Part of a series of articles on Nanomaterials

Fullerenes Carbon nanotubes Fullerene chemistry Applications In popular culture Timeline Carbon allotropes

Nanoparticles Quantum dots Nanostructures Colloidal gold Iron nanoparticles

See also Nanotechnology

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"C60" and "C-60" redirect here. Nanomaterials are application with morphological features smaller than a one tenth of a micrometre in at least one dimension See also Graphene, Buckypaper Carbon nanotubes (CNTs are Allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure that can have a length-to-diameter Fullerene chemistry is a field of Organic chemistry devoted to the chemical properties of Fullerenes. Carbon nanotubes have many potential applications, here is a list of some of the most important Structural clothes: waterproof The following is a list of references to Fullerenes in Popular culture. Timeline of Carbon nanotubes: 1952 Radushkevich and Lukyanovich publish a paper in the Russian Journal of Physical Chemistry This is a list of the Allotropes of Carbon. Diamond See also Diamond Diamond is one of the best known allotropes In Nanotechnology, a particle is defined as a small object that behaves as a whole unit in terms of its transport and properties A quantum dot is a Semiconductor whose Excitons are confined in all three Spatial dimensions. A nanostructure is an object of intermediate size between Molecular and Microscopic ( micrometer -sized Structures In describing nanostructures Colloidal gold, also known as "nanogold" is a suspension (or Colloid) of sub- Micrometre -sized particles of Gold in a fluid — usually Introduction Environmental contaminants cover US grounds These contaminants include polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs chlorinated organic solvents and organochlorine pesticides Nanotechnology, sometimes shortened to nanotech, refers to a field of Applied science whose theme is the control of matter on an Atomic and Molecular In Geometry, an icosahedron ( Greek: eikosaedron, from eikosi twenty + hedron seat /ˌaɪ Density functional theory (DFT is a quantum mechanical theory used in Physics and Chemistry to investigate the Electronic structure (principally For other uses, see C60 (disambiguation).

See also: Graphene and Fullerite

Fullerenes are a family of carbon allotropes, molecules composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, tube, or plane . Graphene is a one-atom-thick planar sheet of sp2-bonded Carbon atoms that are densely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice "C60" and "C-60" redirect here For other uses see C60 (disambiguation. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Allotropy (Gr allos, other and tropos, manner is a behavior exhibited by certain Chemical elements these elements can exist in two or more different In Chemistry, a molecule is defined as a sufficiently stable electrically neutral group of at least two Atoms in a definite arrangement held together by Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 "Globose" redirects here See also Globose nucleus. A sphere (from Greek σφαίρα - sphaira, "globe An ellipsoid is a type of quadric surface that is a higher dimensional analogue of an Ellipse. A cylinder is one of the most basic curvilinear geometric shapes the Surface formed by the points at a fixed distance from a given Straight line, the axis Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs, and cylindrical ones are called carbon nanotubes or buckytubes. See also Graphene, Buckypaper Carbon nanotubes (CNTs are Allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure that can have a length-to-diameter Graphene is an example of a planar fullerene sheet. Graphene is a one-atom-thick planar sheet of sp2-bonded Carbon atoms that are densely packed in a honeycomb crystal lattice Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked sheets of linked hexagonal rings, but may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings that would prevent a sheet from being planar. The Mineral graphite, as with Diamond and Fullerene, is one of the Allotropes of carbon.

Fullerenes were discovered in 1985 by Robert Curl, Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley at the University of Sussex and Rice University, and are named after Richard Buckminster Fuller. Year 1985 ( MCMLXXXV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link displays 1985 Gregorian calendar) Robert Floyd Curl Jr (born August 23, 1933) the son of a Methodist Minister is an Emeritus professor of Chemistry at Rice University Sir Harold (Harry Walter Kroto, FRS (born 7 October, 1939) is an English chemist and one of the 3 recipents to share the 1996 Richard Errett Smalley ( June 6, 1943 – October 28, 2005) was the Gene and Norman Hackerman Professor of Chemistry The University of Sussex is a British Campus university which is situated next to the East Sussex village of Falmer, and is from Brighton William Marsh Rice University (commonly called Rice University and opened in 1912 as The William Marsh Rice Institute for the Advancement of Letters Science and Art Richard Buckminster “Bucky” Fuller ( July 12, 1895 &ndash July 1, 1983) was an American Architect, Author

