The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a period of political and social upheaval in the political history of France and Europe as a whole, during which the French governmental structure, previously an absolute monarchy with feudal privileges for the aristocracy and Catholic clergy, underwent radical change to forms based on Enlightenment principles of nationalism, citizenship, and inalienable rights. The History of France has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the list to the right Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western For Gaul before the Roman conquest see Gaul. Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in the Roman Empire, in modern day The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group France in the Middle Ages covers an area roughly corresponding to modern day France, from the death of Charlemagne in 814 to the middle of the 15th Early Modern France is the Early modern period of French history from the end of the 15th century to the end of the 18th century (or from the French Renaissance The History of France from 1789 to 1914 ( The long 19th century) extends from the French Revolution to World War I and includes The cause of the French Revolution is a significant subject of Historical debate The Estates-General (or States-General) of 1789 (Les États-Généraux de 1789 was the first meeting since 1614 of the French Estates-General The National Assembly of France is the lower legislative house under the French Fifth Republic. The Storming of the Bastille in Paris occurred on 14 July 1789. The National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante was formed from the National Assembly on 9 July 1789, during the first stages of the The National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante was formed from the National Assembly on 9 July 1789, during the first stages of the The French Revolution was a period in the History of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon The Civil Constitution of the Clergy divided the French people During the French Revolution, the Legislative Assembly was the legislature of France from October 1 1791 to September 1792. The French Revolution was a period in the History of France covering the years 1789 to 1799 in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly Saint justjpg|thumbnail|200px| Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just]] The Reign of Terror' (5 September 1793 &ndash 28 July 1794 or simply The Terror (la Terreur was The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the The War in Vendée ( 1793 to 1796) was a Civil war in Vendée between Royalists and Republicans during the French The Chouannerie was a royalist uprising in twelve of the western departements of France (particularly Brittany and Maine) against the French This is a glossary of the French Revolution. It generally does not explicate names of individual people or their political associations those can be found in List of people associated The following is a Timeline of the French Revolution Events preceding but pertinent to the French Revolution The Enlightenment, which led to many The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1792 until 1802 fought between the French Revolutionary government and several European states This is a partial '''list''' of people associated with the French Revolution, including supporters and opponents The French Revolution stretches back over two hundred years prior to the event itself The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814 the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne The July Monarchy (1830-1848 was a period of liberal monarchy rule of France under Louis-Philippe History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The History of France from 1914 to the present includes the later years of the Third Republic (1871–1941 World War I (1914–18 Political history is the narrative and analysis of political events ideas movements and leaders This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Absolute monarchy is a monarchical Form of government where the king and queen have absolute power over everything Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations Clergy is the generic term used to describe the formal religious leadership within a given Religion. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation
Changes were accompanied by violent turmoil, including executions and repression during the Reign of Terror, and warfare involving every other major European power. Saint justjpg|thumbnail|200px| Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just]] The Reign of Terror' (5 September 1793 &ndash 28 July 1794 or simply The Terror (la Terreur was The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1792 until 1802 fought between the French Revolutionary government and several European states Subsequent events that can be traced to the Revolution include the Napoleonic Wars, the restoration of the monarchy, and two additional revolutions as modern France took shape. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions The term modern period or modern era (sometimes also modern times) is the period of history that followed the Middle Ages between c This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics.
In the following century, France would be governed variously as a republic, dictatorship, constitutional monarchy, and two different empires. A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its A dictatorship is usually defined as an autocratic Form of government in which the Government is ruled by a Dictator. A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is An empire (from the Latin " Imperium " denoting military Command within the ancient Roman government) is a State that
Causes
Historians disagree about the political and socioeconomic nature of the Revolution. The cause of the French Revolution is a significant subject of Historical debate Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions Socioeconomics or socio-economics is the study of the relationship between economic activity and Social life. Traditional Marxist interpretations, such as that presented by Georges Lefebvre,[1] described the revolution as the result of the clash between a feudalistic noble class and the capitalist bourgeois class. Georges Lefebvre ( 6 August 1874 &ndash 28 August 1959) was a French Historian, best known for his work on the French Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Some historians argue that the old aristocratic order of the Ancien Régime succumbed to an alliance of the rising bourgeoisie, aggrieved peasants, and urban wage-earners. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in
Yet another interpretation asserts that the revolution resulted when various aristocratic and bourgeois reform movements spun out of control. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations According to this model, these movements coincided with popular movements of the new wage-earning classes and the provincial peasantry, but any alliance between classes was contingent and incidental.
But adherents of most historical models identify many of the same features of the Ancien Régime as being among the causes of the Revolution. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in Economic factors included:
- Louis XV fought many wars, bringing France to the verge of bankruptcy, and Louis XVI supported the colonists during the American Revolution, exacerbating the precarious financial condition of the government. Louis XV (15 February 1710 &ndash 10 May 1774 ruled as King of France and of Navarre from 1 September 1715 until his death in 1774 Bankruptcy is a legally declared inability or impairment of ability of an individual or organization to pay their Creditors Creditors may file a bankruptcy petition against Louis XVI ( 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) Louis-Auguste de France, ruled as King of France and Navarre In this article the inhabitants of the thirteen colonies that supported the American Revolution are primarily referred to as "Americans" with occasional references to "Patriots" The national debt amounted to almost 2 billion livres. The livre tournois (" Tours pound " was one of numerous currencies used in France in the Middle Ages; and a money of The social burdens caused by war included the huge war debt, made worse by the monarchy's military failures and ineptitude, and the lack of social services for war veterans.
- An inefficient and antiquated financial system unable to manage the national debt, both caused and exacerbated by the burden of a grossly inequitable system of taxation. Government debt (also known as public debt or national debt) is Money (or credit) owed by any level of government either Central government
- The Roman Catholic Church, the largest landowner in the country, which levied a tax on crops known as the dîme. A tithe (from Old English teogoþa "tenth" is a one-tenth part of something paid as a (usually voluntary contribution or as a Tax or levy While the dîme lessened the severity of the monarchy's tax increases, it worsened the plight of the poorest who faced a daily struggle with malnutrition.
- The continued conspicuous consumption of the noble class, especially the court of Louis XVI and Marie-Antoinette at Versailles, despite the financial burden on the populace. Conspicuous consumption is a term used to describe the lavish spending on goods and services acquired mainly for the purpose of displaying Income or Wealth. Louis XVI ( 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) Louis-Auguste de France, ruled as King of France and Navarre Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna von Habsburg-Lothringen (November 2 1755 &ndash October 16 1793 known to history as Marie Antoinette ( pronounced /maʀi ɑ̃ntwanɛt/ Versailles (vɛʀsaj in French) formerly de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important
- High unemployment and high bread prices, causing more money to be spent on food and less in other areas of the economy. Unemployment occurs when a person is available to work and currently seeking work but the person is without work.
- Widespread famine and malnutrition, which increased the likelihood of disease and death, and intentional starvation in the most destitute segments of the population in the months immediately before the Revolution. A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation Malnutrition is a general term for a medical condition caused by an improper or insufficient diet. A disease is an abnormal condition of an organism that impairs bodily functions and can be deadly Starvation (also called inanition) is a severe reduction in Vitamin, Nutrient, and Energy intake and is the most extreme form of The famine extended even to other parts of Europe, and was not helped by a poor transportation infrastructure for bulk foods. (Some researchers have also attributed the widespread famine to an El Niño effect,[2] or colder climate of the little ice age combined with France's failure to adopt the potato as a staple crop[3])
The Ideals: Declaration of Human Rights. El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO; commonly referred to as simply El Niño) is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon The Little Ice Age (LIA was a period of cooling occurring after a warmer era known as the Medieval Warm Period or Medieval Climate Optimum The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae A staple food is a Food that forms the basis of a Traditional diet. - No internal trade and too many customs barriers
There were also social and political factors, many of which involved resentments and aspirations given focus by the rise of Enlightenment ideals:
- Resentment of royal absolutism. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century An autocracy is a Form of government in which the Political power is held by a single self-appointed ruler
- Resentment by the ambitious professional and mercantile classes towards noble privileges and dominance in public life, many of whom were familiar with the lives of their peers in commercial cities in The Netherlands and Great Britain. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands
- Resentment by peasants, wage-earners, and the bourgeoisie toward the traditional seigneurial privileges possessed by nobles. This article is about the medieval system "Manors" redirects here
- Resentment of clerical privilege (anti-clericalism) and aspirations for freedom of religion, and resentment of aristocratic bishops by the poorer rural clergy. Anti-clericalism is a historical movement that opposes Religious (generally Catholic institutional power and influence real or alleged in all aspects of public and political
- Continued hatred for Catholic control and influence on institutions of all kinds, by the large Protestant minorities.
- Aspirations for liberty and (especially as the Revolution progressed) republicanism.
- Anger toward the King for firing Jacques Necker and A.R.J. Turgot (among other financial advisors), who were popularly seen as representatives of the people. Jacques Necker ( September 30, 1732 &ndash April 9, 1804) was a French statesman of Swiss origin and finance Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot Baron de Laune, often referred to as Turgot ( 10 May 1727 &ndash 18 March 1781) was a French [4]
Finally, perhaps above all, was the almost total failure of Louis XVI and his advisors to deal effectively with any of these problems.
