all [96]
- Members of the Glomeromycota are fungi forming arbuscular mycorrhizae with higher plants. Glomeromycota (informally glomeromycetes) is one of seven currently recognized phyla within the kingdom Fungi, with approximately 200 described species An arbuscular mycorrhiza (plural mycorrhizae or mycorrhizas) is a type of Mycorrhiza in which the Fungus penetrates the cortical cells of the Only one species has been observed forming zygospores; all other species solely reproduce asexually. The symbiotic association between the Glomeromycota and plants is ancient, with evidence dating to 400 million years ago. [45]
- The Ascomycota, commonly known as sac fungi or ascomycetes, constitute the largest taxonomic group within the Eumycota. Ascomycota is a Division / Phylum of Fungi, and subkingdom Dikarya, whose members are commonly known as the Sac Fungi. These fungi form meiotic spores called ascospores, which are enclosed in a special sac-like structure called an ascus. An ascospore is a Spore contained in an Ascus or that was produced inside an ascus ascusgif|thumb|right|Ascus of Saccharomyces cerevisiae containing a tetrad of four spores]]An ascus (plural asci) is the sexual spore-bearing cell produced in This division includes morels, a few mushrooms and truffles, single-celled yeasts (e. A mushroom is the fleshy Spore -bearing Fruiting body of a Fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source A truffle ( is the valuable and highly sought-after edible Fruiting body of a group of subterranean Ascomycete fungi of the Genus Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described g. , of the genera Saccharomyces, Kluyveromyces, Pichia, and Candida), and many filamentous fungi living as saprotrophs, parasites, and mutualistic symbionts. Saccharomyces is a Genus in the kingdom of fungi that includes many species of Yeast. Kluyveromyces is a Genus of ascomycetous yeasts in the family Saccharomycetaceae. Pichia is a genus of teleomorphic Yeasts in the family Saccharomycetaceae. Candida is a Genus of Yeasts Many species of this genus are Endosymbionts Prominent and important genera of filamentous ascomycetes include Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, and Claviceps. Aspergillus is a Genus of around 200 Molds found throughout much of nature worldwide Penicillium (from Latin penicillus: paintbrush) is a Genus of Ascomyceteous Fungi that includes Fusarium is a large genus of filamentous Fungi widely distributed in soil and in association with plants Ergot is the common name of a Fungus in the Genus Claviceps that is parasitic on certain grains and grasses Many ascomycetes species have only been observed undergoing asexual reproduction (called anamorphic species), but molecular data has often been able to identify their closest teleomorphs in the Ascomycota. Because the products of meiosis are retained within the sac-like ascus, several ascomyctes have been used for elucidating principles of genetics and heredity (e. g. Neurospora crassa). Neurospora crassa is a type of red bread mold of the phylum Ascomycota.
- Members of the Basidiomycota, commonly known as the club fungi or basidiomycetes, produce meiospores called basidiospores on club-like stalks called basidia. Basidiomycota is one of two large phyla that together with the Ascomycota, comprise the subkingdom Dikarya, which were in general what were called A basidiospore is a reproductive Spore produced by Basidiomycete Fungi. A basidium (pl basidia) is a microscopic spore-producing structure found on the Hymenophore of fruiting bodies of basidiomycete fungi Most common mushrooms belong to this group, as well as rust (fungus) and smut fungi, which are major pathogens of grains. A mushroom is the fleshy Spore -bearing Fruiting body of a Fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source Rusts are Fungi of the order Uredinales. Many of these species are plant Parasites. The smuts are fungi, mostly Ustilaginomycetes (of the class Teliomycetae, subphylum Basidiomycota) that cause Plant disease. Other important Basidiomyces include the maize pathogen,Ustilago maydis, human commensal species of the genus Malassezia, and the opportunistic human pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Corn smut is a disease of Maize caused by the pathogenic plant fungus Ustilago maydis. Malassezia (formerly known as Pityrosporum) is a genus of related Fungi, classified as Yeasts naturally found on the skin surfaces of many Cryptococcus neoformans is an encapsulated yeast-like Fungus that can live in both Plants and Animals This species also known by its
