- This article is about the World War II resistance movement. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including For the professional wrestling stable see La Résistance (professional wrestling), and La Resistance for the South Park: Bigger, Longer & Uncut reference. Professional wrestling, or pro wrestling, is a non-competitive professional Sport, where all matches are scripted by the promotion's booking staff This article is about a Professional wrestling stable. See French Resistance for the World War II resistance movement and La Resistance South Park Bigger Longer & Uncut is an Academy Award -nominated Animated satirical Comedy South Park Bigger Longer & Uncut is an Academy Award -nominated Animated satirical Comedy
The French Resistance is the collective name used for the French resistance movements which fought against the Nazi German occupation of France and the collaborationist Vichy Regime during World War II. A resistance movement is a group or collection of individual groups dedicated to fighting an Invader in an occupied country or the government of a sovereign nation Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers The German occupation of France in World War II occurred during the period between May 1940 to December 1944 Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944 World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Resistance groups comprised small groups of armed men and women (referred to as the maquis when based in rural areas),[2][3] publishers of underground newspapers, and escape networks that helped Allied soldiers. The Maquis (ma'ki were the predominantly rural guerrilla bands of the French Resistance. The phrase underground press is most often used to refer to the independently published and distributed underground papers associated with the Counterculture of the The Resistance was pulled from all layers and groups of French society, from conservative Roman Catholics (including priests), to liberals, anarchists and communists. A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based
The French Resistance played a valuable role in facilitating the Allies' rapid advance through France following the invasion of Normandy on June 6, 1944 and Provence on August 15, by providing military intelligence on the Atlantic Wall and Wehrmacht deployments and coordinating acts of sabotage on power, transport and telecommunications networks. Operation Overlord was the code name for the invasion of northwest Europe during World War II by Allied forces Events 1508 - Maximilian I Holy Roman Emperor, is defeated in Friulia by Venetian forces; he is forced to sign a three-year Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Operation Dragoon was the Allied invasion of southern France, on 15 August, 1944, as part of World War II. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed The Atlantikwall ( English: Atlantic wall) was an extensive system of coastal fortifications built by the German Third Reich Wehrmacht (literally "defense force" was the name of the unified Armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 Sabotage is a deliberate action aimed at weakening an enemy oppressor or employer through subversion obstruction disruption and/or destruction Electric power transmission, a process in the delivery of Electricity to consumers is the bulk transfer of electrical power A transport network, or transportation network in American English is typically a network of roads streets pipes aqueducts power lines or nearly any structure which permits [4][5] It was also politically and morally important for France both during the occupation and for decades after as it provided the country with an inspiring example that stood in marked contrast to the collaboration of the Vichy Regime. Collaborationism, can describe the Treason of cooperating with enemy Forces occupying one's Country. Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944 [6][7]
After the landings in Normandy and Provence, resistance combatants were organized more formally into units known as the French Forces of the Interior (FFI). The French Forces of the Interior (Forces Françaises de l'Intérieur refers to French resistance fighters in the latter stages of World War II. Estimated to have a strength of 100,000 in June 1944, the FFI grew rapidly, doubling by the following month and reaching 400,000 in October of that year. [8] Although the amalgamation of the FFI was in some cases fraught with political difficulty, it was ultimately successful and allowed France to re-establish a reasonably large army of 1. 2 million men by VE Day in May 1945. Victory in Europe Day ( V-E Day or VE Day) was May 7 and May 8, 1945, the dates when the World War II Allies Year 1945 ( MCMXLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar [9]
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Motivations
- Further information: German occupation of France during World War II
Following the Second Armistice at Compiègne, life continued normally for many in France. The German occupation of France in World War II occurred during the period between May 1940 to December 1944 The Second Armistice at Compiègne was signed at 1850 on 22 June 1940 near Compiègne, in the department of Oise, between Nazi Germany However, the German occupation authorities and the collaborationist Vichy Regime soon began employing increasingly brutal means in order to subdue the French population, and although the majority of people neither collaborated nor resisted the occupation,[12][13] the authorities' unpopular acts provoked movements of active and passive resistance among a discontent minority. Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944 [14]
One of the conditions of the Armistice was to pay the costs of the three-hundred-thousand strong German occupational army, which amounted to twenty million Reichsmarks per day. [15] The artificial exchange rate of the German Reichsmark currency against the French franc was consequently established as one mark to twenty francs. For a detailed discussion of the English translation of Reich, see Reich. The franc (represented by the franc sign ₣ or more commonly just F) is a former Currency of France. [15][16] This allowed German requisitions and purchases to be made into a form of organised plunder and resulted in soaring inflation,[17] endemic food shortages and malnutrition,[18] particularly amongst children, the elderly, and the more vulnerable sections of French society such as the working urban class of the cities. [19] Labour shortages occurred due to hundreds of thousands of French workers being requisitioned and transferred to Germany for Compulsory Labour Service (‘’Service du Travail Obligatoire" or STO)[20][21][22] and the large number of French prisoners of war being held in Germany. [23] The occupation became increasingly unbearable with the numerous regulations, censorship and propaganda in place during the day, and the forbiddance to go out without authorization during the night. [16] The sight of French women consorting with German soldiers also angered many Frenchmen. [24][25]
In reprisal for resistance activity, the authorities soon established harsh methods of collective punishment. Collective punishment is the Punishment of a group of people as a result of the behaviour of one or more other individuals or groups The increased militancy of communist resistance in August 1941 led to thousands of hostages being taken from among the general population,[26] of whom "at each further incident a number reflecting the seriousness of the crime shall be shot. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. "[27] Over the course of the occupation, 30,000 French civilians were shot as hostages for acts of resistance. [28] Occasionally, German troops would engage in massacres, such as the destruction of Oradour-sur-Glane, where an entire village was razed and the population killed for resistance activities in the vicinity. Oradour-sur-Glane (Orador de Glana is a town and commune in the Haute-Vienne département of central-western France. [29][30]
In early 1943, the Vichy authorities established a paramilitary group, the Milice, to combat the resistance alongside the German forces that were stationed in all of France by the end of 1942. Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Milice Française ( French Militia) generally called simply Milice (" Militia " was a Paramilitary force Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [31] The group collaborated closely with the Nazis and was the Vichy equivalent to the Gestapo security forces in Germany. The ( contraction of ge heime Sta ats' po' lizei: "Secret State Police" was the official Secret police of Nazi Germany [32] Their actions were often very brutal and included the torture and executions of suspected resistance members. Torture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental is intentionally Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. After the liberation of France, many of the estimated 25,000 to 35,000 miliciens[31] were executed themselves for collaboration, and the ones who escaped arrest were forced to flee into central Germany, where they were incorporated into the Charlemagne Division of the Waffen SS. The 33 Waffen-Grenadier-Division der SS Charlemagne (französische Nr The Waffen-SS ( German for "Armed SS" literally "Weapons SS" was the Combat arm of the Schutzstaffel ("Protective Squadron" [33]
Sociology
The French resistance involved men and women of all ages, social classes, occupations, religions and political movements.
In retrospect, the famous résistant Emmanuel d'Astier de la Vigerie gave the image of the resistance having been made up of social outcasts on the fringes of society, saying "one could only be a resister if one was maladjusted. Emmanuel d'Astier de la Vigerie ( January 9 1900 &mdash June 12 1969) was a French Journalist, politician and member of the "[34] Although many did adhere to this description, including d'Astier himself, most resistance participants came from traditional backgrounds[35] and were "individuals of exceptional strong-mindedness, ready to break with family and friends. "[36]
Inevitably, there is the question of how many active resistance participants there were. While stressing that the issue was sensitive and approximate,[37] François Marcot, a Professor of History at the Sorbonne, proposed the total figure of those involved in active resistance as 200,000, with a further 300,000 people who had substantial involvement. [37] The historian Robert Paxton estimated the number of active resistants to be "about 2% of the adult French population [or about 400,000]", going on to say that "there was no doubt, wider complicities, but even if one adds those willing to read underground newspapers, only some two million persons, or around 10% of the adult population, seem to have been willing to take that risk. Robert Paxton (b 1932) is an American Historian specializing in Vichy France and Europe during the World War II era "[38] The postwar government of France officially recognised 220,000 men and women. [39] The statistics reflect the fact that only a small minority of the French population participated in the resistance, in contrast with the post-war portrayal of a broadly resistant France.