Estates-General of 1789
The immediate trigger for the Revolution was Louis XVI’s attempts to solve the government’s worsening financial situation. The Estates-General (or States-General) of 1789 (Les États-Généraux de 1789 was the first meeting since 1614 of the French Estates-General In February 1787, his finance minister, Loménie de Brienne, convened an Assembly of Notables, a group of nobles, clergy, bourgeoisie, and bureaucrats selected in order to bypass the parlements. Étienne Charles de Loménie de Brienne ( October 9, 1727 &ndash 16 February, 1794) was a French churchman and Politician History The Assembly of Notables consisted of a group of notables invited by the King of France to discuss reform of the government This article is for the Ancien Régime institution For the post-Revolutionary and present-day institution see French Parliament. The Controller-General of Finances, Charles Alexandre de Calonne, asked this group to approve a new land tax that would, for the first time, include a tax on the property of nobles and clergy. This page is a list of French finance ministers, including the equivalent positions of Superintendent of Finances and Controller-General of Finances Charles Alexandre, vicomte de Calonne (1734 – October 30, 1802) was a French statesman The assembly did not approve the tax, but instead demanded that Louis XVI call the Estates-General. In France under the Ancien Regime, the States-General or Estates-General (French états généraux) was a Legislative assembly On 8 August 1788, the King agreed to convene the Estates-General in May of 1789. Events 1220 - Sweden is defeated by Estonian tribes in the Battle of Lihula. Year 1788 ( MDCCLXXXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap By this time, Jacques Necker was in his second turn as finance minister. Jacques Necker ( September 30, 1732 &ndash April 9, 1804) was a French statesman of Swiss origin and finance
As part of the preparations for the Estates-General, cahiers de doléances (books of grievances) were drawn up across France, listing the complaints of each of the orders. This process helped to generate an expectation of reform of some kind.
There was growing concern, however, that the government would attempt to gerrymander an assembly to its liking. Gerrymandering is a form of redistribution in which electoral district or Constituency boundaries are manipulated for electoral advantage To avoid this, the Parlement of Paris proclaimed that the Estates-General would have to meet according to the forms observed at its last meeting. Although it would appear that the magistrates were not specifically aware of the "forms of 1614" when they made this decision, this provoked an uproar. The 1614 Estates had consisted of equal numbers of representatives of each estate, and voting had been by order, with the First Estate (the clergy), the Second Estate (the nobility), and the Third Estate (the remainder of the population) each estate receiving one vote. The Estates of the realm were the broad divisions of society usually distinguishing Nobility, Clergy, and Commoners recognized in the Middle Ages The Estates of the realm were the broad divisions of society usually distinguishing Nobility, Clergy, and Commoners recognized in the Middle Ages The Estates of the realm were the broad divisions of society usually distinguishing Nobility, Clergy, and Commoners recognized in the Middle Ages
Almost immediately the "Committee of Thirty", a body of liberal Parisians, began to agitate against voting by order, arguing for a doubling of the Third Estate and voting by headcount (as had already been done in various provincial assemblies, such as Grenoble). Grenoble is a city and commune in south-east France situated at the foot of the Alps where the Drac joins the Isère River. Necker agreed that the size of the Third Estate should be doubled, but the question of voting by headcount was left for the meeting of the Estates themselves. Fueled by these disputes, resentment between the elitists and the liberals began to grow.
Pamphlets and works by liberal nobles and clergy, including the comte d'Antraigues and the Abbé Sieyès, argued the importance of the Third Estate. Emmanuel Henri Louis Alexandre de Launay, comte d'Antraigues ( December 25, 1753 &mdash July 22, 1812) was a French As Antraigues wrote, it was "the People, and the People is the foundation of the State; it is in fact the State itself". Sieyès' famous pamphlet Qu'est-ce que le tiers état? (What is the Third Estate?), published in January 1789, took the argument a step further: "What is the Third Estate? Everything. What has it been until now in the political order? Nothing. What does it want to be? Something. "[5]
When the Estates-General convened in Versailles on 5 May 1789, lengthy speeches by Necker and Lamoignon, the keeper of the seals, did little to give guidance to the deputies, who were sent to separate meeting places to credential their members. Versailles (vɛʀsaj in French) formerly de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important Events 553 - The Second Council of Constantinople begins 1215 - Rebel Barons renounce their allegiance to King John Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The question of whether voting was ultimately to be by head or by order was again put aside for the moment, but the Third Estate now demanded that credentialing itself should take place as a group. Negotiations with the other two estates to achieve this, however, were unsuccessful, as a bare majority of the clergy and a large majority of the nobility continued to support voting by order.
National Assembly (1789)
On 10 June 1789 Abbé Sieyès moved that the Third Estate, now meeting as the Communes (English: "Commons"), proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. The National Assembly of France is the lower legislative house under the French Fifth Republic. Jacques-Louis David (August 30 1748 &ndash December 29 1825 was a highly influential French painter in the Neoclassical style considered to be The Tennis Court Oath (serment du jeu de paume was a pivotal event during the French Revolution. Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common They proceeded to do so two days later, completing the process on 17 June. Events 1462 - Vlad III the Impaler attempts to assassinate Mehmed II ( The Night Attack) forcing him to retreat [6] Then they voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People. The National Assembly of France is the lower legislative house under the French Fifth Republic. " They invited the other orders to join them, but made it clear they intended to conduct the nation's affairs with or without them.
In an attempt to keep control of the process and prevent the Assembly from convening, Louis XVI ordered the closure of the Salle des États where the Assembly met, making an excuse that the carpenters needed to prepare the hall for a royal speech in two days. Weather did not allow an outdoor meeting, so the Assembly moved their deliberations to a nearby indoor real tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789), under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a constitution. Real tennis is the original racquet sport from which the modern game of lawn tennis or Tennis, is descended The Tennis Court Oath (serment du jeu de paume was a pivotal event during the French Revolution. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun. Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did 47 members of the nobility. By 27 June the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailles. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Versailles (vɛʀsaj in French) formerly de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important Messages of support for the Assembly poured in from Paris and other French cities. On 9 July the Assembly reconstituted itself as the National Constituent Assembly. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. The National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante was formed from the National Assembly on 9 July 1789, during the first stages of the
National Constituent Assembly (1789–1791)
Storming of the Bastille
By this time, Necker had earned the enmity of many members of the French court for his support and guidance to the Third Estate. The Storming of the Bastille in Paris occurred on 14 July 1789. Events 1223 - Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father Philip II of France. Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Marie Antoinette, Louis' younger brother the Comte d'Artois, and other conservative members of the king's privy council urged Louis to dismiss Necker. Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna von Habsburg-Lothringen (November 2 1755 &ndash October 16 1793 known to history as Marie Antoinette ( pronounced /maʀi ɑ̃ntwanɛt/ Charles X (9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836 ruled as King of France and Navarre from 20 May 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated A privy council is a body that advises the Head of state of a nation on how to exercise their executive authority, typically but not always in the context of a On 11 July, after Necker suggested that the royal family live according to a budget to conserve funds, Louis fired him, and completely reconstructed the finance ministry at the same time. Events 911 - Signing of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between Charles the Simple and Rollo of Normandy.
Many Parisians presumed Louis's actions to be the start of a royal coup by the conservatives and began open rebellion when they heard the news the next day. They were also afraid that arriving Royal soldiers had been summoned to shut down the National Constituent Assembly, which was meeting at Versailles, and the Assembly went into nonstop session to prevent eviction from their meeting place once again. Paris was soon consumed with riots, anarchy, and widespread looting. The mobs soon had the support of the French Guard, including arms and trained soldiers, because the royal leadership essentially abandoned the city. The Gardes Françaises (French Guards was one of the two non-ceremonial infantry regiments in the "Maison du Roi" (Household troops of the French Army under
On 14 July, the insurgents set their eyes on the large weapons and ammunition cache inside the Bastille fortress, which also served as a symbol of tyranny by the monarchy. Events 1223 - Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father Philip II of France. The Bastille was a Fortress - Prison in Paris, known formally as Bastille Saint-Antoine —Number 232 Rue Saint-Antoine—best known today Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for After several hours of combat, the prison fell that afternoon. Despite ordering a cease fire, which prevented a mutual massacre, Governor Marquis Bernard de Launay was beaten, stabbed and decapitated; his head was placed on a pike and paraded about the city. A governor is a governing official usually the executive (at least nominally to different degrees also politically and administratively of a non-sovereign level of government A marquess (ˈmɑrkwɪs or marquis (/mɑrˈkiː/ is a Nobleman of hereditary rank in various European monarchies and some of their colonies Bernard René Jourdan, marquis de Launay (1740-1789 was a French governor of the Bastille, the son of a previous governor and commander of Although the Parisians released only seven prisoners (four forgers, two noblemen kept for immoral behavior, and a murder suspect), the Bastille served as a potent symbol of everything hated under the Ancien Régime. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in Returning to the Hôtel de Ville (city hall), the mob accused the prévôt des marchands (roughly, mayor) Jacques de Flesselles of treachery; his assassination took place en route to an ostensible trial at the Palais Royal. The Hôtel de Ville ( French for " City Hall " in Paris, France, is the building housing the City of Paris's administration A provost (introduced into Scots from French) is the ceremonial head of many Scottish local authorities. Jacques de Flesselles (1721 &ndash July 14, 1789) was a French provost, a post roughly equivalent to Mayor.