Contents 1 Prediction and discovery 1.1 Naming 2 Variations 3 Buckyballs 3.1 Buckminsterfullerene 3.2 Boron buckyball 3.3 Variations of buckyballs 4 Carbon nanotubes 4.1 Carbon nanobuds 5 Properties 5.1 Aromaticity 5.2 Chemistry 5.3 Solubility 5.4 Quantum mechanics 5.5 Safety 6 Examples of fullerenes in popular culture 7 Fullerite (solid state) 7.1 Ultrahard fullerite, Buckyball 8 See also 9 References 10 Further reading 11 External links

Prediction and discovery

In molecular beam experiments, discrete peaks were observed corresponding to molecules with the exact mass of sixty or seventy or more carbon atoms. Mass spectrometry is an analytical technique that identifies the chemical composition of a compound or sample based on the Mass-to-charge ratio of charged particles In 1985, Harold Kroto (then of the University of Sussex, now of Florida State University), James R. Heath, Sean O'Brien, Robert Curl and Richard Smalley, from Rice University, discovered C₆₀, and shortly thereafter came to discover the fullerenes. Sir Harold (Harry Walter Kroto, FRS (born 7 October, 1939) is an English chemist and one of the 3 recipents to share the 1996 The University of Sussex is a British Campus university which is situated next to the East Sussex village of Falmer, and is from Brighton Florida State University (commonly referred to as Florida State or FSU) is a public Research University located in Tallahassee James R Heath (*1962 is an American chemist and the Elizabeth W Sean O'Brien may refer to Seán O'Brien, Gaelic footballer Sean O'Brien (rugby player, Irish rugby union player Sean Robert Floyd Curl Jr (born August 23, 1933) the son of a Methodist Minister is an Emeritus professor of Chemistry at Rice University Richard Errett Smalley ( June 6, 1943 – October 28, 2005) was the Gene and Norman Hackerman Professor of Chemistry William Marsh Rice University (commonly called Rice University and opened in 1912 as The William Marsh Rice Institute for the Advancement of Letters Science and Art ^[1] Kroto, Curl, and Smalley were awarded the 1996 Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their roles in the discovery of this class of compounds. The Nobel Prize in Chemistry (Nobelpriset i kemi is awarded annually by the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences to scientists in the various fields of Chemistry. C₆₀ and other fullerenes were later noticed occurring outside the laboratory (e. g. , in normal candle soot). A candle is a Light source and sometimes a Heat source consisting of a solid block of Fuel and an embedded wick. Soot (ˈsʊt is a general term that refers to the black impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon By 1991, it was relatively easy to produce gram-sized samples of fullerene powder using the techniques of Donald Huffman and Wolfgang Krätschmer. Year 1991 ( MCMXCI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar. Fullerene purification remains a challenge to chemists and to a large extent determines fullerene prices. Fullerene chemistry is a field of Organic chemistry devoted to the chemical properties of Fullerenes. So-called endohedral fullerenes have ions or small molecules incorporated inside the cage atoms. Fullerene is an unusual reactant in many organic reactions such as the Bingel reaction discovered in 1993. Organic reactions are Chemical reactions involving Organic compounds The basic Organic chemistry reaction types are Addition reactions Elimination The Bingel reaction in Fullerene chemistry is a Fullerene cyclopropanation reaction to a methanofullerene first discovered by C

Minute quantities of the Buckminsterfullerenes, in the form of C₆₀, C₇₀, C₇₆, and C₈₄ molecules, are produced in nature, hidden in soot and formed by lightning discharges in the atmosphere. Soot (ˈsʊt is a general term that refers to the black impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon ^[2] Recently, Buckminsterfullerenes were found in a family of minerals known as Shungites in Karelia, Russia. Karelia ( Karelian and Finnish Karjala, Карелия ( Kareliya) Karelen the land of the Karelian peoples, is an area in

The existence of C₆₀ was predicted in 1970 by Eiji Osawa of Toyohashi University of Technology. He noticed that the structure of a corannulene molecule was a subset of a soccer-ball shape, and he made the hypothesis that a full ball shape could also exist. Corannulene is a Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon with Chemical formula C 20 H 10 His idea was reported in Japanese magazines, but did not reach Europe or America.

Naming

Buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀) was named after Richard Buckminster Fuller, a noted architect who popularized the geodesic dome. Richard Buckminster “Bucky” Fuller ( July 12, 1895 &ndash July 1, 1983) was an American Architect, Author A geodesic dome is an almost spherical shell structure based on a network of Great circles ( Geodesics lying approximately on the surface of a Sphere Since buckminsterfullerenes have a similar shape to that sort of dome, the name was thought to be appropriate. As the discovery of the fullerene family came after buckminsterfullerene, the name was shortened to illustrate that the latter is a type of the former.