Women
Although inequalities persisted under the Third Republic, the cultural changes that followed World War I allowed the gender gap in France to be gradually minimized,[40] with some women acceding to political responsibilities by the 1930s. The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The defeat of France in 1940 and the appointment of the Vichy Regime's conservative leader Philippe Pétain undermined feminism,[41] and France began a traditional restructuring of society based on the "femme au foyer" or "women at home" imperative. Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944 Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951 generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain ( Maréchal Pétain) [42] On one occasion, the Marshal spoke out to French mothers of their patriotic duty:
| “ | Mothers of France, our native land, yours is the most difficult task, but also the most gratifying. You are - even before the state - the true educators. You alone know how to inspire in all that inclination for work, that sense of discipline, that modesty, that respect, that give men character and make nations strong. [43] | ” |
Despite opposing the collaborating regime, the French Resistance generally sympathised with its antifeminism and did not encourage the participation of women, following, in the words of the historian Henri Noguères, "a notion of inequality between the sexes as old as our civilization and as firmly implanted in the Resistance as it was elsewhere in France. "[44] Consequently women in the resistance were less numerous than men and represented an average of 11% of members in the formal networks and movements. [45][46] Those who were involved in the resistance were usually confined to a subordinate role. [47] Lucie Aubrac, the iconic resistant and co-founder of Libération-Sud, was never assigned a specific role in the hierarchy of the movement. Lucie Samuel née Bernard ( June 29 1912 &ndash March 14 2007) better known as Lucie Aubrac, was a French history The Libération-sud ( French for "Liberation-South" resistance group was established by a group of French people including Emmanuel d'Astier, [47] Hélène Viannay, one of the founders of Défense de la France, who was married to another of its founders, was never permitted to express her views in the underground newspaper, and her husband took two years to reach political views she had always held. Défense de la France is the name given to a group of the French Resistance during the Second World War. [48]
Marie-Madeleine Fourcade was the only female leader in the resistance and was head of the Alliance network. Marie-Madeleine Fourcade (1909 - 1989 was during the occupation of France in the Second World War, the leader of the French Resistance network Alliance [49] The Organisation Civile et Militaire had a female wing headed by Marie-Hélène Lefaucheux,[50] who took part in setting up the Œuvre de Sainte-Foy to assist prisoners in French prisons and German concentration camps. [51] No women were chosen to lead any of the eight major resistance movements, and after the liberation of France the Provisional Government appointed no women as Ministers or Commissaires de la République. The Provisional Government of the French Republic ( gouvernement provisoire de la République française or GPRF was an interim government which governed [52]
Jews
The Vichy Regime had legal authority in both the northern zone of France, which was occupied by the German Wehrmacht, and the unoccupied southern "free zone", where the regime's administrative center of Vichy was located. Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944 Wehrmacht (literally "defense force" was the name of the unified Armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 Vichy ( Occitan: Vichèi) is a commune in the department of Allier in Auvergne in central France. [53][54] It voluntarily and wilfully collaborated with Nazi Germany to a high degree[55] and adopted a policy of persecution towards the Jews, enacting anti-semitic legislation as early as October 1940, with the Statute on Jews which legally redefined French Jews as a lower class and deprived them of citizenship. Collaborationism, can describe the Treason of cooperating with enemy Forces occupying one's Country. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Statute on Jews (Statut des juifs was discriminatory legislation against French Jews passed on October 3, 1940 by the Vichy Regime, grouping them as Working class is a term used in academic Sociology and in ordinary conversation to describe depending on context and speaker those employed in specific fields or types [56][57] According to Pétain's chief of staff, "Germany was not at the origin of the anti-Jewish legislation of Vichy. Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951 generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain ( Maréchal Pétain) That legislation was spontaneous and autonomous. "[58] The laws led to confiscations of property, arrests and deportations to the concentration camps. [59] As a result of the fate they were promised by Vichy and the Germans, Jews were over-represented at all levels of the French resistance. Studies show that although Jews in France only amounted to one percent of the French population, they comprised about 15 to 20% of resistance members. [60]
The Jewish youth movement Eclaireurs Israélites de France (EIF), which during the early years of the occupation had shown support for the Vichy regime's traditional values,[61] was banned in 1943 and its members soon formed armed resistance units. Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [62] A militant Jewish resistance organization, the Jewish Army, was begun in 1940 by two Russian-born Jews, and over the next few years prepared units of young combatants for armed operations. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [62] In 1944, the EIF and the Jewish Army combined to form the Organisation Juive de Combat (OJC). Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The OJC had 400 members by summer of 1944,[62] who participated in the liberations of Paris, Lyon, Toulouse, Grenoble and Nice. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city ||-||} Lyon, also known as Lyons in English is a city in east-central France. Toulouse ( pronounced in standard French, and in the local accent ( Occitan: Tolosa, pronounced) is a city in southwest Grenoble is a city and commune in south-east France situated at the foot of the Alps where the Drac joins the Isère River. Nice (nis Niçard Occitan: Niça norm or Nissa, Italian: Nizza or Nizza Marittima, Greek [63]
In the South occupation zone, the Œuvre de secours aux enfants saved the lives of between 7,500 and 9,000 Jewish children by forging papers, smuggling them to neutral countries and sheltering them in orphanages, schools and convents. Œuvre de secours aux enfants, commonly abbreviated as OSE, is a French Jewish Humanitarian organization that saved hundreds of Jewish refugee [64]
Communists
After the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact and the outbreak of World War II in 1939, the French Communist Party (PCF) was declared a proscribed organisation by Edouard Daladier's government. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The French Communist Party ( French: Parti communiste français or PCF) is a political party in France which advocates the principles of Édouard Daladier (18 June 1884 - 10 October 1970 was a French Radical politician and Prime Minister of France at the start of the Second World [65][66] Many of its leaders were arrested and imprisoned or forced to go underground. [67] The PCF adopted an anti-war position under orders from the Comintern in Moscow,[68][69] which remained in place for the first year of the German occupation, mirroring the relationship between Germany and the USSR. The Comintern ( Com munist Intern ational also known as the Third International) was an international Communist organisation founded in Moscow [70] Conflicts erupted within the party, as many of its members opposed collaboration with the Germans. [71] On Armistice Day in November 1940, Communists were among university students staging demonstrations against German repression by marching along the Champs-Élysées. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Avenue des Champs-Élysées (ʃɑ̃zeliˈze) is the most prestigious avenue in Paris. [72] It was only when Germany invaded the Soviet Union in 1941 that French communists began to actively organize resistance,[73][74] benefiting from their experience in clandestine operations during the Spanish Civil War. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of [67]
On August 21, 1941, Colonel Pierre-Georges Fabien committed the first symbolic act of resistance and assassinated a German officer at the Barbès-Rochechouart station of the Paris Métro. Events 1192 - Minamoto Yoritomo becomes Seii Tai Shōgun and the De facto ruler of Japan. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Pierre Georges (1919-1944 better known as Colonel Fabien, was one of the two members of the French Communist Party who perpetrated the first Assassinations Barbès - Rochechouart is a station of the Paris Métro, serving Line 2 and Line 4. [75][68] The attack, and others perpetrated in the following weeks, caused fierce reprisals ending with the execution of 98 hostages after the Feldkommandant of Nantes was shot on October 20. Events 1740 - Maria Theresa takes the throne of Austria. France, Prussia, Bavaria and Saxony [76]
The military strength of the communists was still relatively low by the end of 1941, but the rapid growth of the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans (FTP) armed movement ensured that French communists regained their credibility as an anti-fascist force. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The phrase francs-tireurs was used to describe Irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871 [78] The FTP was open to non-communists but under communist contol,[79] with its members predominantly engaged in acts of sabotage and guerrilla warfare. [80] By 1944, the FTP had an estimated strength of 100,000 men. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [81]
Towards the end of the occupation, the PCF had reached the height of its influence, controlling large areas of France through the resistance units under its command. Some in the PCF wanted to launch a revolution as the Germans withdrew from the country,[82] but the leadership, acting on Stalin's instructions, opposed this and adopted a policy of co-operating with the Allied powers and advocating a new Popular Front government. [83]
Many well-known intellectual and artistic figures were attracted to the communist party during the war, including the artist Pablo Picasso and the writer and philosopher Jean-Paul Sartre. Pablo Diego José Francisco de Paula Juan Nepomuceno María de los Remedios Cipriano de la Santísima Trinidad Martyr Patricio Clito Ruíz y Picasso (October 25 1881 &ndash April 8 1973 Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 &ndash 15 April 1980 commonly known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre (ʒɑ̃ pol saʁtʁə was a French [84]
Extreme Right and Vichyists
Before the war, there were several far right leagues in France, such as the monarchist, anti-semitic and xenophobic Action Française. Far right leagues ( Ligues d'extrême droite) gathered several French far right movements opposed to Parliamentarism, which mainly dedicated themselves Monarchism is the advocacy of the establishment preservation or restoration of a Monarchy as a Form of government in a nation Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility Xenophobia is an intense and/or irrational dislike and sometimes fear of people from other countries The Action Française is a French Monarchist ( Orléanist) Counter-revolutionary movement and periodical founded by Maurice Pujo and [85] The most influential was Croix-de-Feu, the only one to refuse anti-semitism,[86] which gradually grew more moderate and was mostly made up of veterans from the previous war. Croix-de-Feu ( Cross of Fire) was a French Far right league of the Interwar period led by Colonel François de la Rocque (1885-1946 [87] The leagues were characterised by their opposition to parliamentarism,[88] which led them to participate in demonstrations and the riots of 6 February, 1934. A parliamentary system, also known as parliamentarianism (and parliamentarism in American English) is a System of government in which The 6 February 1934 crisis refers to an Anti-parliamentarist demonstration organised in Paris by Far-right leagues (antiparliamentarian [89] Later, La Cagoule, a fascist paramilitary organisation, undertook various actions aimed at destabilizing the Third Republic until it was infiltrated and dismantled in 1937. La Cagoule ( The Cowl, press nickname coined by the Action Française nationalist Maurice Pujo) officially called Year 1937 ( MCMXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [90]
Like the founder of Action Française, Charles Maurras, for whom the collapse of the Republic was famously acclaimed as a "divine surprise",[91] thousands of the extreme right strongly welcomed the Vichy Regime[92] and participated in collaborationist movements. __FORCETOC__ Charles Maurras ( 20 April 1868 Martigues Bouches-du-Rhône France – 16 November 1952) was However, French nationalism drove equally as many to engage in resistance against the occupying German forces.