The King and his military supporters backed down, at least for the time being. Sans-culottes ( French for "without Knee-breeches " was a term created around 1790 - 1792 by the French Aristocracy to describe the La Fayette took up command of the National Guard at Paris. Jean-Sylvain Bailly, president of the Assembly at the time of the Tennis Court Oath, became the city's mayor under a new governmental structure known as the commune. Jean-Sylvain Bailly ( September 15, 1736 &ndash November 12, 1793) was a French astronomer and Orator, one of The Tennis Court Oath (serment du jeu de paume was a pivotal event during the French Revolution. The King visited Paris, where, on 27 July he accepted a tricolore cockade, as cries of Vive la Nation "Long live the Nation" changed to Vive le Roi "Long live the King". Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. The National flag of France (known in French as drapeau tricolore, drapeau français,and in military parlance les couleurs A cockade is a knot of ribbons or other circular- or oval-shaped symbol of distinctive colors which is usually worn on a Hat.
Necker was recalled to power, but his triumph was short-lived. An astute financier but a less astute politician, Necker overplayed his hand by demanding and obtaining a general amnesty, losing much of the people's favour. He also felt he could save France all by himself, despite having few ideas.
Nobles were not assured by this apparent reconciliation of King and people. They began to flee the country as émigrés, some of whom began plotting civil war within the kingdom and agitating for a European coalition against France. Émigré is a French term that literally refers to a person who has "migrated out" but often carries a connotation of politico-social self- Exile.
By late July, insurrection and the spirit of popular sovereignty spread throughout France. Popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the belief that the legitimacy of the State is created by the will or consent of its people, who In rural areas, many went beyond this: some burned title-deeds and no small number of châteaux, as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur" (the Great Fear). For other senses of this word see Château (disambiguation. A château (plural châteaux) is a Manor house or residence The "Great Fear" (la Grande Peur occurred from July 20 to August 5 1789 in France at the start of the French Revolution. In addition, plotting at Versailles and the large numbers of men on the roads of France as a result of unemployment led to wild rumours and paranoia (particularly in the rural areas) that caused widespread unrest and civil disturbances and contributed to the Great Fear (Hibbert, 93).
Working toward a Constitution
On 4 August 1789 the National Constituent Assembly abolished feudalism, in what is known as the August Decrees, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes gathered by the First Estate. The French Revolution was a period in the History of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon Events 70 - The Destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans. Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed The August Decrees were 19 Decrees made in August 1789 by the National Assembly (government during the French Revolution. A tithe (from Old English teogoþa "tenth" is a one-tenth part of something paid as a (usually voluntary contribution or as a Tax or levy In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges.
Looking to the Declaration of Independence of the United States for a model, on 26 August 1789, the Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Events 1071 - Battle of Manzikert: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantine Army at Manzikert. Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining Like the U. S. Declaration, it comprised a statement of principles rather than a constitution with legal effect. A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity The National Constituent Assembly functioned not only as a legislature, but also as a body to draft a new constitution. A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation
Necker, Mounier, Lally-Tollendal and others argued unsuccessfully for a senate, with members appointed by the crown on the nomination of the people. A senate is a Deliberative body, often the Upper house or chamber of a Legislature or Parliament. The bulk of the nobles argued for an aristocratic upper house elected by the nobles. An upper house is one of two chambers of a Bicameral Legislature, the other chamber being the Lower house. The popular party carried the day: France would have a single, unicameral assembly. The King retained only a "suspensive veto"; he could delay the implementation of a law, but not block it absolutely. The Assembly eventually replaced the historic provinces with 83 départements, uniformly administered and roughly equal in area and population. The Kingdom of France was organised into Provinces until March 4, 1790, when the establishment of the département In the context of the political and geographic organization of France and many of its former colonies a department (département depaʁtǝmɑ̃ is an Administrative division
Originally summoned to deal with a financial crisis, by late 1789, the Assembly had focused on other matters and only worsened the deficit. Honoré Mirabeau now led the move to address this matter, and the Assembly gave Necker complete financial dictatorship. Honoré Gabriel Riqueti Comte de Mirabeau ( March 9, 1749 &ndash April 2, 1791) was a French writer popular orator and statesman
Women's March on Versailles
Fueled by rumors of a reception by the King's bodyguards 1 October 1789 in which the national cockade had been trampled upon, on 5 October 1789 crowds of women began to assemble at Parisian markets. The March on Versailles, also known as The Bread March of Women, and The Women's March on Versailles, was an event in the French Revolution. Events 331 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela. Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 869 - The Fourth Council of Constantinople is convened to decide about what to do about Patriarch Photius of Constantinople Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The women first marched to the Hôtel de Ville, demanding that city officials address their concerns. The Hôtel de Ville ( French for " City Hall " in Paris, France, is the building housing the City of Paris's administration [7] The women were responding to the harsh economic situations they faced, especially bread shortages. They also demanded an end to Royalist efforts to block the National Assembly, and for the King and his administration to move to Paris as a sign of good faith in addressing the widespread poverty.
Getting unsatisfactory responses from city officials, as many as 7,000 women joined the march to Versailles, bringing with them pieces of cannon and a variety of smaller weapons. Twenty thousand National Guardsmen under the command of La Fayette responded to keep order, and members of the mob stormed the palace, killing two guards. [8] La Fayette ultimately convinced the king to accede to the demand of the crowd that the monarchy relocate to Paris.
On 6 October 1789, the King and the royal family moved from Versailles to Paris under the protection of the National Guards, thus legitimizing the National Assembly. Events 105 BC - Battle of Arausio: The Cimbri inflict the heaviest defeat on the Roman army of Gnaeus Mallius Maximus Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common
Revolution and the Church
The Revolution brought about a massive shifting of powers from the Roman Catholic Church to the state. Under the Ancien Régime, the Church had been the largest landowner in the country. Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished the Church's authority to levy a tax on crops, known as the dîme, cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property. A tithe (from Old English teogoþa "tenth" is a one-tenth part of something paid as a (usually voluntary contribution or as a Tax or levy To no small extent, the Assembly addressed the financial crisis by having the nation take over the property of the Church (while taking on the Church's expenses), through the law of 2 December 1789. Events 1409 - The University of Leipzig opens 1755 - The second Eddystone Lighthouse is destroyed by fire Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common In order to rapidly monetize such an enormous amount of property, the government introduced a new paper currency, assignats, backed by the confiscated church lands. Assignats were paper money issued by the National Constituent Assembly in France during the French Revolution. Further legislation on 13 February 1790 abolished monastic vows. Events 1258 - Baghdad falls to the Mongols, and the Abbasid Caliphate is destroyed Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Religious vows are the public Vows made by the members of the religious life – cenobitic and eremitic – of the Roman Catholic, The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, passed on 12 July 1790 (although not signed by the King until 26 December 1790), turned the remaining clergy into employees of the State and required that they take an oath of loyalty to the constitution. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy ( "Constitution civile du clergé") was a law passed on July 12, 1790 during the French Revolution Events 1191 - Saladin 's garrison surrenders ending the two-year Siege of Acre. Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Events 1481 - Battle of Westbrook - Holland defeats troops of Utrecht. Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Civil Constitution of the Clergy also made the Catholic church an arm of the secular state. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy ( "Constitution civile du clergé") was a law passed on July 12, 1790 during the French Revolution
In response to this legislation, the archbishop of Aix and the bishop of Clermont led a walkout of clergy from the National Constituent Assembly. In Christianity, an archbishop is an elevated Bishop. In the Roman Catholic Church, the Anglican Communion and others this means that they lead The pope never accepted the new arrangement, and it led to a schism between those clergy who swore the required oath and accepted the new arrangement ("jurors" or "constitutional clergy") and the "non-jurors" or "refractory priests" who refused to do so. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and The ensuing years saw violent repression of the clergy, including the imprisonment and massacre of priests throughout France. A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities The Concordat of 1801 between Napoleon and the Church ended the dechristianisation period and established the rules for a relationship between the Catholic Church and the French State that lasted until it was abrogated by the Third Republic via the separation of church and state on 11 December 1905. The Concordat of 1801 is a reflection of an agreement between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pope Pius VII that reaffirmed the Roman Catholic Church as the majority The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and State ( French: Loi du 9 décembre 1905 concernant la séparation des Églises et de l'État) was passed by Events 359 - Honoratus, the first known Prefect of the City of Constantinople, takes office Year 1905 ( MCMV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting
Appearance of Factions