For illustrations of geodesic dome structures, see Montreal Biosphere, Eden Project, Missouri Botanical Garden, Science World at Telus World of Science, Mitchell Park Horticultural Conservatory, Gold Dome, Tacoma Dome, Reunion Tower, and Spaceship Earth (Disney). The Biosphère ( of Environment Canada is a museum in Montreal dedicated to Water and the environment. The Eden Project is a visitor attraction including the world's largest greenhouse The Missouri Botanical Garden is a Botanical garden located in St TELUS World of Science Vancouver is a science centre run by a non-profit organization in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada. Mitchell Park Horticultural Conservatory ( Mitchell Park Domes or The Domes) is a conservatory located at Mitchell Park in Milwaukee, Wisconsin The Gold Dome is a Geodesic dome in Oklahoma City, United States, considered to be a major landmark The Tacoma Dome (constructed by Tacoma Dome Associates led by McGranahan Messenger Architects a design build entity is an indoor arena located in Tacoma __FORCETOC__ Reunion Tower is a 560 foot (171  m) Observation tower and one of the most recognizable landmarks in Dallas, Texas Spaceship Earth is the iconic and symbolic structure of Epcot, a Theme park that is part of the Walt Disney World Resort.

Variations

Since the discovery of fullerenes in 1985, structural variations on fullerenes have evolved well beyond the individual clusters themselves. Examples include:^[3]

• buckyball clusters: smallest member is C₂₀ (dodecahedrane) and the most common is C₆₀;
• nanotubes: hollow tubes of very small dimensions, having single or multiple walls; potential applications in electronics industry;
• megatubes: larger in diameter than nanotubes and prepared with walls of different thickness; potentially used for the transport of a variety of molecules of different sizes;^[4]
• polymers: chain, two-dimensional and three-dimensional polymers are formed under high pressure high temperature conditions
• nano"onions": spherical particles based on multiple carbon layers surrounding a buckyball core; proposed for lubricants;^[5]
• linked "ball-and-chain" dimers: two buckyballs linked by a carbon chain;^[6]
• fullerene rings^[7]

Buckyballs

Buckminsterfullerene

Buckminsterfullerene (IUPAC name (C₆₀-I_h)[5,6]fullerene) is the smallest fullerene molecule in which no two pentagons share an edge (which can be destabilizing; see pentalene). Dodecahedrane is a Chemical compound (C20H20 first synthesised by Leo Paquette of Ohio State University in 1982 primarily The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC) (aɪjuːpæk or ay-yoo-pec) is an international Non-governmental organization Pentalene is a polycyclic Hydrocarbon composed of two fused Cyclopentadiene rings It is also the most common in terms of natural occurrence, as it can often be found in soot. Soot (ˈsʊt is a general term that refers to the black impure carbon particles resulting from the incomplete combustion of a hydrocarbon

The structure of C₆₀ is a truncated (T = 3) icosahedron, which resembles a soccer ball of the type made of twenty hexagons and twelve pentagons, with a carbon atom at the vertices of each polygon and a bond along each polygon edge. The truncated icosahedron is an Archimedean solid. It comprises 12 regular pentagonal faces 20 regular hexagonal faces 60 vertices and 90 edges A football is a Ball used to play one of the various sports known as Football.

The van der Waals diameter of a C₆₀ molecule is about 1 nanometer (nm). Van der Waals Volume The van der Waals volume, V, also called the atomic volume or molecular volume, is the atomic property most directly A nanometre ( American spelling: nanometer, symbol nm) ( Greek: νάνος nanos dwarf; μετρώ metrό count) is a The nucleus to nucleus diameter of a C₆₀ molecule is about 0. 7 nm.

The C₆₀ molecule has two bond lengths. The 6:6 ring bonds (between two hexagons) can be considered "double bonds" and are shorter than the 6:5 bonds (between a hexagon and a pentagon).

Boron buckyball

A new type of buckyball utilizing boron atoms instead of the usual carbon has been predicted and described by researchers at Rice University. Boron (ˈbɔərɒn is a Chemical element with Atomic number 5 and the chemical symbol B. The B-80 structure is predicted to be more stable than the C-60 buckyball. ^[8] One reason for this given by the researchers is that the B-80 is actually more like the original geodesic dome structure popularized by Buckminster Fuller which utilizes triangles rather than hexagons.