In 1942, after an ambiguous period of collaboration, the former leader of Croix de Feu François de La Rocque founded the Klan Network, which provided information to the British intelligence services. Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. François de La Rocque (1885&ndash1946 was leader of the French Right-wing league named the Croix de Feu from 1930-1936 before forming the more moderate [93] Georges Loustaunau-Lacau and Marie-Madeleine Fourcade, who had both supported La Cagoule, founded the Alliance Network, while Colonel Groussard, from the Vichy secret services, founded the Gilbert Network. Georges Loustaunau-Lacau ( 17 April 1894 – 11 February 1955) was a French army officer anti-communist conspirator Marie-Madeleine Fourcade (1909 - 1989 was during the occupation of France in the Second World War, the leader of the French Resistance network Alliance Some members of Action Française engaged in the resistance for the same reasons, like Daniel Cordier, who became Jean Moulin's secretary, or Colonel Rémy, who founded the Confrérie de Notre Dame. Jean Moulin ( June 20, 1899 – July 8, 1943) was a high-profile member of the French Resistance during World War II Gilbert Renault (August 6 1904 in Vannes, France - July 29 1984 in Guingamp, France) was known during the resistance under the name The Confrérie de Notre Dame (CND later called the CND-Castille was a French resistance group founded by Colonel Rémy. These included Pierre de Bénouville, one of the leaders of Combat alongside Henri Frenay, and Jacques Renouvin, who founded the group Liberté. Combat (French for "fight" was a French Newspaper created during the Second World War. Henri Frenay (1905-1988 was a French military officer and French resistance member
Sometimes, the contact with thousands of others in the resistance led participants to change their political philosophies. Many gradually moved away from their anti-semitic prejudices or their hatred of 'démocrassouille', 'dirty democracy', or simply from their traditional conservatism. Bénouville and Marie-Madeleine Fourcade became députés after the war, François Mitterrand moved towards the left, Henri Frenay evolved towards European socialism,[94] and Daniel Cordier, whose family had supported Maurras for three generations, abandoned his views in favour of the republican Jean Moulin. Marie-Madeleine Fourcade (1909 - 1989 was during the occupation of France in the Second World War, the leader of the French Resistance network Alliance A Member of Parliament, or MP, is a representative elected by the voters to a Parliament. François Maurice Adrien Marie Mitterrand ( 26 October 1916 8 January 1996 served as President of France from 1981 to 1995 elected as representative of the Socialist Henri Frenay (1905-1988 was a French military officer and French resistance member Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Jean Moulin ( June 20, 1899 – July 8, 1943) was a high-profile member of the French Resistance during World War II
The historian Jean-Pierre Azéma coined the term vichysto-résistant to describe those who at first supported the Vichy Regime (mostly the image of Pétain rather than the Révolution Nationale) but later joined the resistance. Jean-Pierre Azéma, born in 1937 is a French Historian, and the son of the Réunionese poet Jean-Henri Azéma. The Révolution nationale ( National Revolution) was the official ideological name under which the Vichy regime ("the French state" [95] The founder of Ceux de la Libération Maurice Ripoche initially defended Vichy, but soon placed the liberation of France from the Germans above everything else, and in 1941 he opened the movement to the left-wing. " Ceux de la Libération " ( CDLL) was a French resistance movement during the German occupation of France in World War II. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In contrast, many extreme right resistance participants never renounced their attitudes towards Vichy, such as Gabriel Jeantet or Jacques Le Roy Ladurie.
BCRA networks
- Further information: Operation Jedburgh
In July 1940, after the defeat of the French armies and the consequent surrender of France to Germany, British Prime Minister Winston Churchill asked the Free French government-in-exile of General de Gaulle to set up a secret service agency in the occupied territory, to counter the threat of Operation Sealion - the possible cross-channel invasion of Britain. Jedburgh was an operation in World War II in which men from the British Special Operations Executive, the U The Second Armistice at Compiègne was signed at 1850 on 22 June 1940 near Compiègne, in the department of Oise, between Nazi Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC, PC (Can ( 30 November 1874 The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French Operation Sealion (Unternehmen Seelöwe was Germany's plan to invade the United Kingdom during World War II, beginning in 1940 Colonel André Dewavrin, who had previously worked for France's military intelligence service the Deuxième Bureau, took on the responsibility of creating such a network, with the main goal of informing London of German military operations on the Atlantic coast and the English Channel. Andre Dewavrin ( June 9, 1911 - December 21, 1998) was a French officer who served with Free French Forces intelligence The Deuxième Bureau de l'État-major général ( Second Bureau of the General Staff) was France 's external Military Intelligence agency from [96] The Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action (BCRA) was thus formed, and its actions were carried out by volunteers who were parachuted into France to create and unify local resistance networks. The Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action ("Intelligence and Operations Central Bureau" commonly referred as just BCRA is the World War II era forerunner [97]
Of the nearly 2000 volunteers who were active by the end of the war, one of the most effective and well-known was the agent Gilbert Renault, who was awarded the Ordre de la Libération and later the Légion d'honneur for his deeds. Gilbert Renault (August 6 1904 in Vannes, France - July 29 1984 in Guingamp, France) was known during the resistance under the name The Ordre de la Libération (“Order of the Liberation” is a French Order awarded to heroes of the Liberation of France during the Second World War. [98] Known mainly under the pseudonym of Colonel Rémy, he returned to occupied France in August 1940, not long after its surrender. He went on to organize one of the most active and important resistance networks of the BCRA; the Confrérie de Notre Dame, which provided the Allies with photographs, maps and important information on the Atlantic Wall. The Confrérie de Notre Dame (CND later called the CND-Castille was a French resistance group founded by Colonel Rémy. The Atlantikwall ( English: Atlantic wall) was an extensive system of coastal fortifications built by the German Third Reich [99] From 1941 onwards, multiple networks such as this allowed the BCRA to send weapons and armed parachutists into France to carry out missions on the Atlantic coast. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar.
Foreigners
Spanish Maquis
Following their defeat in the Spanish Civil War in early 1939, around 500,000 Republicans fled to France to escape imprisonment and execution. The Spanish Maquis were Spanish Guerrillas exiled in France after the Spanish Civil War who continued to fight against the Franco regime The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of Year 1939 ( MCMXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [100] On the other side of the Pyrenees, refugees were confined in internment camps such as Camp Gurs or Camp Vernet. The Pyrenees (Pirineos French: Pyrénées; Catalan: Pirineus; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés There have been Internment camps and Concentration camps in France before during and after World War II. Camp Gurs was an internment and refugee camp constructed by the French government in 1939 Le Vernet Internment Camp, or Camp Vernet, was a concentration camp in Le Vernet, Ariège, near Pamiers, in the French Pyrenees [101][100] Although over half of the refugees had been repatriated by the time Pétain proclaimed the Vichy Regime,[102] the 120,000 to 150,000 who remained[103] became political prisoners, and the foreign equivalent to Compulsory Labour Service, the Compagnies de Travailleurs Etrangers or CTE, was begun. [104] The CTE permitted prisoners to leave the interment camps if they would go to work in factories in Germany,[105] and as many as 60,000 Republicans who were recruited to the labour service managed to escape and instead join the resistance. [102] Thousands of suspected anti-fascist Republicans were also deported to concentration camps in Germany;[106] most were sent to Mauthausen, where of the 10,000 Spaniards registered, only 2,000 survived the war. Mauthausen Concentration Camp (known from the summer of 1940 as Mauthausen-Gusen Concentration Camp) grew to become a large group of Nazi concentration camps [107]
Many Spanish escapees joined French resistance groups, while others formed autonomous groups. In April 1942, Spanish communists formed the XIV Corps, an armed guerrilla movement, which had a force of about 3,400 combatants by June 1944. Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [103] Although the group at first worked closely with the Franc Tireurs et Partisans, it re-formed as the Agrupación de Guerrilleros Españoles (Group of Spanish Guerrillas, AGE) in May 1944[108] to convey the group's composition of Spanish soldiers, who were ultimately advocating the fall of Franco. The phrase francs-tireurs was used to describe Irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871 Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco y Bahamonde (born December 4, 1892 in Ferrol, died November 20, 1975 in Madrid [103] The Spanish maquis returned their focus to Spain after the German army was driven from France.