Phylogenetic relationships with other fungus-like organisms
Because of some similarities in morphology and lifestyle, the slime molds (myxomycetes) and water molds (oomycetes) were formerly classified in the kingdom Fungi. Unlike true fungi, however, the cell walls of these organisms contain cellulose and lack chitin. Slime molds are unikonts like fungi, but are grouped in the Amoebozoa. Unikonts are members of the Unikonta a taxonomic group proposed by Thomas Cavalier-Smith. The Amoebozoa are a major group of Amoeboid protozoa including the majority that move by means of internal Cytoplasmic flow Water molds are diploid bikonts, grouped in the Chromalveolate kingdom. A Bikont ("two flagella" is a eukaryotic cell with two Flagella, as its name suggests Chromalveolata is a Eukaryote supergroup first proposed by Thomas Cavalier-Smith as a refinement of his kingdom Chromista, which was first Neither water molds nor slime molds are closely related to the true fungi, and, therefore, taxonomists no longer group them in the kingdom Fungi. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos Nonetheless, studies of the oomycetes and myxomycetes are still often included in mycology textbooks and primary research literature. Mycology (from the Greek μύκης meaning "fungus" is the branch of Biology concerned with the study of fungi, including their genetic
It has been suggested that the nucleariids, currently grouped in the Choanozoa, may be a sister group to the oomycete clade, and as such could be included in an expanded fungal kingdom. The nucleariids are a small group of amoebae with filose pseudopods known mostly from soils and freshwater Choanozoa ( Greek: (choanos = "funnel" + (zōon = "animal" is the name of a Phylum of protists that belongs [97]
See also
- Bioaerosol
- Carnivorous fungus
- Entomopathogenic fungi
- Fusicoccin
- List of fungal orders
- MycoBank
- Plant pathology
- Wood-decay fungus
- Pathogenic fungi
Notes and references
- ^ "Taxonomic proposals for the classification of marine yeasts and other yeast-like fungi including the smuts" (1980). A bioaerosol is a biological Aerosol. These particles are very small and range in size from less than one micrometer (0 Carnivorous fungi or predaceous fungi are fungi that derive some or most of their Nutrients from trapping and digesting microscopic or other minute An entomopathogenic fungus is a Fungus that can act as a Parasite of Insects and kills or seriously disables them Fusicoccin is an Organic compound produced by a Fungus. It has detrimental effect on Plants and causes their Death. This article lists the orders of the Fungi. Phylum Ascomycota This section lists the orders of Fungi within the phylum MycoBank is an online database documenting new mycological names and combinations eventually combined with descriptions and illustrations A wood-decay fungus is a variety of Fungus which has the ability to digest Wood, causing it to Rot. Pathogenic fungi are Fungi that cause disease in humans or other Organisms The study of pathogenic fungi is referred to as medical mycology Bot. Mar. 23: 371.
- ^ These are the pronunciations listed first in most dictionaries. See, for example, the Merriam-Webster Online entry Alternative pronunciations for fungi include /ˈfʌŋgaɪ/, /ˈfʌndʒi/, and /ˈfʌŋgi/. Funguses (/ˈfʌŋgəsəz/) is an alternative plural form.
- ^ Simpson, D. P. (1979). Cassell's Latin Dictionary, 5, London: Cassell Ltd. , 883. ISBN 0-304-52257-0.
- ^ Hawksworth DL (2006). "The fungal dimension of biodiversity: magnitude, significance, and conservation". Mycol. Res. 95: 641–655.
- ^ Mueller GM, Schmit JP (2006). "Fungal biodiversity: what do we know? What can we predict?". Biodivers Conserv 16: 1–5. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
- ^ a b c d Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M (1996). Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0471522295.