Variations of buckyballs

Another fairly common buckminsterfullerene is C₇₀,^[9] but fullerenes with 72, 76, 84 and even up to 100 carbon atoms are commonly obtained.

In mathematical terms, the structure of a fullerene is a trivalent convex polyhedron with pentagonal and hexagonal faces. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and In Chemistry, valence, also known as valency or valency number, is a measure of the number of Chemical bonds formed by the Atoms What is a polyhedron? We can at least say that a polyhedron is built up from different kinds of element or entity each associated with a different number of dimensions In graph theory, the term fullerene refers to any 3-regular, planar graph with all faces of size 5 or 6 (including the external face). In Mathematics and Computer science, graph theory is the study of graphs: mathematical structures used to model pairwise relations between objects In Graph theory, a regular graph is a graph where each vertex has the same number of neighbors i Kuratowski's and Wagner's theorems The Polish mathematician Kazimierz Kuratowski provided a characterization of planar graphs in terms of Forbidden It follows from Euler's polyhedron formula, |V|-|E|+|F| = 2, (where |V|, |E|, |F| indicate the number of vertices, edges, and faces), that there are exactly 12 pentagons in a fullerene and |V|/2-10 hexagons. In Mathematics, and more specifically in Algebraic topology and Polyhedral combinatorics, the Euler characteristic is a Topological invariant

The smallest fullerene is the dodecahedron--the unique C₂₀. A dodecahedron is any Polyhedron with twelve faces but usually a regular dodecahedron is meant a Platonic solid composed of twelve regular Pentagonal There are no fullerenes with 22 vertices. The number of fullerenes C_2n grows with increasing n = 12,13,14. . . , roughly in proportion to n⁹. For instance, there are 1812 non-isomorphic fullerenes C₆₀. Note that only one form of C₆₀, the buckminsterfullerene alias truncated icosahedron, has no pair of adjacent pentagons (the smallest such fullerene). The truncated icosahedron is an Archimedean solid. It comprises 12 regular pentagonal faces 20 regular hexagonal faces 60 vertices and 90 edges To further illustrate the growth, there are 214,127,713 non-isomorphic fullerenes C₂₀₀, 15,655,672 of which have no adjacent pentagons.

TRIMETASPHERE® carbon nanomaterials were discovered by researchers at Virginia Tech and licensed exclusively to Luna Innovations. Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, better known as Virginia Tech, is a public land grant polytechnic University in Luna Innovations is a company that develops and manufactures products for the healthcare telecommunications energy and defense markets This class of novel molecules comprises 80 carbon atoms (C80) forming a sphere which encloses a complex of three metal atoms and one nitrogen atom. These fullerenes encapsulate metals which puts them in the subset referred to as metallofullerenes. Metallofullerenes are spherical molecular structures made of carbon and metal TRIMETASPHERES have the potential for use in diagnostics (as safe imaging agents), therapeutics and in organic solar cells.

Carbon nanotubes

Main article: Carbon nanotube

Nanotubes are cylindrical fullerenes. See also Graphene, Buckypaper Carbon nanotubes (CNTs are Allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure that can have a length-to-diameter These tubes of carbon are usually only a few nanometres wide, but they can range from less than a micrometer to several millimeters in length. They often have closed ends, but can be open-ended as well. There are also cases in which the tube reduces in diameter before closing off. Their unique molecular structure results in extraordinary macroscopic properties, including high tensile strength, high electrical conductivity, high ductility, high resistance to heat, and relative chemical inactivity (as it is cylindrical and "planar"—that is, it has no "exposed" atoms that can be easily displaced). One proposed use of carbon nanotubes is in paper batteries, developed in 2007 by researchers at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute. A paper battery is a battery engineered to use a paper-thin sheet of Cellulose (which is the major constituent of regular paper among other things infused with aligned Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, or RPI, is a Nonsectarian private Research University located in Troy, New York ^[10]

Carbon nanobuds

Main article: Carbon nanobud

Nanobuds have been obtained by adding Buckminsterfullerenes to carbon nanotubes. In nanotechnology Carbon nanobuds form a material (discovered in 2007 which combines two previously discovered Allotropes of carbon: Carbon nanotubes and