German anti-fascists
From spring 1943, German and Austrian anti-fascists, who had fought in the International Brigades during the Spanish Civil War, fought in Lozère and in the Cévennes alongside the French resistance in the Franc Tireurs et Partisans. Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The International Brigades were Republican Military units in the Spanish Civil War, formed of many non-state sponsored volunteers of different countries The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of Lozère (in Occitan Losera) is a department in southeast France near the Massif Central. The Cévennes are a range of mountains in south-central France, covering parts of the départements ' of Gard, Lozère, Ardèche The phrase francs-tireurs was used to describe Irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871 [102] During the first years of the occupation they had been employed in the CTE, but following the German invasion of the southern zone in 1942 the threat increased and many joined the maquis. Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. They were led by the militant German communist Otto Kühne, a former member of the Reichstag, who had over 2000 Germans in the FTP under his command by July 1944. The Reichstag ( German for "Imperial Diet " was the Parliament of the Holy Roman Empire, the North German Confederation, Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. He directly fought the Nazis, as in the battles of April 1944 in Saint-Étienne-Vallée-Française, where they destroyed a Feldgendarmerie unit, or in an ambush of the Waffen-SS on June 5, 1944. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Saint-Étienne-Vallée-Française is a commune of the Lozère département in France. The Feldgendarmerie (in English Field Gendarmerie) were the Military police units of the armies of the German Empire (including the The Waffen-SS ( German for "Armed SS" literally "Weapons SS" was the Combat arm of the Schutzstaffel ("Protective Squadron" Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [109]
Italian anti-fascists
On March 3, 1943, representatives of the Italian Communist Party and the Italian Socialist Party, who had taken refuge in France, signed the "Pact of Lyon", which began their participation in the resistance. Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Italian Communist Party (Italian Partito Comunista Italiano, or PCI emerged as the Communist Party of Italy ( Partito Comunista d'Italia) The Italian Socialist Party ( Partito Socialista Italiano, PSI was a democratic socialist / social democratic political party founded in Genoa The Italians were particularly numerous in the Moselle industrial area, which had been annexed by Hitler, where they played a determining role in the creation of the département's main resistance organisation Groupe Mario. Moselle is a ''département'' in the east of France named after the Moselle River. [110] Vittorio Culpo
Networks and movements
It is customary to distinguish the various organisations of the French Resistance between movements and networks. Vittorio Culpo (1904-1955 was an Italo-French resistance soldier It is customary to distinguish the various organisations of the French Resistance between movements and networks A resistance group or network was an organization created for a specific military purpose, primarily intelligence, sabotage, and aiding shot-down Allied pilots. [111][112] Resistance movements, on the other hand, were primarily aimed at educating and organizing the population,[112] stating their purpose was "to raise awareness and to organize the people as broadly as possible. "[111]
Beginnings
The concept of a thoroughly organized resistance that fought throughout the whole of France would not be an accurate portrayal for the first few years of the occupation, from 1940 to 1942. Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In the beginning, active opposition to the authorities was sporadic and carried out only by a tiny, disunited minority. [113] Most French men and women held faith in the Vichy government and its patriarch Pétain, regarded as the "saviour" of France,[114][115] and continued to do so until its unpopular policies and collaboration became apparent.
The earliest resistance organisations had no contact with and received no material aid from London, and consequently most focused on propaganda through the distribution of underground newspapers. [116] Many of the major movements grew around the distribution of the newspapers, such as Défense de la France, and although their activities gradually diversified over the following years, propaganda remained their most important occupation. Défense de la France is the name given to a group of the French Resistance during the Second World War. [117]
Early acts of resistance were often undertaken more out of instinct than ideology,[118] but later several distinct political alignments and attitudes towards post-liberation France developed amongst the resistance organisations. These differences sometimes resulted in conflicts, but were on the whole assuaged by a mutual opposition to Vichy and the Germans. [119]
Coordination
The majority of resistance movements in France were unified after Jean Moulin's formation of the Conseil National de la Résistance (CNR) in May 1943. Jean Moulin ( June 20, 1899 – July 8, 1943) was a high-profile member of the French Resistance during World War II The Conseil National de la Résistance [120][121] CNR was coordinated with the Free French Forces under the authority of the French Generals Henri Giraud and Charles de Gaulle and their body, the Comité Français de Libération Nationale (CFLN). The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces Henri Honoré Giraud ( 18 January 1879 &ndash 13 March 1949) was a French general who fought in World War I and World Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French The French Committee of National Liberation (Comité Français de Libération Nationale was a body formed by the French leaders Gens
Power struggles
Cultural personalities
The pre-war personalities of France - intellectuals, artists and entertainers - faced a serious dilemma over whether to emigrate or remain following the country's occupation. People involved with the French Resistance include Abbé Pierre ( Catholic priest, Maquis, transition of Jews to Switzerland Their post-war reputations would become reliant on their conduct during the war years,[122] and many were later ostracized from the cultural bourgeoisie following accusations of collaborationism.
After the war, many Frenchmen falsely claimed to have been involved in the resistance. Some—like Maurice Papon—even manufactured a false resistance past for themselves. Maurice Papon ( September 3 1910 &ndash February 17 2007) was a French civil servant industrial leader and Gaullist politician [123]
Activities
Clandestine press
The first action of many resistance movements was the publication and distribution of the clandestine press. This was not the case with all movements, as some refused civil action and preferred armed resistance, such as CDLR and CDLL. Ceux de la Résistance " ( CDLR) was a French resistance movement during the German occupation of France in World War II. " Ceux de la Libération " ( CDLL) was a French resistance movement during the German occupation of France in World War II. Most clandestine newspapers were not consistent in their issues and were often just a single sheet, because the sale of all raw materials - paper, ink, stencils - was prohibited.
In the northern zone, Pantagruel, the newspaper of Franc-Tireur, had a circulation of 10,000 by June 1941, and was quickly replaced by Libération-Nord which reached a circulation of 50,000. The phrase francs-tireurs was used to describe Irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871 Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. By January 1944, Défense de la France was distributing 450,000 copies. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Défense de la France is the name given to a group of the French Resistance during the Second World War. [124]
In the southern zone, François de Menthon's newspaper Liberté merged with Henri Frenay's Vérité to form Combat, in December 1941, which grew to a circulation of 200,000 by 1944. Henri Frenay (1905-1988 was a French military officer and French resistance member Combat (French for "fight" was a French Newspaper created during the Second World War. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [125] During the same period, Pantagruel published 37 issues, Libération-Sud published 54 issues and Témoignage chrétien published 15.