- ^ Meredith Blackwell; Rytas Vilgalys, and John W. Taylor (2005-02-14). Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 842 - Charles the Bald and Louis the German swear the Oaths of Strasbourg in the French and German Eumycota: mushrooms, sac fungi, yeast, molds, rusts, smuts, etc. (English). Retrieved on 2007-04-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus
- ^ a b c d e Hibbett, D. S. , et al. (2007). "A higher level phylogenetic classification of the Fungi". Mycol. Res. 111 (5): 509–547. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
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- ^ Kitamoto N, Yoshino S, Ohmiya K, Tsukagoshi N. (1999). "Sequence analysis, overexpression, and antisense inhibition of a beta-xylosidase gene, xylA, from Aspergillus oryzae KBN616. ". Appl. Env. Microbiol. 65: 20–24. PMID 9872754.
- ^ Trichoderma spp., including T. harzianum, T. viride, T. koningii, T. hamatum and other spp. Deuteromycetes, Moniliales (asexual classification system). Biological Control: A Guide to Natural Enemies in North America. Retrieved on 2007-07-10. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 48 BC - Battle of Dyrrhachium, Julius Caesar barely avoids a catastrophic defeat to Pompey in Macedonia.
- ^ van Egmond HP, Schothorst RC, Jonker MA (2007). "Regulations relating to mycotoxins in food: perspectives in a global and European context". Anal Bioanal Chem. 389: 147–157. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17508207.
- ^ Keller NP, Turner G, Bennett JW (2005). "Fungal secondary metabolism - from biochemistry to genomics". Nat Rev Microbiol. 3: 937–497. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 16322742.
- ^ Demain AL, Fang A (2000). "The natural functions of secondary metabolites". Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol. 69: 1–39. PMID 11036689.
- ^ Rohlfs M, Albert M, Keller NP, Kempken F (2007). "Secondary chemicals protect mould from fungivory". Biol Lett. 3: 523–525. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 17686752.
- ^ Questions & Answers - Mold on Cheese whatscookingamerica. net. Retrieved 2007-04-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus
- ^ Erdogan A, Gurses M, Sert S. (2004). "Isolation of moulds capable of producing mycotoxins from blue mouldy Tulum cheeses produced in Turkey. ". Int J Food Microbiol. 85: 83–85. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document. PMID 12810273.
- ^ On the Trail of the Death Cap Mushroom Richard Harris, www. npr. org, 2007-02-08. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 421 - Constantius III becomes co- Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. Retrieved 2007-04-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus
- ^ Leathem AM, Dorran TJ (2007). "Poisoning due to raw Gyromitra esculenta (false morels) west of the Rockies". CJEM 9: 127–130. PMID 17391587.
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- ^ Mythology and Folklore of Fly Agaric Paul Kendall, Trees for Life. Retrieved 2007-04-06. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar defeats Caecilius Metellus Scipio and Marcus Porcius Cato in the Battle of Thapsus
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Further reading
- Alexopoulos, C. J. , Charles W. Mims, M. Blackwell et al. , Introductory Mycology, 4th ed. (John Wiley and Sons, Hoboken NJ, 2004) ISBN 0-471-52229-5
- Arora, David. (1986). "Mushrooms Demystified: A Comprehensive Guide to the Fleshy Fungi". 2nd ed. Ten Speed Press. ISBN 0898151694
- Deacon JW. (2005). "Fungal Biology" (4th ed). Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers. ISBN 1-4051-3066-0.
- Kaminstein D. (2002). Mushroom poisoning.
External links
- The WWW Virtual Library: Mycology
- MykoWeb
- Illinois Mycological Association Mycological Glossary
- Tree of Life web project: Fungi
- Fungal Biology, University of Sydney, School of Biological Sciences, June, 2004. The University of Sydney (informally Sydney Uni or USyd) is the oldest university in Australia – Online textbook
- The Fifth Kingdom – Online textbook
- CABI Bioscience Databases - Includes Index Fungorum genus and species names and top-down hierarchy
- Comparative Analysis of Fungal Genomes (at DOE's IMG system)
- Fungi Bioluminescence Laboratory - Chemistry Institute, University of São Paulo, Brazil
The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy The Integrated Microbial Genomes (IMG is a genome browsing and annotation system developed by the DOE- Joint Genome Institute.
Dictionary
fungus
-noun
- A category of eukaryotic organism, having cell walls but no chlorophyll. Fungi may be unicellular or multicellular.
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