Factions within the Assembly began to clarify. The aristocrat Jacques Antoine Marie de Cazalès and the abbé Jean-Sifrein Maury led what would become known as the right wing, the opposition to revolution (this party sat on the right-hand side of the Assembly). Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations Jacques Antoine Marie de Cazalès ( February 1 1758 - November 24, 1805) was a French Orator and Politician. Abbé (from Latin Abbas, in turn from Greek αββας = abbas Father, from Aramaic abba) is the French word for Jean-Sifrein Maury ( June 26, 1746 &ndash May 10, 1817) was a French cardinal and Archbishop of Paris. In Politics, right-wing, the political right, and the Right are positions that uphold traditional values and/or authorities The "Royalist democrats" or monarchiens, allied with Necker, inclined toward organising France along lines similar to the British constitutional model; they included Jean Joseph Mounier, the Comte de Lally-Tollendal, the comte de Clermont-Tonnerre, and Pierre Victor Malouet, comte de Virieu. Jacques Necker ( September 30, 1732 &ndash April 9, 1804) was a French statesman of Swiss origin and finance The constitution of the United Kingdom is the set of laws and principles under which the United Kingdom is governed Jean Joseph Mounier ( November 12, 1758 - 28 January, 1806) was a French Politician. Trophime-Gérard, marquis de Lally-Tollendal ( March 5, 1751 &mdash March 11, 1830) was a French politician Stanislas Marie Adelaide, Comte de Clermont-Tonnerre ( October 10, 1757 – August 10, 1792) was a French Pierre Victor baron Malouet ( February 11, 1740 - September 7, 1814) a French publicist and Politician, was born
The "National Party", representing the centre or centre-left of the assembly, included Honoré Mirabeau, La Fayette, and Bailly; while Adrien Duport, Barnave and Alexandre Lameth represented somewhat more extreme views. Honoré Gabriel Riqueti Comte de Mirabeau ( March 9, 1749 &ndash April 2, 1791) was a French writer popular orator and statesman Adrien Duport (1759 &ndash 1798 was a French Politician. He was born in Paris. Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave ( October 22, 1761 &mdash November 29, 1793) was a French politician and together with Honoré Alexandre-Théodore-Victor comte de Lameth ( October 20, 1760 &ndash March 18, 1829) was a French soldier and Politician Almost alone in his radicalism on the left was the Arras lawyer Maximilien Robespierre. Arras (Atrecht is the capital of the Pas-de-Calais department in northern France. Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (maksimiljɛ̃ fʁɑ̃swa maʁi izidɔʁ də ʁɔbɛspjɛʁ ( 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) Abbé Sieyès led in proposing legislation in this period and successfully forged consensus for some time between the political centre and the left. In Paris, various committees, the mayor, the assembly of representatives, and the individual districts each claimed authority independent of the others. The increasingly middle-class National Guard under La Fayette also slowly emerged as a power in its own right, as did other self-generated assemblies. The National Guard ( la Garde nationale) was the name given at the time of the French Revolution to the Militias formed in each city in imitation of
Intrigues and Radicalism
The Assembly abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the Ancien Régime - armorial bearings, liveries, etc. , which further alienated the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of the émigrés. Émigré is a French term that literally refers to a person who has "migrated out" but often carries a connotation of politico-social self- Exile. On 14 July 1790, and for several days following, crowds in the Champ de Mars celebrated the anniversary of the fall of the Bastille; Talleyrand performed a mass; participants swore an oath of "fidelity to the nation, the law, and the king"; and the King and the royal family actively participated. Events 1223 - Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father Philip II of France. Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Champ de Mars (ʃɑ̃ də maʁs is a large public green-space in Paris, France, located in the 7th ''arrondissement'', between the Eiffel Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord 1st Sovereign Prince of Beneventum (2 February 1754 17 May 1838 the Prince of Diplomats, was a French
The electors had originally chosen the members of the Estates-General to serve for a single year. In France under the Ancien Regime, the States-General or Estates-General (French états généraux) was a Legislative assembly However, by the terms of the Tennis Court Oath, the communes had bound themselves to meet continuously until France had a constitution. The Tennis Court Oath (serment du jeu de paume was a pivotal event during the French Revolution. Right-wing elements now argued for a new election, but Mirabeau carried the day, asserting that the status of the assembly had fundamentally changed, and that no new election should take place before completing the constitution.
In late 1790, several small counter-revolutionary uprisings broke out and efforts took place to turn all or part of the army against the Revolution. These uniformly failed. The royal court "encouraged every anti-revolutionary enterprise and avowed none. " [9]
The army faced considerable internal turmoil: General Bouillé successfully put down a small rebellion, which added to his (accurate) reputation for counter-revolutionary sympathies. François Claude Amour marquis de Bouillé (1739 Cluzel-Saint-Èble &ndash November 14 1800, London) was a The new military code, under which promotion depended on seniority and proven competence (rather than on nobility) alienated some of the existing officer corps, who joined the ranks of the émigrés or became counter-revolutionaries from within.
This period saw the rise of the political "clubs" in French politics, foremost among these the Jacobin Club: according to the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica, 152 clubs had affiliated with the Jacobins by 10 August 1790. The Jacobin Club was the largest and most powerful political club of the French Revolution. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica Events 612 BC - Killing of Sinsharishkun, King of Assyrian Empire Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year As the Jacobins became more of a broad popular organisation, some of its founders abandoned it to form the Club of '89. Royalists established first the short-lived Club des Impartiaux and later the Club Monarchique. The latter attempted unsuccessfully to curry public favour by distributing bread. Nonetheless, they became the frequent target of protests and even riots, and the Paris municipal authorities finally closed down the Club Monarchique in January 1791.
Amidst these intrigues, the Assembly continued to work on developing a constitution. A new judicial organisation made all magistracies temporary and independent of the throne. The legislators abolished hereditary offices, except for the monarchy itself. Jury trials started for criminal cases. The King would have the unique power to propose war, with the legislature then deciding whether to declare war. The Assembly abolished all internal trade barriers and suppressed guilds, masterships, and workers' organisations: any individual gained the right to practice a trade through the purchase of a license; strikes became illegal.
In the winter of 1791, the Assembly considered, for the first time, legislation against the émigrés. The debate pitted the safety of the State against the liberty of individuals to leave. Mirabeau carried the day against the measure, which he referred to as "worthy of being placed in the code of Draco". Draco (ˈdreɪkoʊ from Greek, drákɔːn was the first legislator of ancient Athens, Greece, 7th century BC. [9] But Mirabeau died on 2 April 1791. Events 68 - Galba, Governor of Hispania, names himself legatus senatus populique Romani, breaking the line of Year 1791 ( MDCCXCI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common In Mignet's words, "No one succeeded him in power and popularity" and, before the end of the year, the new Legislative Assembly would adopt this "draconian" measure.
Royal flight to Varennes
Louis XVI, opposed to the course of the Revolution, but rejecting the potentially treacherous aid of the other monarchs of Europe, cast his lot with General Bouillé, who condemned both the emigration and the assembly, and promised him refuge and support in his camp at Montmédy. The Flight to Varennes ( June 20 - 21, 1791) was a significant episode in the French Revolution during which King Louis XVI of France Montmédy is a commune of the Meuse département, in northeastern France. On the night of 20 June 1791 the royal family fled the Tuileries wearing the clothes of servants, while their servants dressed as nobles. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun. Year 1791 ( MDCCXCI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common
However, the next day the King was recognised and arrested at Varennes (in the Meuse département) late on 21 June. For other uses of the term Varennes see Varennes (disambiguation. Meuse (møːz is a department in northeast France, named after the Meuse River. In the context of the political and geographic organization of France and many of its former colonies a department (département depaʁtǝmɑ̃ is an Administrative division Events 524 - Godomar, King of the Burgundians defeats the Franks at the Battle of Vézeronce. He and his family were paraded back to Paris under guard, still dressed as servants. Pétion, Latour-Maubourg, and Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave, representing the Assembly, met the royal family at Épernay and returned with them. "Pétion" redirects here For the Haitian head of state see Alexandre Pétion. Marie Victor Nicolas de Fay marquis de Latour- Maubourg (Château de La Motte-de-Galaure, near Grenoble 22 May 1768 — (Dammarie-lès-Lys Antoine Pierre Joseph Marie Barnave ( October 22, 1761 &mdash November 29, 1793) was a French politician and together with Honoré Épernay is a town and commune of northern France. Administration Épernay is a Sous-préfecture of the Marne From this time, Barnave became a counselor and supporter of the royal family. When they reached Paris, the crowd remained silent. The Assembly provisionally suspended the King. He and Queen Marie Antoinette remained held under guard. Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna von Habsburg-Lothringen (November 2 1755 &ndash October 16 1793 known to history as Marie Antoinette ( pronounced /maʀi ɑ̃ntwanɛt/
Completing the Constitution
As most of the Assembly still favoured a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groupings reached a compromise which left Louis XVI as little more than a figurehead: he had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to de facto abdication. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy divided the French people A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its
Jacques Pierre Brissot drafted a petition, insisting that in the eyes of the nation Louis XVI was deposed since his flight. Jacques Pierre Brissot (15 January 1754 &ndash 31 October 1793 who assumed the name of de Warville, was a leading member of the Girondist movement during the An immense crowd gathered in the Champ de Mars to sign the petition. The Champ de Mars (ʃɑ̃ də maʁs is a large public green-space in Paris, France, located in the 7th ''arrondissement'', between the Eiffel Georges Danton and Camille Desmoulins gave fiery speeches. Georges Jacques Danton ( October 26, 1759 &ndash April 5, 1794) was a leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution Lucie Simplice Camille Benoist Desmoulins ( March 2, 1760 &ndash April 5, 1794) was a French journalist and politician who played The Assembly called for the municipal authorities to "preserve public order". The National Guard under La Fayette's command confronted the crowd. The soldiers first responded to a barrage of stones by firing in the air; but the crowd did not back down, and La Fayette ordered his men to fire into the crowd, thus killing as many as 50 people.
In the wake of this massacre the authorities closed many of the patriotic clubs, as well as radical newspapers such as Jean-Paul Marat's L'Ami du Peuple. L'Ami du peuple (The Friend of the People was a Newspaper written by Jean-Paul Marat during the French Revolution. Danton fled to England; Desmoulins and Marat went into hiding.