The underground press of France published books as well as newspapers through publishing houses such as Les Éditions de Minuit (the Midnight Press)[126] which had been begun in order to circumvent Vichy and German censorship. Les Éditions de Minuit ( Midnight Press) is a French publishing house which has its origins in the The novel Le Silence de la Mer was written in 1942 by Jean Bruller, and quickly became a symbol of mental resistance through its story of how an old man and his niece do not speak to the German officer occupying their house. Le Silence de la mer ( The Silence of the Sea) is a novel written in early 1942 by Jean Bruller, under the codename Vercors. Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Jean Bruller ( February 26, 1902 – June 10, 1991) was a French Writer and Illustrator who co-founded Les [127][128]
Intelligence
The intelligence networks were by far the most numerous and substantial of resistance activities. They collected information of military value, such as coastal fortifications of the Atlantic Wall or Wehrmacht deployments. Coastal artillery is the branch of Armed forces concerned with operating anti-ship Artillery or fixed gun batteries in coastal Fortifications. The Atlantikwall ( English: Atlantic wall) was an extensive system of coastal fortifications built by the German Third Reich Wehrmacht (literally "defense force" was the name of the unified Armed forces of Germany from 1935 to 1945 There was often competition between the BCRA and the different British intelligence services to produce the most valuable information from their resistance networks in France. The Bureau Central de Renseignements et d'Action ("Intelligence and Operations Central Bureau" commonly referred as just BCRA is the World War II era forerunner [129][130]
The first agents of the Free French to arrive from Britain landed on the Brittany coast as early as July 1940. The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces Brittany (Breizh bʁejs Bretagne; Gallo: Bertaèyn) is a former independent Celtic kingdom and Duchy, now incorporated into Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. They were Lieutenant Mansion, Saint-Jacques, Corvisart and Colonel Rémy, and did not hesitate to get in touch with the thousands of anti-Germans in the Vichy military, such as Georges Loustaunau-Lacau and Georges Groussard. Gilbert Renault (August 6 1904 in Vannes, France - July 29 1984 in Guingamp, France) was known during the resistance under the name Georges Loustaunau-Lacau ( 17 April 1894 – 11 February 1955) was a French army officer anti-communist conspirator
The various resistance movements in France had to understand the value of intelligence networks in order to be recognised or receive subsidies from the BCRA or the British. The intelligence service of the Francs-Tireurs et Partisans was known by the code letters FANA[131] and headed by Georges Beyer, the brother-in-law of Charles Tillon. The phrase francs-tireurs was used to describe Irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871 Charles Tillon ( July 3, 1897, Rennes — January 13, 1993, Marseilles) was a French politician Information from services such as it was often used as a bargaining chip to qualify for airdrops of weapons.
The transmission of information was first done by radio transmitter. Later, when air links by the Westland Lysander became more frequent, some information was also channeled through these courriers. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout By 1944, the BCRA was receiving 1000 telegrams by radio every day and 2000 plans every week. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [132] Many radio operators, called pianistes, were located by German goniometers. A goniometer is an instrument that either measures angle or allows an object to be rotated to a precise angular position Their dangerous work resulted in them having an average life expectancy of around six months. [133] According to the historian Jean-François Muracciole, "Throughout the war, it was communications which constituted the principal difficulty of intelligence networks. Not only were the operators few and inept, but their information was dangerous. "[134]
Sabotage
Sabotage is a form of resistance that was taken by groups who wanted to go further than the distribution of the clandestine press. The ClanDestine (also known simply as ClanDestine) is a Comic book series about the Destines a secret family of long-lived Superhuman Many laboratories were set up to produce explosives. In August 1941, the Parisian chemist France Bloch-Serazin assembled a small laboratory in her apartment to provide explosives to communist resistance fighters. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. France Bloch-Sérazin, born on February 21, 1913 in Paris and executed on February 12, 1943 in Hamburg, Germany [135] The lab also produced cyanide capsules to allow the fighters to evade torture if they were arrested. A cyanide is any Chemical compound that contains the cyano group (C≡N which consists of a Carbon Atom triple-bonded to a [135] France Bloch was arrested in February 1942, tortured, and deported to Hamburg where she was decapitated with an axe in February 1943. Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Hamburg (English, German: ˈhambʊɐk local pronunciation Low German / Low Saxon: Hamborg) is the second-largest city in Germany Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In the southern occupation zone, Jacques Renouvin engaged in the same activities on behalf of groups of francs-tireurs. The phrase francs-tireurs was used to describe Irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871
Eventually, stealing dynamite from the Germans became preferred to handcrafting explosives. Dynamite is an explosive based on the explosive potential of Nitroglycerin, initially using Diatomaceous earth (kieselgur US Spelling kieselguhr The British Special Operations Executive also parachuted tons of explosives to its agents in France for their essential sabotage missions. The Special Operations Executive ( SOE) (sometimes referred to as "the Baker Street Irregulars " after Sherlock Holmes ' fictional group of helpers [136] The railways were a favourite target of saboteurs, who soon understood that removing the bolts from the tracks was far more efficient than using explosives.
Train derailments were of disputable effectiveness as throughout the occupation the Germans managed to repair the tracks fairly quickly. A derailment is an accident on a railway in which a Train leaves the rails which can result in damage injury and death Following the invasions of Normandy and Provence in 1944, however, the sabotage of rail transportation became much more frequent and was effective in preventing German troop deployments to the front and in hindering their retreat later on. Operation Overlord was the code name for the invasion of northwest Europe during World War II by Allied forces Operation Dragoon was the Allied invasion of southern France, on 15 August, 1944, as part of World War II. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [137] It was also preferred as it caused less collateral damage and civilian casualties than Allied bombing. Collateral damage is damage that is unintended or incidental to the intended outcome [138]
The sabotage of equipment leaving armaments factories was a more discreet form of resistance, but probably at least as effective as the bombings.
Guerrilla warfare
Guerrilla warfare was primarily undertaken by communists, who attacked German forces at the hearts of French cities. In July 1942, the Allies' failure to open up a second front resulted in a wave of guerrilla attacks being carried out by communists, with the intention of maximising the number of Germans deployed in the West in order to relieve the USSR. Year 1942 ( MCMXLII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (the link will display the full 1942 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [139]
The assassinations that took place during summer and autumn 1941, beginning with Colonel Pierre-Georges Fabien's shooting of a German officer in the Paris Métro, caused fierce reprisals and hundreds of French hostages were executed. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Pierre Georges (1919-1944 better known as Colonel Fabien, was one of the two members of the French Communist Party who perpetrated the first Assassinations As a result the clandestine press was very discreet about the events and the communists soon chose to end the assassinations.
From July to October 1943, groups in Paris engaging in attacks against occupying soldiers were better organised. Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Joseph Epstein was assigned responsibility for training resistance fighters across the city, and his new commandos of fifteen men allowed a number of attacks that would not have previously been possible to be carried out. Joseph Epstein ( October 16 1911 &ndash April 11, 1944, Fort Mont-Valérien, France) also known as Colonel Gilles The commandos were composed of the foreign branch of the Franc Tireurs et Partisans, and the most famous of them was the Manouchian Group. The phrase francs-tireurs was used to describe Irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871 Missak Manouchian (Միսաք Մանուշյան September 1 1906, Adıyaman, in Ottoman|Turkey &mdash February 21 1944
Role in the liberation of France
In determining the role of the French resistance during the German Occupation, or addressing its military importance alongside the Allied Forces during the liberation of France, it is difficult to give a direct answer. The German occupation of France in World War II occurred during the period between May 1940 to December 1944 The two forms of resistance, active and passive,[140] and the north-south occupational divide,[141] allow for many different interpretations, but what can broadly be agreed on is a synopsis of the events which took place.