Properties

For the past decade, the chemical and physical properties of fullerenes have been a hot topic in the field of research and development, and are likely to continue to be for a long time. Popular Science has published articles about the possible uses of fullerenes in armor. For the 1935-1949 film series see Popular Science (film. Popular Science is an American monthly Magazine founded in 1872 Armour (or armor) is protective covering most commonly manufactured from metals to prevent damage from being inflicted to an individual or a vehicle through use of direct contact In April 2003, fullerenes were under study for potential medicinal use: binding specific antibiotics to the structure to target resistant bacteria and even target certain cancer cells such as melanoma. Nanomedicine is the medical application of Nanotechnology. The approaches to nanomedicine range from the medical use of Nanomaterials, to nanoelectronic In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Cancer (medical term Malignant Neoplasm) is a class of Diseases in which a group of cells display uncontrolled Melanoma is a Malignant Tumor of Melanocytes which are found predominantly in skin but also in the Bowel and the Eye (see The October 2005 issue of Chemistry and Biology contains an article describing the use of fullerenes as light-activated antimicrobial agents. An antimicrobial is a substance that kills or inhibits the growth of Microbes such as Bacteria, Fungi, or Viruses. ^[11]

In the field of nanotechnology, heat resistance and superconductivity are some of the more heavily studied properties. Nanotechnology, sometimes shortened to nanotech, refers to a field of Applied science whose theme is the control of matter on an Atomic and Molecular In Physics, thermal conductivity, k is the property of a material that indicates its ability to conduct Heat. Superconductivity is a phenomenon occurring in certain Materials generally at very low Temperatures characterized by exactly zero electrical resistance

A common method used to produce fullerenes is to send a large current between two nearby graphite electrodes in an inert atmosphere. The Mineral graphite, as with Diamond and Fullerene, is one of the Allotropes of carbon. In English to be inert is to be in a state of doing little or nothing The resulting carbon plasma arc between the electrodes cools into sooty residue from which many fullerenes can be isolated. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 In Physics and Chemistry, plasma is an Ionized Gas, in which a certain proportion of Electrons are free rather than being bound

There are many calculations that have been done using ab-initio Quantum Methods applied to fullerenes. By DFT and TD-DFT methods one can obtain IR, Raman and UV spectra. Density functional theory (DFT is a quantum mechanical theory used in Physics and Chemistry to investigate the Electronic structure (principally Time-dependent density functional theory (TDDFT is a quantum mechanical method used inphysics and chemistry to investigate the proprieties of many-body systems beyond the ground statestructure Infrared spectroscopy (IR spectroscopy is the subset of Spectroscopy that deals with the Infrared region of the Electromagnetic spectrum. Raman spectroscopy (pronounced S— is a spectroscopic technique used in Condensed matter physics and Chemistry to study vibrational rotational and Ultraviolet-visible spectroscopy or ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry ( UV/ VIS) involves the Spectroscopy of Photons in the UV-visible Results of such calculations can be compared with experimental results.

Aromaticity

Researchers have been able to increase the reactivity of fullerenes by attaching active groups to their surfaces. Buckminsterfullerene does not exhibit "superaromaticity": that is, the electrons in the hexagonal rings do not delocalize over the whole molecule. In chemistry delocalized electrons are Electrons in a Molecule that are not associated with a single Atom or to a Covalent bond.

A spherical fullerene of n carbon atoms has n pi-bonding electrons. In Chemistry, pi bonds ( π bonds) are covalent Chemical bonds where two lobes of one involved electron orbital overlap two lobes These should try to delocalize over the whole molecule. The quantum mechanics of such an arrangement should be like one shell only of the well-known quantum mechanical structure of a single atom, with a stable filled shell for n = 2, 8, 18, 32, 50, 72, 98, 128, etc. ; i. e. twice a perfect square; but this series does not include 60. This article refers to the REM live recording For the mathematical term see Perfect square. As a result, C₆₀ in water tends to pick up two more electrons and become an anion. An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge The nC₆₀ described below may be the result of C₆₀'s trying to form a loose metallic bonding. Although the term metallic bond is often used in contrast to the term Covalent bond it is better to speak of metallic bonding, because this type of bonding is

Chemistry

Main article: Fullerene chemistry

Fullerenes are stable, but not totally unreactive. Fullerene chemistry is a field of Organic chemistry devoted to the chemical properties of Fullerenes. The sp²-hybridized carbon atoms, which are at their energy minimum in planar graphite, must be bent to form the closed sphere or tube, which produces angle strain. The presence of angle strain in a Molecule indicates that in a specific Chemical conformation there exist Bond angles that deviate from the ideal bond angles The characteristic reaction of fullerenes is electrophilic addition at 6,6-double bonds, which reduces angle strain by changing sp²-hybridized carbons into sp³-hybridized ones. In Organic chemistry, an electrophilic addition reaction is an Addition reaction where in a Chemical compound, a Pi bond is removed by the creation [1] The change in hybridized orbitals causes the bond angles to decrease from about 120 degrees in the sp² orbitals to about 109. An atomic orbital is a Mathematical function that describes the wave-like behavior of an electron in an atom 5 degrees in the sp³ orbitals. This decrease in bond angles allows for the bonds to bend less when closing the sphere or tube, and thus, the molecule becomes more stable.