Meanwhile, a new threat arose from abroad: Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II, Frederick William II of Prussia, and the King's brother Charles-Philippe, comte d'Artois issued the Declaration of Pillnitz which considered the cause of Louis XVI as their own, demanded his total liberty and the dissolution of the Assembly, and promised an invasion of France on his behalf if the revolutionary authorities refused its conditions. Leopold II (May 5 1747 March 1 1792 born Peter Leopold Joseph Anton Joachim Pius Gotthard, was Holy Roman Emperor from 1790 to 1792 and Grand Duke Frederick William II (Friedrich Wilhelm II September 25 1744 &ndash November 16 1797) was the fourth King of Prussia, reigning from Charles X (9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836 ruled as King of France and Navarre from 20 May 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated The Declaration of Pillnitz on August 27, 1791, was a statement issued at the Castle of Pillnitz in Saxony (south of Dresden) by the
If anything, the declaration further imperiled Louis. The French people expressed no respect for the dictates of foreign monarchs, and the threat of force merely caused the militarisation of the frontiers.
Even before his "Flight to Varennes", the Assembly members had determined to debar themselves from the legislature that would succeed them, the Legislative Assembly. During the French Revolution, the Legislative Assembly was the legislature of France from October 1 1791 to September 1792. They now gathered the various constitutional laws they had passed into a single constitution, showed remarkable strength in choosing not to use this as an occasion for major revisions, and submitted it to the recently restored Louis XVI, who accepted it, writing "I engage to maintain it at home, to defend it from all attacks from abroad, and to cause its execution by all the means it places at my disposal". The King addressed the Assembly and received enthusiastic applause from members and spectators. The Assembly set the end of its term for 29 September 1791. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire. Year 1791 ( MDCCXCI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common
Mignet argued that the "constitution of 1791. . . was the work of the middle class, then the strongest; for, as is well known, the predominant force ever takes possession of institutions. . . In this constitution the people was the source of all powers, but it exercised none. " [10]
Legislative Assembly (1791–1792)
Under the Constitution of 1791, France would function as a constitutional monarchy. The French Revolution was a period in the History of France covering the years 1789 to 1799 in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy The short-lived French Constitution of 1791 was the first written Constitution of France. A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is The King had to share power with the elected Legislative Assembly, but he still retained his royal veto and the ability to select ministers. During the French Revolution, the Legislative Assembly was the legislature of France from October 1 1791 to September 1792. The Legislative Assembly first met on 1 October 1791, and degenerated into chaos less than a year later. Events 331 BC - Alexander the Great defeats Darius III of Persia in the Battle of Gaugamela. Year 1791 ( MDCCXCI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common In the words of the 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica: "In the attempt to govern, the Assembly failed altogether. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica It left behind an empty treasury, an undisciplined army and navy, and a people debauched by safe and successful riot. For the US government securities see Treasury security. Also see Treasury management. An army (from Latin Armata "act of arming" via Old French armée) in the broadest sense is the land-based Armed forces " The Legislative Assembly consisted of about 165 Feuillants (constitutional monarchists) on the right, about 330 Girondists (liberal republicans) and Jacobins (radical revolutionaries) on the left, and about 250 deputies unaffiliated with either faction. In Politics, right-wing, the political right, and the Right are positions that uphold traditional values and/or authorities The Girondists (in French Girondins, and sometimes Brissotins or "Baguettes" were a political faction in France within the Legislative Early on, the King vetoed legislation that threatened the émigrés with death and that decreed that every non-juring clergyman must take within eight days the civic oath mandated by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy. Over the course of a year, disagreements like this would lead to a constitutional crisis, leading the Revolution to higher levels. A constitutional crisis is a severe breakdown in the orderly operation of Government.
War (1792–1797)
The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1792 until 1802 fought between the French Revolutionary government and several European states Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich The King, the Feuillants and the Girondins specifically wanted to wage war. The King (and many Feuillants with him) expected war would increase his personal popularity; he also foresaw an opportunity to exploit any defeat: either result would make him stronger. The Girondins wanted to export the Revolution throughout Europe and, by extension, to defend the Revolution within France. Only some of the radical Jacobins opposed war, preferring to consolidate and expand the Revolution at home. The Austrian emperor Leopold II, brother of Marie Antoinette, may have wished to avoid war, but he died on 1 March 1792. An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of Leopold II (May 5 1747 March 1 1792 born Peter Leopold Joseph Anton Joachim Pius Gotthard, was Holy Roman Emperor from 1790 to 1792 and Grand Duke Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna von Habsburg-Lothringen (November 2 1755 &ndash October 16 1793 known to history as Marie Antoinette ( pronounced /maʀi ɑ̃ntwanɛt/ Events 86 BC - Lucius Cornelius Sulla, at the head of a Roman Republic army enters in Athens, removing the Tyrant Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year France declared war on Austria (20 April 1792) and Prussia joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Events 1303 - The University of Rome La Sapienza is instituted by Pope Boniface VIII. Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The invading Prussian army faced little resistance until checked at the Battle of Valmy (20 September 1792), and forced to withdraw. The Battle of Valmy, also known as the Cannonade of Valmy, was a tactically indecisive artillery engagement but strategically it ensured the survival of the French Events 451 - The Battle of Chalons takes place in North Eastern France. Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year However, by this time, France stood in turmoil and the monarchy had effectively become a thing of the past.
Constitutional crisis
- Main articles: 10th of August (French Revolution), September Massacres
On the night of 10 August 1792, insurgents, supported by a new revolutionary Paris Commune, assailed the Tuileries. September Massacres were a wave of Mob violence which overtook Paris in late summer 1792, during the French Revolution. Events 612 BC - Killing of Sinsharishkun, King of Assyrian Empire Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Events 612 BC - Killing of Sinsharishkun, King of Assyrian Empire Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The Paris Commune during the French Revolution was the government of Paris from 1789 until 1795 and especially from 1792 until 1795 The King and queen ended up prisoners and a rump session of the Legislative Assembly suspended the monarchy: little more than a third of the deputies were present, almost all of them Jacobins.
What remained of a national government depended on the support of the insurrectionary Commune. The Commune sent gangs into the prisons to try arbitrarily and butcher 1400 victims, and addressed a circular letter to the other cities of France inviting them to follow this example. The Assembly could offer only feeble resistance. This situation persisted until the Convention, charged with writing a new constitution, met on 20 September 1792 and became the new de facto government of France. During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly Events 451 - The Battle of Chalons takes place in North Eastern France. Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The next day it abolished the monarchy and declared a republic. This date was later retroactively adopted as the beginning of Year One of the French Republican Calendar. This article is about the political phrase For the American muscle car club see Year One Muscle Cars. The French Republican Calendar or French Revolutionary Calendar was a Calendar proposed during the French Revolution, and used by the French government
National Convention (1792–1795)
In the Brunswick Manifesto, the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population if it were to resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. The Brunswick Manifesto was a proclamation issued by Charles William Ferdinand Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Allied Army (principally Austrian and Prussian on 25 This made Louis appear to be conspiring with the enemies of France. 17 January 1793 saw Louis condemned to death for "conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety" by a close majority in Convention: 361 voted to execute the king, 288 voted against, and another 72 voted to execute him subject to a variety of delaying conditions[11]). Events 38 BC - Octavian marries Livia Drusilla. 1287 - King Alfonso III of Aragon invades Minorca Year 1793 ( MDCCXCIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The 21 January execution led to more wars with other European countries. Events 1189 - Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade. Louis' Austrian-born queen, Marie Antoinette, would follow him to the guillotine on 16 October. The guillotine ( pronounced /ˈgijətin/ or /ˈgɪlətin/ in English in French was a device used for carrying out executions by Decapitation. Events 456 - Magister militum Ricimer defeats the Emperor Avitus at Piacenza and becomes master of the western
When war went badly, prices rose and the sans-culottes — poor labourers and radical Jacobins — rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. Sans-culottes ( French for "without Knee-breeches " was a term created around 1790 - 1792 by the French Aristocracy to describe the This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian sans-culottes. An alliance of Jacobin and sans-culottes elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical.