Following the Italian surrender in September 1943, a significant example of resistance strength was displayed, when the Corsican Resistance, with the assistance of the Free French, began a movement which liberated the island from Albert Kesselring's remaining German forces. Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Corsica (Corse Corsican and Italian: Corsica) is the fourth largest island in the Mediterranean Sea (after Sicily The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces Albert Kesselring (30 November 1885 - 16 July 1960 was a Luftwaffe Generalfeldmarschall during World War II. [142]
On mainland France itself, from the onset of the D-Day landings in Normandy in June 1944, the FFI and the communist FTP movements, theoretically unified under the command of General Pierre Kœnig,[143] fought alongside the Allies to free the rest of France. D-Day may also refer to Decimal Day in the United Kingdom. D-Day is a term often used in Military parlance to denote Normandy (Normandie Norman: Normaundie) is a geographical region corresponding to the former Duchy of Normandy. Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The French Forces of the Interior (Forces Françaises de l'Intérieur refers to French resistance fighters in the latter stages of World War II. The phrase francs-tireurs was used to describe Irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871 Marie Pierre Kœnig ( October 10, 1898 &ndash September 2, 1970) was a French general. Several colour-coded plans were co-ordinated for sabotage, with the most important being Plan Vert (Green) for railways, Plan Bleu (Blue) for power installations and Plan Violet (Purple) for telecommunications. [144][145][146] To complement these missions, smaller plans were prepared: Plan Rouge (Red) for German ammunition depots, Plan Jaune (Yellow) for German command posts, Plan Noir (Black) for German fuel depots and Plan Tortue (Tortoise) for road traffic. [147] The paralyzing of German infrastructure is widely thought to have been very effective. [148] British Prime Minister Winston Churchill later wrote in his memoirs of the role the resistance played in the liberation of Brittany, "The French Resistance Movement, which here numbered 30,000 men, played a notable part, and the peninsula was quickly overrun. Sir Winston Leonard Spencer-Churchill, KG, OM, CH, TD, FRS, PC, PC (Can ( 30 November 1874 "[149]
The Liberation of Paris on August 25, 1944, with the support of Leclerc's French 2nd Armored Division, was one of the most famous and glorious moments of the French Resistance. The Liberation of Paris' (also known as Battle for Paris) took place during World War II from 19 August 1944 until the surrender of Events 1248 - The Dutch city of Ommen receives city rights and fortification rights from Otto III the Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Philippe Leclerc de Hauteclocque ( November 22, 1902 – November 28, 1947) was a French general during World War II The 2nd Armored Division (2e Division Blindée 2e DB commanded by General Leclerc, fought during the final phases of World War II in the Western Front Although it is again difficult to determine their effectiveness, popular anti-German demonstrations, such as general strikes by the Paris Métro, the Gendarmerie and the Police, took place, and fighting between the opposing forces ensued. See Gendarmerie for similar forces in other countries In France, the National Gendarmerie (Gendarmerie Nationale is the national Organizations Agencies France has two national general-purpose law enforcement agencies: the Police Nationale (civilian force The liberation of most of the southwest, central France, and the southeast was finally completed with the progression of the 1st French Army of General de Lattre de Tassigny, which landed in Provence in August 1944 and was assisted by over 25,000 maquis. The First Army (Ire Armée was a field Army of France that fought during World War I and World War II. Jean Joseph Marie Gabriel de Lattre de Tassigny ( 2 February 1889 &ndash 11 January 1952) was a French military hero of World Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [150]
One source often referred to is General Eisenhower's comment in his military memoir, Crusade in Europe:
| “ | Throughout France the Resistance had been of inestimable value in the campaign. Dwight David "Ike" Eisenhower (October 14 1890 – March 28 1969 was President of the United States from 1953 until 1961 and a five-star general Crusade in Europe (ISBN 0-801-85668-X is a book by General Dwight D Without their great assistance the liberation of France would have consumed a much longer time and meant greater losses to ourselves. [151] | ” |
General Eisenhower also estimated the value of the resistance to have been equal to 15 divisions at the time of the landings. [152][153] One infantry division (ID) represented about 10,000 men.
Memories
In coming to terms with the events of the occupation, several different attitudes have emerged in France, in an evolution the historian Henry Rousso has called the "Vichy Syndrome". Henry Rousso (born 1954 in Cairo) is a contemporary French Historian specializing in World War II France [154]
Immediately following the liberation, France was swept by a wave of executions, public humiliations, assaults and detentions of suspected collaborators, known as the épuration sauvage (wild purge). The pursuit of Nazi collaborators refers to the post-WWII pursuit and apprehension of individuals who were not citizens of the Third Reich at the outbreak of World War II [155] This period succeeded the German occupational administration but preceded the authority of the French Provisional Government, and therefore lacked a form of institutional justice. The Provisional Government of the French Republic ( gouvernement provisoire de la République française or GPRF was an interim government which governed [155] Approximately 9,000 were executed, mostly without trial. [155] Head shaving was a common feature of the purges,[156] and between 10,000 and 30,000 women accused of having collaborated with the Germans were subjected to the practice,[157] becoming known as les tondues (the shorn). [158]
The official épuration légale began following a June 1944 decree that established a three-tier system of judicial courts;[159] a High Court of Justice, which dealt with Vichy ministers and officials; Courts of Justice for other serious cases of collaboration; and regular Civic Courts for lesser cases of collaboration. The Épuration légale ( French "legal purge" was the wave of official trials that followed the Liberation of France and the fall of the Year 1944 ( MCMXLIV) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [160][161] The phase of the purge trials ended with a series of amnesty laws passed between 1951 and 1953[162] which reduced the number of imprisoned collaborators from 40,000 to 62,[163] and was ensued by a period of official "repression" that lasted between 1954 and 1971. Year 1951 ( MCMLI) was a Common year starting on Monday. Events of 1951 January Year 1953 ( MCMLIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1954 ( MCMLIV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1954 Gregorian calendar) Year 1971 ( MCMLXXI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1971 Gregorian calendar. [162] During this period, and particularly after de Gaulle's return to power in 1958,[164] the collective memory of "résistancialisme" tended to propose a very much resistant France opposed to the collaboration of the Vichy Regime. Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944 [165] This period ended when the aftermath of the events of May 1968, which had divided France between the conservative war generation and the younger, more liberal students and workers,[166] led many to question the resistance ideals of the official history. For other events in May 1968 see 1968. [167]
The questioning of France's past had become a national obsession by the 1980s,[168] fuelled by the highly-publicised trials of war criminals such as Klaus Barbie and Maurice Papon. Klaus Barbie ( October 25, 1913 &ndash September 25, 1991) was an SS - Hauptsturmführer, Soldier Maurice Papon ( September 3 1910 &ndash February 17 2007) was a French civil servant industrial leader and Gaullist politician [169] Although the occupation often remains a sensitive subject in the twenty-first century,[170] contrary to some interpretations the French as a whole have acknowledged their past and no longer deny their conduct during the war. [171]
After the war, the influential French Communist Party (PCF) projected itself as "Le Parti des Fusillés" (The Party of those shot), in recognition of the thousands of Communists executed for their resistance activities. The French Communist Party ( French: Parti communiste français or PCF) is a political party in France which advocates the principles of [172][173][174] The number of communists killed was in reality considerably less than the Party's figure of 75,000, and it is now estimated that nearer to 30,000 Frenchmen of all political movements combined were shot,[175][176] of whom only a few thousand were communists. [176]
The Vichy Regime's prejudicial policies had discredited traditional conservatism in France by the end of the war,[177] but following the liberation many former Pétainistes became critical of the official résistancialisme, using expressions such as "la mythe de la Résistance" (the myth of the resistance),[178] with one concluding, "The 'Gaullist' régime is therefore built on a fundamental lie. "[179]
The French Resistance has had a great influence on literature, particularly in France. A famous example is the poem Strophes pour se souvenir, which was written by the communist academic Louis Aragon in 1955 to commemorate the heroism of the Manouchian Group, whose 23 members were shot by the Nazis. L'Affiche rouge is a song on the album Léo Ferré chante Aragon (1959 by Léo Ferré. Louis Aragon lwi aʁaˈgɔ̃ in French ( October 3, 1897 &ndash December 24, 1982) French Poet and Novelist Missak Manouchian (Միսաք Մանուշյան September 1 1906, Adıyaman, in Ottoman|Turkey &mdash February 21 1944
In cinema