Other atoms can be trapped inside fullerenes to form inclusion compounds known as endohedral fullerenes. In Host-guest chemistry an inclusion compound is a complex in which one Chemical compound (the "host" forms a cavity in which molecules of a An unusual example is the egg shaped fullerene Tb₃N@C₈₄, which violates the isolated pentagon rule. ^[12] Recent evidence for a meteor impact at the end of the Permian period was found by analysing noble gases so preserved. The Permian is a geologic period and system that extends from 299 History Noble gas is translated from the German noun de ''Edelgas'' first used in 1898 by Hugo Erdmann to indicate their extremely low level of reactivity ^[13] Metallofullerene-based inoculates using the rhonditic steel process are beginning production as one of the first commercially-viable uses of buckyballs. Metallofullerenes are spherical molecular structures made of carbon and metal Rhondite is a Nano -scale helical Carbon -based structure that may be used in the production of Steels and Alloys to increase cohesion strength

Solubility

Fullerenes are sparingly soluble in many solvents. A solvent is a liquid or gas that dissolves a solid liquid or gaseous Solute, resulting in a Solution. Common solvents for the fullerenes include aromatics, such as toluene, and others like carbon disulfide. Toluene, also known as methylbenzene or phenylmethane, is a clear water -insoluble liquid with the typical smell of Paint thinners redolent of Solutions of pure Buckminsterfullerene have a deep purple color. Solutions of C₇₀ are a reddish brown. The higher fullerenes C₇₆ to C₈₄ have a variety of colors. C₇₆ has two optical forms, while other higher fullerenes have several structural isomers. Fullerenes are the only known allotrope of carbon that can be dissolved in common solvents at room temperature. Allotropy (Gr allos, other and tropos, manner is a behavior exhibited by certain Chemical elements these elements can exist in two or more different

Some fullerene structures are not soluble because they have a small band gap between the ground and excited states. In Solid state physics and related applied fields a band gap, also called an energy gap or bandgap, is an energy range in a solid where no electron states Excitation is an elevation in energy level above an arbitrary baseline energy state These include the small fullerenes C₂₈,^[14] C₃₆ and C₅₀. The C₇₂ structure is also in this class, but the endohedral version with a trapped lanthanide-group atom is soluble due to the interaction of the metal atom and the electronic states of the fullerene. Terminology The Trivial name " Rare earths " is sometimes used to describe all the lanthanoids together with Scandium and Yttrium Researchers had originally been puzzled by C₇₂ being absent in fullerene plasma-generated soot extract, but found in endohedral samples. Small band gap fullerenes are highly reactive and bind to other fullerenes or to soot particles.

Solvents that are able to dissolve buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀) are listed below in order from highest solubility. The value in parentheses is the approximate saturated concentration. ^[15]

1. 1-chloronaphthalene (51 mg/mL)
2. 1-methylnaphthalene (33 mg/mL)
3. 1,2-dichlorobenzene (24 mg/mL)
4. 1,2,4-trimethylbenzene (18 mg/mL)
5. tetrahydronaphthalene (16 mg/mL)
6. carbon disulfide (8 mg/mL)
7. 1,2,3-tribromopropane (8 mg/mL)
8. bromoform (5 mg/mL)
9. toluene (3 mg/ml)
10. benzene (1. Tetralin (1234-Tetrahydronaphthalene is a Hydrocarbon having the chemical formula C10H12 Bromoform (CHBr3 is a pale yellowish liquid with a sweet odor similar to chloroform a Halomethane or haloform Toluene, also known as methylbenzene or phenylmethane, is a clear water -insoluble liquid with the typical smell of Paint thinners redolent of Benzene, or benzol, is an organic Chemical compound and a known Carcinogen with the molecular formula C 6 H 6 5 mg/ml)
11. cyclohexane (1. Cyclohexane is a Cycloalkane with the Molecular formula C 6 H 12 2 mg/ml)
12. carbon tetrachloride (0. Carbon tetrachloride, also known by many other names (see Table is the Organic compound with the formula CCl4 4 mg/ml)
13. chloroform (0. Chloroform, also known as trichloromethane and methyl trichloride, is a Chemical compound with formula C[[Hydrogen H]] Cl 25 mg/ml)
14. n-hexane (0. Hexane is an Alkane Hydrocarbon with the Chemical formula CH3(CH24CH3 or C6H14 046 mg/ml)
15. tetrahydrofuran (0. "THF" redirects here For other uses see THF (disambiguation. 006 mg/ml)
16. acetonitrile (0. Acetonitrile (ACN is the Chemical compound with formula CH3CN 004 mg/ml)
17. methanol (0. Methanol, also known as methyl alcohol, carbinol, wood alcohol, wood naphtha or wood spirits, is a Chemical compound 00004 mg/ml)
18. water (1. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. 3x10^-11 mg/mL)