Reign of Terror
The Committee of Public Safety came under the control of Maximilien Robespierre, a lawyer, and the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror (1793-1794). Saint justjpg|thumbnail|200px| Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just]] The Reign of Terror' (5 September 1793 &ndash 28 July 1794 or simply The Terror (la Terreur was The Committee of Public Safety (Comité de salut public le Haut Comité de la santé publique which is an entirely unrelated present-day institution--> set up by the Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (maksimiljɛ̃ fʁɑ̃swa maʁi izidɔʁ də ʁɔbɛspjɛʁ ( 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) According to archival records, at least 16,594 people died under the guillotine or otherwise after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities. The guillotine ( pronounced /ˈgijətin/ or /ˈgɪlətin/ in English in French was a device used for carrying out executions by Decapitation. [12] A number of historians note that as many as 40,000 accused prisoners may have been summarily executed without trial or died awaiting trial. [12][13] The slightest hint of counter-revolutionary thoughts or activities (or, as in the case of Jacques Hébert, revolutionary zeal exceeding that of those in power) could place one under suspicion, and trials did not always proceed according to contemporary standards of due process. Jacques René Hébert ( November 15, 1757 &mdash March 24, 1794) was editor of the extreme radical newspaper Le Père Duchesne Due process (more fully due process of law) is the principle that a person has a right to receive notice and be heard in an orderly proceeding in order to protect his or her
On 2 June, Paris sections — encouraged by the enragés ("enraged ones") Jacques Roux and Jacques Hébert — took over the Convention, calling for administrative and political purges, a low fixed price for bread, and a limitation of the electoral franchise to "sans-culottes" alone. Events 455 - The Vandals enter Rome, and plunder the city for two weeks Les Enragés (literally "the Enraged Ones" were a radical group active during the French Revolution of 1789 opposed to the Jacobins. Jacques Roux ( 21 August 1752 &ndash 10 February[[ 794]] was the radical leader of the Enragés faction during the French Revolution Jacques René Hébert ( November 15, 1757 &mdash March 24, 1794) was editor of the extreme radical newspaper Le Père Duchesne During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly Bread is a Staple food prepared by Baking a Dough of Flour and Water. Suffrage (from the Latin suffragium, meaning "voting tablet" and figuratively "right to vote" probably from suffrago "hough" and originally Sans-culottes ( French for "without Knee-breeches " was a term created around 1790 - 1792 by the French Aristocracy to describe the With the backing of the National Guard, they managed to convince the Convention to arrest 31 Girondin leaders, including Jacques Pierre Brissot. The National Guard ( la Garde nationale) was the name given at the time of the French Revolution to the Militias formed in each city in imitation of Jacques Pierre Brissot (15 January 1754 &ndash 31 October 1793 who assumed the name of de Warville, was a leading member of the Girondist movement during the Following these arrests, the Jacobins gained control of the Committee of Public Safety on 10 June, installing the revolutionary dictatorship. Events 1190 - Third Crusade: Frederick I Barbarossa drowns in the Sally River while leading an army to Jerusalem On 13 July, the assassination of Jean-Paul Marat—a Jacobin leader and journalist known for his bloodthirsty rhetoric—by Charlotte Corday, a Girondin, resulted in further increase of Jacobin political influence. Events 1174 - William I of Scotland, a key rebel in the Revolt of 1173-1174, is captured at Alnwick by forces loyal to Marie-Anne Charlotte de Corday d'Armont ( July 27, 1768 – July 17, 1793) known to history as Charlotte Corday, was a figure of the Georges Danton, the leader of the August 1792 uprising against the King, having the image of a man who enjoyed luxuries, was removed from the Committee and on 27 July, Robespierre, "the Incorruptible", made his entrance, quickly becoming the most influential member of the Committee as it moved to take radical measures against the Revolution's domestic and foreign enemies. Georges Jacques Danton ( October 26, 1759 &ndash April 5, 1794) was a leading figure in the early stages of the French Revolution Louis XVI ( 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) Louis-Auguste de France, ruled as King of France and Navarre Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England.
Meanwhile, on 24 June, the Convention adopted the first republican constitution of France, variously referred to as the French Constitution of 1793 or Constitution of the Year I. Events 972 - Battle of Cedynia, the first documented victory of Polish forces takes place The Constitution of 1793, Constitution of 24 June 1793 ( French: " Acte constitutionnel du 24 juin 1793 ") or Montagnard It was ratified by public referendum, but never applied, because normal legal processes were suspended before it could take effect. A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita
In Vendée, peasants revolted against the French Revolutionary government in 1793. The Vendée is a department in the Pays-de-la-Loire region in west central France, on the Atlantic Ocean. They resented the changes imposed on the Roman Catholic Church by the Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790) and broke into open revolt in defiance of the Revolutionary government's military conscription. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy ( "Constitution civile du clergé") was a law passed on July 12, 1790 during the French Revolution Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority [14] A guerrilla war, known as the Revolt in the Vendée, led at the outset by an underground faction called the Chouans. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc The War in Vendée ( 1793 to 1796) was a Civil war in Vendée between Royalists and Republicans during the French This article deals with the name its origins and usage For the course of the revolt itself see Chouannerie, and for the family in particular see Chouan family [15]
Facing local revolts and foreign invasions in both the East and West of the country, the most urgent government business was the war. On 17 August, the Convention voted for general conscription, the levée en masse, which mobilized all citizens to serve as soldiers or suppliers in the war effort. Events 986 - A Byzantine army was destroyed in the pass of Trajan's Gate by the Bulgarians under the Comitopuli Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority Levée en masse (literally "Rise in (a Mass" is defined in Article 4 letter A paragraph 6 of the Third Geneva Convention. On 5 September, the Convention, pressured by the people of Paris, institutionalized The Terror: systematic and lethal repression of perceived enemies within the country. Events 1590 - Alexander Farnese 's army forces Henry IV of France to raise the siege of Paris.
The result was a policy through which the state used violent repression to crush resistance to the government. The guillotine ( pronounced /ˈgijətin/ or /ˈgɪlətin/ in English in French was a device used for carrying out executions by Decapitation. Under control of the effectively dictatorial Committee, the Convention quickly enacted more legislation. On 9 September, the Convention established sans-culottes paramilitary forces, the revolutionary armies, to force farmers to surrender grain demanded by the government. Events 1000 - Battle of Svolder, Viking Age. 1379 - Treaty of Neuberg, splitting the Austrian On 17 September, the Law of Suspects was passed, which authorized the charging of counter-revolutionaries with vaguely defined crimes against liberty. Events 1176 - The Battle of Myriokephalon is fought 1462 - The Battle of Świecino (or Battle of Żarnowiec The Law of Suspects is a term which is used to refer to an enactment passed on September 17 1793 during the course of the French Revolution. On 29 September, the Convention extended price-fixing from grain and bread to other essential goods, and also fixed wages. Events 522 BC - Darius I of Persia kills the Magian usurper Gaumâta securing his hold as king of the Persian Empire.
The guillotine became the symbol of a string of executions: Louis XVI had already been guillotined before the start of the terror; Queen Marie Antoinette, the Girondins, Philippe Égalité (despite his vote for the death of the King), Madame Roland and many others were executed by guillotine. The guillotine ( pronounced /ˈgijətin/ or /ˈgɪlətin/ in English in French was a device used for carrying out executions by Decapitation. Louis Philippe II Joseph Duke of Orléans ( 13 April 1747 at Château de Saint Cloud, Saint-Cloud, France &ndash 6 November Marie-Jeanne Roland de la Platiere, better known simply as Madame Roland and born Marie-Jeanne Phlipon ( March 17, 1754 &ndash November The Revolutionary Tribunal summarily condemned thousands of people to death by the guillotine, while mobs beat other victims to death. The Revolutionary Tribunal (Tribunal révolutionnaire was a Court which was instituted in Paris by the Convention during the French Revolution Sometimes people died for their political opinions or actions, but many for little reason beyond mere suspicion, or because some others had a stake in getting rid of them. Most of the victims received an unceremonious trip to the guillotine in an open wooden cart (the tumbrel). Ducking-stools and cucking-stools are chairs formerly used for Punishment. Loaded onto these carts, the victims would proceed through throngs of jeering men and women.
Another anti-clerical uprising was made possible by the installment of the Revolutionary Calendar on 24 October. Anti-clericalism is a historical movement that opposes Religious (generally Catholic institutional power and influence real or alleged in all aspects of public and political The French Republican Calendar or French Revolutionary Calendar was a Calendar proposed during the French Revolution, and used by the French government Events 69 - Second Battle of Bedriacum, forces under Antonius Primus the commander of the Danube armies loyal to Vespasian, defeat Against Robespierre's concepts of Deism and Virtue, Hébert's (and Chaumette's) atheist movement initiated a religious campaign to dechristianize society. Deism is the belief that a supreme God exists and created the physical universe and that religious truths can be arrived at by the application of reason alone without dependence on revelation Virtue ( Latin virtus; Greek) is moral Excellence. Personal virtues are characteristics valued as promoting individual Atheism Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The climax was reached with the celebration of the Goddess "Reason" in Notre Dame Cathedral on 10 November. NotreDameFlyingButtressjpg|right|thumb|250px|Notre Dame de Paris Flying Buttress]] Notre Dame de Paris is a Gothic Cathedral on the eastern half of the Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw
The Reign of Terror enabled the revolutionary government to avoid military defeat. The Jacobins expanded the size of the army, and Carnot replaced many aristocratic officers with younger soldiers who had demonstrated their ability and patriotism. Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Comte Carnot ( May 13, 1753 &mdash August 2, 1823) the Organizer of Victory in the French The Republican army was able to throw back the Austrians, Prussians, British, and Spanish. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. At the end of 1793, the army began to prevail and revolts were defeated with ease. The Ventôse Decrees (February–March 1794) proposed the confiscation of the goods of exiles and opponents of the Revolution, and their redistribution to the needy. The Ventôse Decrees were decrees proposed on February 26 and March 3, 1794 (8 and 13 Ventôse, An II in the French Republican Calendar
Because dissent was now regarded as counterrevolutionary, extremist enragés such as Hébert and moderate Montagnard indulgents such as Danton were guillotined in the spring of 1794. The Mountain (in French La Montagne) refers in the context of the history of the French Revolution to a political group whose members called On 7 June Robespierre, who had previously condemned the Cult of Reason, advocated a new state religion and recommended that the Convention acknowledge the existence of God. Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins The Cult of Reason (Culte de la Raison was a creed based on Secularism and Atheism devised during the French Revolution by Jacques Hébert God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. On the next day, the worship of the deistic Supreme Being was inaugurated as an official aspect of the Revolution. The Cult of the Supreme Being ( French: Culte de l'Être suprême) was a religion based on Deism devised by Maximilien Robespierre, intended to Compared with Hébert's popular festivals, this austere new religion of Virtue was received with signs of hostility by an amazed Parisian public.