In the immediate post-war years, French cinema produced a number of films that portrayed a France broadly present in the resistance. [180][181] The 1946 La Bataille du rail depicted the courageous efforts of French railway workers to sabotage German reinforcement trains,[182] and in the same year Le Père tranquille told the story of a quiet insurance agent secretly involved in the bombing of a factory. Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. La Bataille du rail ( The Battle of the Rails) is a 1946 War movie which tells the courageous efforts by French railway workers to [182] Collaborators were hatefully presented as a rare minority, as played by Pierre Brewer in Jéricho (1946) or Serge Reggiani in Les Portes de la nuit (1946), and movements such as the Milice were rarely evoked. Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Serge Reggiani ( May 2 1922 - July 23 2004) was an Italian -born French Singer, painter and Actor Year 1946 ( MCMXLVI) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full 1946 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The Milice Française ( French Militia) generally called simply Milice (" Militia " was a Paramilitary force
In the 1950s, a less heroic interpretation of the occupation gradually began to emerge. [182] In Claude Autant-Lara's La Traversée de Paris (1956), the portrayal of the city's black market and general mediocrity revealed the reality of war-profiteering during the occupation. Claude Autant-Lara ( 5 August 1901 in Luzarches, Val-d’Oise &ndash 5 February 2000 in Antibes, Alpes-Maritimes Year 1956 ( MCMLVI) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [183] In the same year, Robert Bresson presented A Man Escaped, in which an imprisoned resistance activist works with a reformed collaborator inmate to escape. Robert Bresson (ʁɔbɛʁ bʁɛˈsɔ̃ in French ( September 25, 1901 &ndash December 18, 1999) was a French Film director A Man Escaped or The Wind Bloweth Where It Listeth (original title Un condamné à mort s'est échappé ou Le vent souffle où il veut) is a [184] A cautious reappearance of the image of Vichy emerged in Le Passage du Rhin (1960), in which a crowd successively acclaim both Pétain and de Gaulle. Le Passage du Rhin is a 1960 French film directed by André Cayatte. Year 1960 ( MCMLX) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. [185]
After General de Gaulle's return to power in 1958, the portrayal of the resistance returned to its earlier résistancialisme. Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French Year 1958 ( MCMLVIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In this manner, in Is Paris Burning? (1966), "the role of the resistant was revalued according to [de Gaulle's] political trajectory". Is Paris Burning? (French Paris brûle-t-il?) is a 1966 Franco - American film dealing with the 1944 Liberation Year 1966 ( MCMLXVI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the 1966 Gregorian calendar. [186] The comic form of films such as La Grande Vadrouille (1966) widened the image of resistance heroes to average Frenchmen. La Grande Vadrouille (literally The Great Stroll. Released in the USA as Don't Look Now Year 1966 ( MCMLXVI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display full calendar of the 1966 Gregorian calendar. [187] The most famous and critically acclaimed of all the résistancialisme movies is Army of Shadows (L'Armee des ombres), which was made by the French film-maker Jean-Pierre Melville in 1969. For the book Army of Shadows see Army of Shadows Palestinian Collaboration with Zionism 1917-1948 Army of Shadows ( French Jean-Pierre Melville (born Jean-Pierre Grumbach, October 20, 1917 – August 2, 1973) was a noted French Filmmaker Year 1969 ( MCMLXIX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The film was inspired by Joseph Kessel's 1943 book, as well as Melville's own experiences, as he had fought in the resistance himself and participated in Operation Dragoon. Joseph Kessel ( 10 February 1898 &ndash 23 July 1979) was a French Journalist and Novelist. Year 1943 ( MCMXLIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (the link will display full 1943 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Operation Dragoon was the Allied invasion of southern France, on 15 August, 1944, as part of World War II. A 1995 television screening of L'Armee des ombres described it as "the best film made about the fighters of the shadows, those anti-heroes. "[188]
The shattering of France's résistancialisme following the events of May 1968 emerged particularly clearly in French cinema. For other events in May 1968 see 1968. The honest manner of the 1971 documentary The Sorrow and the Pity pointed the finger on anti-Semitism in France and disputed the official resistance ideals. Year 1971 ( MCMLXXI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1971 Gregorian calendar. The Sorrow and the Pity ( Le Chagrin et la pitié) is a two-part Documentary film by Marcel Ophüls that concerns the French Resistance [189][190] TIME magazine's positive review of the film wrote that director Marcel Ophüls "tries to puncture the bourgeois myth—or protectively askew memory—that allows France generally to act as if hardly any Frenchmen collaborated with the Germans. Time (trademarked in capitals as TIME) is a weekly American Newsmagazine, similar to Newsweek and Marcel Ophüls (born November 1, 1927) is a Documentary film maker "[191]
Franck Cassenti, with L'Affiche Rouge (1976), Gilson, with La Brigade (1975), and Mosco with the documentary Des terroristes à la retraite at the time directed their films on resistant foreigners of the EGO, who were relatively unknown. Year 1976 ( MCMLXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Year 1975 ( MCMLXXV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. In 1974, Louis Malle's Lacombe, Lucien caused scandal and polemic because of his absence of moral judgment with regards to the behavior of a collaborator. Year 1974 ( MCMLXXIV) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display full calendar of the 1974 Gregorian calendar. Louis Malle (30 October 1932 &ndash 23 November 1995 was a French Film director, working in both French and English. Lacombe Lucien ( 1974) is a French film that tells the story of a teenage boy during the German occupation of France in World War II. [192] The same man later portrayed the resistance of Catholic priests who protected Jewish children in his 1987 film Au revoir, les enfants. Year 1987 ( MCMLXXXVII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays 1987 Gregorian calendar) Au revoir les enfants (French for Goodbye Children) is a 1987 film written produced and directed by Louis Malle. François Truffaut's 1980 film Le Dernier Métro was set during the German occupation of Paris and won ten Césars for its story of a theatre production taking place while its Jewish director is concealed by his wife in the theatre's basement. François Roland Truffaut ( February 6 1932 – October 21 1984) was one of the founders of the French New Wave in filmmaking Year 1980 ( MCMLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link displays the 1980 Gregorian calendar) The Last Metro (original French title Le Dernier Métro) is a 1980 film made by Les Films du Carrosse written and directed by the The César Award is the national film award of France, first given out in 1975. [193] The more alleviated 1980s began to portray the resistance of working women, as in Blanche et Marie (1984). Year 1984 ( MCMLXXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link displays the 1984 Gregorian calendar) [194] Later, Jacques Audiard's Un héros très discret (1996) told the story of a young man travelling to Paris and manufacturing a resistance past for himself, suggesting that many heroes of the resistance were imposters. Jacques Audiard (born 30 April 1952 in Paris) is a French Film director, the son of Michel Audiard also a revered film director Year 1996 ( MCMXCVI) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display full 1996 Gregorian calendar) [195][196] In 1997, Claude Berri produced the biopic Lucie Aubrac based on the life of the resistance heroine of the same name, which attracted criticism for its Gaullist portrayal of the resistance and over-emphasis on the relationship between Aubrac and her husband. Year 1997 ( MCMXCVII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display full 1997 Gregorian calendar Claude Berri (born July 1, 1934 in Paris, France) is a French Film director, Actor, Screenwriter and producer A biographical motion picture &mdash often shortened to biopic &mdash is a film that dramatizes the life of an actual person or people Lucie Aubrac is a 1997 French biopic of the World War II French Resistance member Lucie Aubrac. [197]
In popular culture
- In the British television sitcom 'Allo 'Allo!, René Artois is a French café owner who also helps out the French Resistance, which is led by a woman called Michelle, who often thinks up very far-fetched plots. 'Allo 'Allo! was a long-running British sitcom broadcast on BBC1 from 1982 to 1992 comprising eighty-five episodes [198] For much of the series, the Resistance are primarily concerned with helping two British airmen get home to Britain. In the latter part of the series, they are concerned with spreading propaganda messages to the local French people. The town also boasts a chapter of the all-female communist Resistance, who are much more ruthless than the de Gaulle Resistance. Allo Allo is a parody of the Belgian-set BBC drama Secret Army. Secret Army is a BBC television drama series created by Gerard Glaister.
- In the first-person shooter game Medal of Honor: Underground, players control French Resistance operative Manon Batiste whereupon she is recruited by the OSS. Medal of Honor Underground is the direct sequel to the World War II hit Medal of Honor. Early life Auburn -haired Manon was born in the small village of Dubuisson France, but spent most of her life in Paris, where she lived with her brother For the Icelandic Óss rune see Aesir. See also OSS. Oss ( is a Municipality and a City in the southern
- In the multi-platform game Call of Duty 3, the player can fight as a Special Air Service member alongside the French Resistance and the Maquis taking part in sabotage and rescue missions. Call of Duty 3 is a World War II First-person shooter and the third installment in the Call of Duty video game series
- In Highlander: The Series, the leading character, the Immortal Duncan MacLeod, was a member of one of the French Resistance organizations. Highlander The Series is an English language Fantasy / Sci-fi Television series featuring Duncan MacLeod ( Adrian Paul Immortals are a group of Fictional characters seen Duncan MacLeod, also known as the Highlander, is a Fictional character from the Highlander universe
See also
References
Notes