Solubility of C₆₀ in some solvents shows unusual behaviour due to existence of solvate phases (analogues of crystallohydrates). For example, solubility of C₆₀ in benzene solution shows maximum at about 313 K. Benzene, or benzol, is an organic Chemical compound and a known Carcinogen with the molecular formula C 6 H 6 Crystallization from benzene solution at temperatures below maximum results in formation of triclinic solid solvate with four benzene molecules C₆₀•4C₆H₆ which is rather unstable in air. Out of solution, this structure decomposes into usual fcc C₆₀ in few minutes' time. At temperatures above solubility maximum the solvate is not stable even when immersed in saturated solution and melts with formation of fcc C₆₀. Crystallization at temperatures above the solubility maximum results in formation of pure fcc C₆₀. Large millimetre size crystals of C₆₀ and C₇₀ can be grown from solution both for solvates and for pure fullerenes. ^[16][17]

Quantum mechanics

In 1999, researchers from the University of Vienna demonstrated that the wave-particle duality applied to molecules such as fullerene. In Physics and Chemistry, wave–particle duality is the concept that all Matter and Energy exhibits both Wave -like and ^[18] One of the co-authors of this research, Julian Voss-Andreae, became an artist and has since created several sculptures symbolizing wave-particle duality in Buckminsterfullerenes. The following is a list of references to Fullerenes in Popular culture.

Science writer Marcus Chown stated on the CBC radio show "Quirks And Quarks" in May 2006 that scientists are trying to make buckyballs exhibit the quantum behavior of existing in two places at once (quantum superposition). Quantum superposition is the fundamental law of Quantum mechanics. ^[19]

Safety

Moussa et al. (1996, 1997) studied the in vivo toxicity of C₆₀ after intra-peritoneal administration of large doses. No evidence of toxicity was found and the mice tolerated a dose of 5000 mg/kg of body weight (BW). Mori et al. (2006) confirmed the absence of toxicity in rodents for C₆₀ and C₇₀ mixtures after oral administration of a dose of 2000 mg/kg BW and showed no evidence of genotoxic or mutagenic potential in vitro. Recently, many studies have shown fullerenes to be non-toxic, on the contrary, Gharbi et al. (2005) showed that aqueous C₆₀ suspensions not only have no acute or subacute toxicity in rodents but they also protect their livers in a dose-dependent manner against free-radical damage. A comprehensive and recent review on fullerene toxicity is given by Kolosnjaj et al. (2007). These authors review the works on fullerene toxicity beginning in the early 1990's to present, and conclude that the evidence gathered since the discovery of fullerenes overwhelmingly suggests that C₆₀ is non-toxic.

References on safety

• Moussa F. et al. (1996) Fullerene Sci. Technol. 4, pp. 21-29.
• Moussa F. et al. (1997) Proc. Electrochem. Soc. 5, pp. 332-336.
• Mori T. et al. (2006) Toxicology 225, pp. 48–54.
• Gharbi N. et al. (2005) Nano Letters vol. 5, No. 12, pp. 2578-2585.
• Kolosnjaj J. et al. (2007) Toxicity studies of fullerenes and derivatives. In: Bioapplications of nanoparticles. Eds WC Chan, Landes Biosciences, Toronto, On, CA. 2007, Chap 13, pp. 168-180.