In 1794, Robespierre had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed, markedly eroding his own popular support. On 27 July 1794, the Thermidorian Reaction led to the arrest and execution of Robespierre and Louis de Saint-Just. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Year 1794 ( MDCCXCIV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Thermidorian Reaction was a revolt in the French Revolution against the excesses of the Reign of Terror. Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just ( August 25, 1767 &ndash July 28, 1794) usually known as Saint-Just, was a French revolutionary The new government was predominantly made up of Girondists who had survived the Terror, and after taking power, they took revenge as well by persecuting even those Jacobins who had helped to overthrow Robespierre, banning the Jacobin Club, and executing many of its former members in what was known as the White Terror. In general the term White Terror refers to acts of violence carried out by Reactionary (usually monarchist or conservative) groups as part of a
In the wake of excesses of the Terror, the Convention approved the new "Constitution of the Year III" on 22 August 1795. Events 392 - Arbogast has Eugenius elected Western Roman Emperor. Year 1795 ( MDCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a A French plebiscite ratified the document, with about 1,057,000 votes for the constitution and 49,000 against. A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita [16] The results of the voting were announced on 23 September 1795, and the new constitution took effect on 27 September 1795. Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Year 1795 ( MDCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 489 - Odoacer attacks Theodoric at the Battle of Verona and is defeated again Year 1795 ( MDCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a [16]
The Directory (1795–1799)
The new constitution created the Directoire (English: Directory) and the first bicameral legislature in French history. The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States In Government, bicameralism (bi + Latin la ''camera'' chamber is the practice of having two legislative or Parliamentary chambers Thus a bicameral The parliament consisted of 500 representatives — le Conseil des Cinq-Cents (the Council of the Five Hundred) — and 250 senators — le Conseil des Anciens (the Council of Elders). Executive power went to five "directors," named annually by the Conseil des Anciens from a list submitted by the le Conseil des Cinq-Cents.
With the establishment of the Directory, contemporary observers might have assumed that the Revolution was finished. Citizens of the war-weary nation wanted stability, peace, and an end to conditions that at times bordered on chaos. Those who wished to restore Louis XVIII and the Ancien Régime and those who would have renewed the Reign of Terror were insignificant in number. Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in The possibility of foreign interference had vanished with the failure of the First Coalition. The First Coalition ( 1792 – 1797) was the first major concerted effort of multiple European powers to contain Revolutionary France. Nevertheless, the four years of the Directory were a time of arbitrary government and chronic disquiet. The earlier atrocities had made confidence or goodwill between parties impossible. The same instinct of self-preservation which had led the members of the Convention to claim so large a part in the new legislature and the whole of the Directory impelled them to keep their predominance.
As many French citizens distrusted the Directory,[17] the directors could achieve their purposes only by extraordinary means. They habitually disregarded the terms of the constitution, and, even when the elections that they rigged went against them,[18] the directors routinely used draconian police measures to quell dissent. Moreover, the Directory used war as the best expedient for prolonging their power, and the directors were thus driven to rely on the armies, which also desired war and grew less and less civic-minded. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units
Other reasons influenced them in this direction. State finances during the earlier phases of the Revolution had been so thoroughly ruined that the government could not have met its expenses without the plunder and the tribute of foreign countries. If peace were made, the armies would return home and the directors would have to face the exasperation of the rank-and-file who had lost their livelihood, as well as the ambition of generals who could, in a moment, brush them aside. Barras and Rewbell were notoriously corrupt themselves and screened corruption in others. Paul François Jean Nicolas vicomte de Barras ( June 30, 1755 &mdash January 29, 1829) was a French politician of the Jean-François Rewbell ( October 8, 1747 &mdash November 23, 1807) was a French lawyer diplomat and politician of the Revolution The patronage of the directors was ill-bestowed, and the general maladministration heightened their unpopularity.
The constitutional party in the legislature desired toleration of the nonjuring clergy, the repeal of the laws against the relatives of the émigrés, and some merciful discrimination toward the émigrés themselves. The English Protestant Reformation was imposed by the English Crown, and submission to its essential points was exacted by the State with post-Reformation oaths. Émigré is a French term that literally refers to a person who has "migrated out" but often carries a connotation of politico-social self- Exile. The directors baffled all such endeavours. On the other hand, the socialist conspiracy of Babeuf was easily quelled. Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution François-Noël Babeuf ( November 23, 1760 - May 27, 1797) known as Gracchus Babeuf (in tribute to the Roman reformers Little was done to improve the finances, and the assignats continued to fall in value. Assignats were paper money issued by the National Constituent Assembly in France during the French Revolution.
The new régime met opposition from remaining Jacobins and the royalists. The word regime (occasionally spelled " régime " particularly in older texts refers to a set of conditions most often of a Political nature The army suppressed riots and counter-revolutionary activities. In this way the army and its successful general, Napoleon Bonaparte eventually gained much power. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. On 9 November 1799 (18 Brumaire of the Year VIII) Bonaparte staged the coup of 18 Brumaire which installed the Consulate; this effectively led to his dictatorship and eventually (in 1804) to his proclamation as Empereur (emperor), which brought to a close the specifically republican phase of the French Revolution. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a 18 Brumaire, the coup of 18 Brumaire or sometimes simply Brumaire refers to the Coup d'état by which General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its
Counter-Revolution
See Article: French Counter-Revolution
Historical analysis
The constitutional assembly failed for many reasons: there were too many monarchists to have a republic and too many republicans to have a monarch; too many people opposed the King (especially after the flight to Varennes), which meant that the people who supported the King had their reputation slashed; the Civil Constitution of the Clergy; and many more. The French Counter-Revolution was a period in the history of France where certain individuals groups and nations openly opposed the French Revolution. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy ( "Constitution civile du clergé") was a law passed on July 12, 1790 during the French Revolution
Historian François Furet in his work, Le Passé d'une illusion (1995) (The Passing of An Illusion (1999) in English translation) explores in detail the similarities between the French Revolution and the Russian Revolution of 1917 more than a century later, arguing that the former was taken as a model by Russian revolutionaries. François Furet ( 27 March 1927 – 12 July 1997) was an influential French historian See also Russian Revolution (1905 The Russian Revolution of 1916 refers to a series of popular revolutions in Russia, and the events surrounding them This is in partial contrast with the Marxist tradition, which has usually claimed that the 1871 Paris Commune was the Bolsheviks' primary inspiration source. The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May
A contributing factor to the Revolution was the considerable increases in poverty in the preceding years. Some scholars trace this to several years of recurrent weather aberrations, caused by the Laki eruption of 1783[19] and the severe El Niño effects that were to follow[20]. Laki or Lakagígar ( Craters of Laki) is a volcanic fissure situated in the south of Iceland, not far from the canyon of Eldgjá and El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO; commonly referred to as simply El Niño) is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon
See also
- A Tale of Two Cities - A novel by Charles Dickens
- Biens nationaux
- French Revolutionary Calendar
- French Revolutionary Wars
- Glossary of the French Revolution
- History of democracy
- Historiography of the French Revolution
- Jean Nicolas Pache - Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité
- La Révolution française (film)
- List of people associated with the French Revolution
- List of people granted honorary French citizenship during the French Revolution
- List of revolutions and rebellions
- Napoleonic code
- Olympe de Gouge
- Revolt in the Vendée
- Rise of nationalism in Europe
- Timeline of the French Revolution
- French Counter-Revolution
Other revolutions in French history
- July Revolution
- French Revolution of 1848
- Paris Commune of 1871
- May 1968, a noteworthy rebellion, though not quite a revolution
- Haïtian Revolution, Haiti colony
- Camisard Rebellion, French Huguenots
- French Army Mutinies (1917)
References
- ^ Lefebvre, Georges (1947). A Tale of Two Cities (1859 is the second Historical novel by Charles Dickens, set in London and Paris before and during the The idea of national good appeared at the time of the French revolution. The French Republican Calendar or French Revolutionary Calendar was a Calendar proposed during the French Revolution, and used by the French government The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1792 until 1802 fought between the French Revolutionary government and several European states This is a glossary of the French Revolution. It generally does not explicate names of individual people or their political associations those can be found in List of people associated Democracy is a political system in which all the members of the society have an equal share of formal political power The French Revolution stretches back over two hundred years prior to the event itself Jean-Nicolas Pache (1746 – November 18, 1823) was a French Politician. La Révolution française is a two-part Film, co-produced by France, Germany, Italy, the United Kingdom and Canada. This is a partial '''list''' of people associated with the French Revolution, including supporters and opponents During the French Revolution, France granted honorary French Citizenship to those deemed champions of the cause This is a list of Revolutions and Rebellions BC 499 BC - 493 BC: Ionian Revolt. The Napoleonic Code, or Code Napoléon (originally called the Code civil des Français) is the French Civil code, established under Olympe de Gouges ( May 7, 1748 – November 3, 1793) born Marie Gouze, was a playwright and political activist whose Feminist The War in Vendée ( 1793 to 1796) was a Civil war in Vendée between Royalists and Republicans during the French In the 18th century a wave of Romantic nationalism swept the continent of Europe transforming the countries of the continent The following is a Timeline of the French Revolution Events preceding but pertinent to the French Revolution The Enlightenment, which led to many The French Counter-Revolution was a period in the history of France where certain individuals groups and nations openly opposed the French Revolution. The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, saw the overthrow of King Charles X, the French The February 1848 Revolution in France ended the reign of King Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic (1848-1852 The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May For other events in May 1968 see 1968. The Revolution (1791–1804 was the most successful of African Slave rebellions in the Western Hemisphere Camisards were French Protestants ( Huguenots) of the rugged and isolated Cevennes region of south-central France, who raised an insurrection against The Huguenots were members of the Protestant Reformed Church of France (or French Calvinists) from the sixteenth to the eighteenth The French Army Mutinies of 1917 took place in the Champagne section of the Western Front and started just after the conclusion of the disastrous Second Battle of the Aisne The Coming of the French Revolution.