- ^ Pharand (2001), p. The military history of France during World War II covers the period from 1939 until 1940 which witnessed French military participation under the Third Republic, and the period Before and during World War II some leading Breton nationalists were associated with Anti-French and even pro- Nazi The Chant des Partisans was the most popular song of the Free France. The Maquis (ma'ki were the predominantly rural guerrilla bands of the French Resistance. The Free French Forces (Forces Françaises Libres FFL) were French fighters in World War II who decided to continue fighting against Axis forces Les Éditions de Minuit ( Midnight Press) is a French publishing house which has its origins in the The history of women in the military is one that extends over 4000 years into the past throughout a vast number of cultures and nations The French Forces of the Interior (Forces Françaises de l'Intérieur refers to French resistance fighters in the latter stages of World War II. La Bataille du rail ( The Battle of the Rails) is a 1946 War movie which tells the courageous efforts by French railway workers to Polish Underground State (Polskie Państwo Podziemne also known as Polish Secret State) refers to all underground resistance organizations in Poland during The Liberation of Paris' (also known as Battle for Paris) took place during World War II from 19 August 1944 until the surrender of 169
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 50
- ^ Kedward (1993), p. 30
- ^ Ellis, Allen, Warhurst (2004), pp. 573-574
- ^ Booth, Walton (1998), p. 191
- ^ Moran, Waldron (2002), p. 239
- ^ Holmes (2004), p. 14
- ^ Sumner (1998), p. 37
- ^ Vernet (1980), p. 86
- ^ Kedward (1993), p. 180
- ^ Order of the Liberation. "Vassieux-en-Vercors". Retrieved on 2008-01-18. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor
- ^ Marshall (2001), p. 44
- ^ Christofferson (2006), p. 83
- ^ Kedward (1993), p. 155
- ^ a b Jackson (2003), p. 169
- ^ a b Kedward (1991), p. 5
- ^ Furtado (1992), p. 156
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 42
- ^ Mercier, Despert (1939-41), p. 271
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 50
- ^ Hayward (1993), p. 131
- ^ Marshall (2001), p. 43
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 51
- ^ Crowdy (2007), p. 8
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 336
- ^ Herbert (2000), p. 138
- ^ Quoted in Herbert (2000), p. 139
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 1
- ^ Crowdy (2007), p. 56-7
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 546
- ^ a b Jackson (2003), p. 230-1
- ^ DuArte (2005), p. 546
- ^ Jackson (2003), pp. 568-9
- ^ Quoted in Jackson (2003), p. 403
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 404
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 405
- ^ a b Laffont (2006), p. 339
- ^ Paxton (1972), p. 294
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 10
- ^ Pollard (1998), p. 4
- ^ Pollard (1998), p. 6
- ^ Furtado (1992), p. 160
- ^ Quoted in Collins Weitz (1995), p. 46
- ^ Quoted in Michalczyk (1997), p. 39
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 490
- ^ Diamond (1999), p. 99
- ^ a b Collins Weitz (1995), p. 65
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 491
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), pp. 65-6
- ^ Duchen, Bandhauer-Schoffmann (2000), p. 150
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 175
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 66
- ^ Moore (2000), p. 126
- ^ Knapp (2006), p. 3
- ^ Weisberg (1997), pp. 56-8
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 29
- ^ Curtis (2002), p. 111
- ^ Weisberg (1997), p. 2
- ^ Suhl (1967), pp. 181-3
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 364
- ^ a b c Jackson (2003), p. 368
- ^ Zuccotti (1999), p. 275
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 370
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 114
- ^ Atkin (2006), p. 31
- ^ a b Collins Weitz (1995), p. 60
- ^ a b Crowdy (2007), p. 10
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 115
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 421
- ^ Davies (2000), p. 60
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 422
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 62
- ^ Marshall (2001), pp. 41-2
- ^ Jackson 2003, p. 423
- ^ Crowdy (2007), p. 11
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 497
- ^ Ariès, Duby (1998), p. 341
- ^ Marshall (2001), p. 40
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 148
- ^ Marshall (2001), p. 41
- ^ Marshall (2001), p. 42
- ^ Godin, Chafer (2004), p. 49
- ^ Knapp (2006), p. 8
- ^ Atkin (2002), p. 17
- ^ Weiss (2006), p. 69
- ^ Jackson (2003), pp. 72-4
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 71
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 72
- ^ Jackson (2003), pp. 77-8
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 140
- ^ McMillan (1998), p. 136
- ^ Curtis (2002), pp. 50-1
- ^ Jackson (2003), pp. 513-4
- ^ This expression has been used by many of Azéma's colleagues, notably Robert Belot in La Résistance sans De Gaulle, Fayard, 2006, and Henry Rousso in L'Express n° 2871, 13 July 2006.
- ^ Marshall (2001), p. 24
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 400
- ^ Order of the Liberation. "Gilbert Renault". Retrieved on 2008-01-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 46 BC - Titus Labienus defeats Julius Caesar in the Battle of Ruspina.
- ^ Crowdy (2007), p. 12
- ^ a b Jackson (2007), p. 105
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 29
- ^ a b c Crowdy (2007), p. 13
- ^ a b c Jackson (2007), p. 495
- ^ Zuccotti (1999), p. 76
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 242
- ^ Bowen (2000), p. 140
- ^ Bowen (2006), p. 237
- ^ Beevor (2006), p. 420
- ^ Brès (2007), Un maquis d'antifascistes allemands en France
- ^ Burger (1965), Le Groupe Mario
- ^ a b Moore (2000), p. 128
- ^ a b Jackson (2003), pp. 408-10
- ^ Jackson (2003), pp. 402-3
- ^ Davies (2000), p. 20
- ^ McMillan (1998), p. 135
- ^ Jackson (2003), pp. 406-7
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 412
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 414
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 416
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 60
- ^ Marshall (2001), pp. 46-8
- ^ Jackson (2003), pp. 301-4
- ^ Jackson (2003), pp. 623-5
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 480
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 3
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 405
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), pp. 74-5
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 240
- ^ Crowdy (2007), p. 12
- ^ Cookridge (1966), p. 115
- ^ Marshall (2001), p. 38
- ^ Moore (2000), p. 135
- ^ Christofferson (2006), p. 156
- ^ Quoted in Cointet (2000), Réseaux de Renseignement
- ^ a b Crowdy (2007), p. 45
- ^ Marshall (2001), p. 20
- ^ Christofferson (2006), p. 170
- ^ Crowdy (2007), p. 47
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 424
- ^ Davies (2000), p. 52
- ^ Jackson (2003), pp. 410-3
- ^ Abram (2003), p. 414
- ^ Crowdy 2007, p. 21
- ^ Christofferson (2006), p. 175
- ^ Kedward (1993), p. 166
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 541
- ^ Crowdy (2007), p. 51
- ^ van der Vat (2003), p. 45
- ^ Churchill (1953), p. 28
- ^ Churchill (1953), p. 87
- ^ Eisenhower (1948) Crusade in Europe
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 557
- ^ Paddock (2002), p. 29
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 646
- ^ a b c Jackson (2003), p. 577
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 580
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 581
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), pp. 276-7
- ^ Gildea (2002), p. 69
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 577
- ^ Williams (1992), pp. 272-3
- ^ a b Conan, Rousso (1998), p. 9
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 608
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 603
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 305
- ^ Mendras, Cole (1991), p. 226
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 613
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 614
- ^ Jackson (2003), pp. 615-8
- ^ Davies (2000), p. 613
- ^ Rubin Suleiman (2006), p. 36
- ^ Marshall (2001), p. 69
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 98
- ^ Godin, Chafer (2004), p. 56
- ^ Christofferson (2006), p. 127
- ^ a b Jackson (2003), p. 601
- ^ Furtado (1992), p. 157
- ^ Laffont (2006), p. 1017
- ^ Quoted in Kedward, Wood (1995), p. 218
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 604
- ^ Mazdon (2001), p. 110
- ^ a b c Hayward (2005), p. 194
- ^ Lanzone (2002), pp. 168-9
- ^ Lanzone (2002), p. 286
- ^ Hayward (2005), p. 131
- ^ Laffont (2006), p. 1002
- ^ Jackson (2003), pp. 604-5
- ^ Quoted in Burdett, Gorrara, Peitsch (1999), pp. 173-4
- ^ Collins Weitz (1995), p. 13
- ^ Greene (1999), pp. 69-73
- ^ TIME magazine, March 27, 1972. "Truth and Consequences". Retrieved on 2007-12-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1287 - St Lucia's flood: The Zuider Zee sea wall in the Netherlands collapses killing over 50000 people
- ^ Greene (1999), p. 73
- ^ Greene (1999), pp. 80-3
- ^ Ezra, Harris (2000), p. 118
- ^ Hayward (2005), p. 303
- ^ Jackson (2003), p. 627
- ^ Rubin Suleiman (2006), p. 43
- ^ BBC Comedy. "'Allo 'Allo!". Retrieved on 2007-12-14. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1287 - St Lucia's flood: The Zuider Zee sea wall in the Netherlands collapses killing over 50000 people
Book references
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Further reading
- Rousso, Henry (1991). The Vichy Syndrome: History and Memory in France Since 1944. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. ISBN 067493539X
- Knight, Frida (1975). The French Resistance, 1940-44. London: Lawrence and Wishart. ISBN 0853153310
- Ousby, Ian (1999). Occupation: The Ordeal of France, 1940-44. London: Pimlico. ISBN 0-7126-6513-7
- Schoenbrun, David (1980). Soldiers of the Night, The Story of the French Resistance. New American Library. ISBN 0-452-00612-0
External links
- Encarta Encyclopedia - History of France - The Resistance
- History Learning Site - The French Resistance
- Scrapbookpages. com - The French Resistance
- Spartacus Educational - The French Resistance
- Geocities. com - Jean Moulin and the French Resistance
- Northwest Historical Association - Building the French Resistance Movement, 1940-1944
- Order of the Liberation - Chronology 1940-1945
- Special Forces Roll of Honour - French Secret Agents
- European Resistance Archive - Video Interviews with Resistance Members
- Pierre Albert - The Journalism of the French Resistance
- Rebecca Halbreich, The San Francisco State University - Women in the French Resistance
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