Examples of fullerenes in popular culture

Main article: Fullerenes in popular culture

Examples of fullerenes in popular culture are numerous. The following is a list of references to Fullerenes in Popular culture. Popular culture (or pop culture) is the Culture — patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities significance and importance — Fullerenes appeared in fiction well before scientists took serious interest in them. It is the topic of a science fiction book named Decipher written by Stel Pavlou. In New Scientist there used to be a weekly column called "Daedalus" written by David Jones, which contained humorous descriptions of unlikely technologies. New Scientist is a weekly International science magazine and website covering recent developments in science and technology for a general English -speaking In 1966 the columnist included a description of C₆₀ and other forms of graphite. This was meant as pure entertainment. Also in New Scientist magazine, a free book was enclosed entitled, "100 Things to Do Before You Die", one of which was to kick a buckyball. The buckyball is the state molecule of Texas. Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. ^[20] Bucky Balls were also mentioned in A&E's 2008 remake of The Andromeda Strain, which is based on the Michael Crichton novel of the same name; other novels to make mention of them include Kim Stanley Robinson's Mars Trilogy and Neal Stephenson's The Diamond Age. The Andromeda Strain (1969 by Michael Crichton, is a Techno-thriller Novel documenting the efforts of a team of scientists investigating John Michael Crichton, ˈkraɪtən, (born October 23 1942 is an American author Film producer, Film director, Medical doctor, and Television producer Kim Stanley Robinson (born March 23 1952) is an American Science fiction Writer, probably best known for his award-winning Neal Town Stephenson (born October 31, 1959) is an American writer known primarily for his Science fiction works in the Postcyberpunk genre The Diamond Age or A Young Lady's Illustrated Primer is a Postcyberpunk Novel by Neal Stephenson.

Fullerite (solid state)

Fullerites are the solid-state manifestation of fullerenes and related compounds and materials.

Polymerized single walled nanotubes (P-SWNT) are a class of fullerites and are comparable to diamond in terms of hardness. A polymer is a large Molecule ( Macromolecule) composed of repeating Structural units typically connected by Covalent Chemical bonds See also Graphene, Buckypaper Carbon nanotubes (CNTs are Allotropes of carbon with a nanostructure that can have a length-to-diameter In Mineralogy, diamond is the allotrope of carbon where the carbon atoms are arranged in Hardness refers to various properties of Matter in the Solid phase that give it high resistance to various kinds of shape change when Force However, due to the way that nanotubes intertwine, P-SWNTs do not have the corresponding crystal lattice that makes it possible to cut diamonds neatly. In Mineralogy and Crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of Atoms in a Crystal. This same structure results in a less brittle material, as any impact that the structure sustains is spread out throughout the material. Because nanotubes are still very expensive to produce in useful quantities, uses for a material lighter and stronger than steel will have to wait until nanotube production becomes more economically viable. Steel is an Alloy consisting mostly of Iron, with a Carbon content between 0 Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services.

Ultrahard fullerite, Buckyball

Ultrahard fullerite (C₆₀) is a form of carbon synthesized under high pressure high temperature conditions. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 It is believed that fullerene molecules are three-dimensionally polymerized in this material. ^[21]

See also

• Atomic carbon
• Buckypaper
• Prismane C8
• Truncated rhombic triacontahedron

References

Further reading

• Aldersey-Williams, Hugh (1995). The Most Beautiful Molecule: The Discovery of the Buckyball. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 0-471-19333-X.  

External links

• Pharmacological Studies on Fullerene (C60), a Novel Carbon Allotrope, and Its Derivatives
• Fullerenes in solution: about anomalous temperature dependence of solubility and solid solvates of fullerenes
• Fullerene and nanotube Gallery
• Properties of C60 fullerene
• [2]
• Buckyball Workshops by Sir Harry Kroto and the Vega Science Trust
• Center for Nanoscale Science and Technology
• Center for Biological and Environmental Nanotechnology
• Dr. Smalley's brief autobiography
• Dr. Smalley's webpage
• Sir Harry Kroto's webpage
• Interview with James R. Heath, discussing the discovery of C₆₀
• Diffraction and Interference with Fullerenes: Wave-particle duality of C60, University of Vienna
• Fullerene-based architectures for quantum computing in Germany and in Great Britain at the QIP IRC
• Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk See Buckminsterfullerene (C₆₀) in 3D
• Computational Chemistry Wiki
• A Spherical Revelation
• C₆₀ 3D-view and pdb-file
• Simple model of Fullerene.
• Story on "Buckyeggs" (UC Davis website)
• Stainless Steel Buckminster Fullerenes
• Rhonditic Steel
• Introduction to fullerites
• Introduction to P-SWNT
• Fullerene Supplier : [3]

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