- ^ A recent study of El Niño patterns suggests that the poor crop yields of 1788–1789 in Europe resulted from an unusually strong El Niño effect between 1789 and 1793. El Niño-Southern Oscillation ( ENSO; commonly referred to as simply El Niño) is a global coupled ocean-atmosphere phenomenon Richard H. Grove, “Global Impact of the 1789–93 El Niño,” Nature 393 (1998), 318–319.
- ^ Little Ice age: Big Chill. History Channel.
- ^ Doyle, William (1989). The Oxford History of the French Revolution, pp. 73-74.
- ^ Furet, François (1992). Revolutionary France, 1770-1880, p. 45.
- ^ John Hall Stewart. A Documentary Survey of the French Revolution. New York: Macmillan, 1951, p. 86.
- ^ Doyle, William (1989). The Oxford History of the French Revolution, p. 121.
- ^ Doyle, William (1989). The Oxford History of the French Revolution, p. 122.
- ^ a b Mignet, François (1824). Histoire de la Révolution française, Chapter III.
- ^ Mignet, François (1824). Histoire de la Révolution française, Chapter IV.
- ^ William Doyle, The Oxford History of the French Revolution, London: Oxford University Press (2002), p. 196.
- ^ a b Gough, Hugh (1998). The Terror in the French Revolution, p. 77.
- ^ Doyle, William (1989). The Oxford History of the French Revolution, p. 258.
- ^ In a Corner of France, Long Live the Old Regime, New York Times
- ^ McPhee, Peter Review of Reynald Secher, A French Genocide: The Vendée H-France Review Vol. 4 (March 2004), No. 26
- ^ a b Doyle, William (1989). The Oxford History of the French Revolution, p. 320.
- ^ Doyle, William (1989). The Oxford History of the French Revolution, p. 331.
- ^ Doyle, William (1989). The Oxford History of the French Revolution, p. 332.
- ^ Wood, C. A. , 1992. "The climatic effects of the 1783 Laki eruption" in C. R. Harrington (Ed. ), The Year Without a Summer? Canadian Museum of Nature, Ottawa, pp. 58– 77
- ^ Richard H. Grove, “Global Impact of the 1789–93 El Niño,” Nature 393 (1998), 318-319
This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone
This article makes use of the public domain History of the French Revolution from 1789 to 1814, by François Mignet (1824), as made available by Project Gutenberg. The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone François Auguste Alexis Mignet ( 8 May 1796 - 24 March 1884) was a French Historian. Year 1824 ( MDCCCXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Project Gutenberg, abbreviated as PG, is a volunteer effort to Digitize, archive and distribute Cultural works
Further reading
- Andress, David. The Terror: The Merciless War for Freedom in Revolutionary France New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux, 2005 ISBN 0374530734 ISBN-13: 978-0374530730
- Recently published history concentrating on the radical phase of the revolution.
- Carlyle, Thomas. Thomas Carlyle (4 December 1795 – 5 February 1881 was a Scottish essayist satirist and historian whose work was highly influential during the Victorian era. The French Revolution: A History. The French Revolution A History was written by the Scottish Essayist philosopher, and Historian Thomas Carlyle. 1837. New York: The Modern Library, 2002 ISBN 0-375-76022-9
- A history of the early course of the Revolution (1789-1795) written in high-style poetic prose, but which is grounded in historical fact.
- Cobban, Alfred. Alfred Cobban (1901&ndash1968 was a Professor of French History at University College London, who along with prominent French Historian Francois The Social Interpretation of the French Revolution. Cambridge University Press, 1964.
- Dickens, Charles. A Tale of Two Cities
- Although a work of fiction, Dickens' work captures the spirit of the Revolution. A Tale of Two Cities (1859 is the second Historical novel by Charles Dickens, set in London and Paris before and during the
- Doyle, William. Oxford history of the French Revolution, 2nd ed. , Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-19-925298-X
- Doyle, William. Origins of the French Revolution, 3rd ed. , Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 ISBN 0-19-873175-2, ISBN 0-19-873174-4 (pbk. )
- Feuerwerker, David. David Feuerwerker (1912-1980 was a French Rabbi and professor of Jewish history. L'Émancipation des Juifs en France. De l'Ancien Régime à la fin du Second Empire. Albin Michel: Paris, 1976 ISBN 2-226-00316-9
- Furet, François. The Passing of an Illusion: The Idea of Communism in the Twentieth Century, University of Chicago, Chicago, 1999, ISBN 0 225 27340-7 originally published as Le passé d'une illusion (1995).
- Includes a linking of the nature and events of the Russian Revolution with those of the French Revolution.
- Furet, François. François Furet ( 27 March 1927 – 12 July 1997) was an influential French historian La révolution en débat, Paris: Gallimard, 1999 ISBN 2-07-040784-5
- Contains a series of articles on the historiography of the revolution.
- Greer, Donald. Incidence of the Terror During the French Revolution: A Statistical Interpretation. New York: Peter Smith Publishers Inc. , 1935.
- Hibbert, Christopher. Christopher Hibbert, MC, FRSL, FRGS (born 5 March 1924 is an English writer Historian and biographer The Days of the French Revolution, New York: Morrow Quill Paperbacks, 1981. ISBN 0-688-00746-5 (pbk. )
- Considered to be a classic of the genre, this text is available in many bookstores.
- Lefebvre, Georges. Georges Lefebvre ( 6 August 1874 &ndash 28 August 1959) was a French Historian, best known for his work on the French Coming of the French Revolution (translated by R. R. Palmer). Princeton, N. J. : Princeton University Press, 1947.
- Legrand, Jacques. Chronicle of the French Revolution 1788-1799, London: Longman and Chronicle Communications, 1989 ISBN 0-582-05194-0
- The English-language edition of the collaborative work Chronique de la Révolution 1788-1799, Paris: Larousse, 1988 ISBN 2-03-503250-4, produced under the direction of Jean Favier and others. Jean Favier is a French historian born in 1932 who specializes in Medieval history
- Loomis, Stanley. Paris in the Terror, June 1793 – July 1794, Drum Book, 1986 ISBN 0-931933-18-8
- McPhee, Peter. The following is an article about the Australian cricketer For information on the Australian academic see Peter McPhee (academic. The French Revolution, 1789-1799, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002 ISBN 0-19-924414-6
- A text that covers many areas, including feminism and the environment.
- Schama, Simon. Simon Michael Schama, CBE (born 13 February 1945 is a British professor of history and art history at Columbia University. Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution, Penguin, London, 1989. ISBN 0 14 017206 8 This account also contains illustrations related to the Revolution.
- Sobel, Robert. Robert Sobel ( February 19 1931 &ndash June 2, 1999) was an American professor of history at Hofstra University, and The French Revolution (1967)
- Soboul, Albert. Albert Marius Soboul ( April 27, 1914 &ndash September 11, 1982) was a French historian of the French Revolution and of The Parisian Sans-Culottes and the French Revolution, 1793-4. New York: Greenwood Press Reprint, 1979.
- Tackett, Timothy. Timothy Tackett (born 1945 is an American Historian specializing in the French Revolution, currently professor at the University of California Becoming a Revolutionary: the deputies of the French National Assembly and the emergence of a revolutionary culture (1789-1790), Princeton, N. J. ; Chichester: Princeton University Press, 1996 ISBN 0-691-04384-1
- Thorough research on the deputies of the Estates General and the National Assembly.
- Vermeil, Jean. L`autre Histoire de France, Paris: Editions du Félin, 1993 ISBN 2-86645-139-2
- "The exactions of the revolutionaries in the Vendée" (Chapters 13 to 16). (In French)
- Steel, Mark. Mark Steel (born 4 July 1960 is a British Socialist, Columnist, Author and Comedian. Vive la Révolution: A Standup history of the French Revolution (2003) ISBN 0-7432-0805-6, (2004) ISBN 0-7432-0806-4
- Satirical history of the revolution. A cross between a history of the French Revolution and a spirited defence of the ideals that inspired it.
Historical Era
| Preceded by The Old Regime |
French History 1789-1792 |
Succeeded by First Republic |
External links
- Liberty, Equality, Fraternity: Exploring the French Revolution, a collaborative site by the Center for History and New Media (George Mason University) and the American Social History Project (City University of New York)
- The Origins of the French Revolution, The French Revolution: The Moderate Stage, 1789-1792, and The French Revolution: The Radical Stage, 1792-1794, three essays from The History Guide: Lectures on Modern European Intellectual History
- The French Revolution on Encyclopedia.com: from the Columbia Encyclopedia
- Open University course on French Revolution
- Primary source documents on French Revolution from The Internet Modern History Sourcebook
The Ancien Régime, a French term rendered in English as “Old Rule” “Old Kingdom” or simply “Old Regime” refers primarily to the aristocratic The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution.
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