French Directory
Executive government of France
In office November 2, 1795 – November 10, 1799
Preceded by	National Convention
Succeeded by	French Consulate (with Napoleon Bonaparte as First Consul)

The Executive Directory (French: Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following the Convention and preceding the Consulate. The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. Events 1570 - A Tidal wave in the North Sea devastates the coast from Holland to Jutland, killing more than 1000 Year 1795 ( MDCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people In Political science and Constitutional law, the executive is the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the State. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the The period of this regime (November 2, 1795 until November 10, 1799) commonly known as the Directory (or Directoire) era, constitutes the second to last stage of the French Revolution. Events 1570 - A Tidal wave in the North Sea devastates the coast from Holland to Jutland, killing more than 1000 Year 1795 ( MDCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an

The directory system of government was also used in several French-dominated regions of Italy; see Directory (political). Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest In political history the term directory, in French directoire, applies to high collegial institutions of state composed of members styled director (French directeur

Contents 1 Constitution of Year III 2 Unpopularity of the Directory 3 Military successes 4 18 Fructidor 5 1798 6 1799 7 End of the Directory 8 List of Directeurs 9 See also 10 Notes 11 External links 12 References

Constitution of Year III

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Under the French Constitution of 1795, qualified property holders elected 750 legislators, who divided themselves into the Council of 500 and the Council of Ancients. The History of France has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the list to the right "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation. Prehistoric France is the period in the human occupation (including early hominins) of the geographical area covered by present-day France which extended through Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western For Gaul before the Roman conquest see Gaul. Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in the Roman Empire, in modern day The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group The Merovingians (also Merovings) were a Salian Frankish dynasty that came to rule the Franks in a region (known as Francia in Latin France in the Middle Ages covers an area roughly corresponding to modern day France, from the death of Charlemagne in 814 to the middle of the 15th The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolings, or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family with its origins in the For a full history of the Capetian family see Capetian dynasty. See also France in the Middle Ages, Early Modern France Unexpected inheritance The Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and Early Modern France is the Early modern period of French history from the end of the 15th century to the end of the 18th century (or from the French Renaissance See also France in the Middle Ages, Early Modern France Unexpected inheritance The Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and See also France in the Middle Ages, Early Modern France Unexpected inheritance The Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The History of France from 1789 to 1914 ( The long 19th century) extends from the French Revolution to World War I and includes The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814 the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, saw the overthrow of King Charles X, the French The July Monarchy (1830-1848 was a period of liberal monarchy rule of France under Louis-Philippe The February 1848 Revolution in France ended the reign of King Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic (1848-1852 History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May The History of France from 1914 to the present includes the later years of the Third Republic (1871–1941 World War I (1914–18 Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944 The Provisional Government of the French Republic ( gouvernement provisoire de la République française or GPRF was an interim government which governed The founding of the Fourth Republic (1944-47 See also Three Parties, Third Force (France European Unity The creation of the See also Government of France The Fifth Republic is the fifth and current republican constitution of France, which was introduced on The Kingdom of France was organised into Provinces until March 4, 1790, when the establishment of the département This is a history of the economy of France. For more information on historical cultural demographic and sociological developments in France see the chronological As of January 1, 2008, 64473140 people live in the French Republic. The military history of France encompasses an immense panorama of conflicts and struggles extending for more than 2000 years across areas including modern France, greater France was a dominant empire in the world from the 1600s to the late 1960s possessing many colonies in various locations around the world For practical purposes the history of French art has been divided into a series of separate articles accessible through the template to the right This article is a general introduction to French literature For detailed information on French literature in specific historic periods see the separate historical articles in the The Culture of France and of the French people has been shaped by its geography, by profound historical events, and by foreign and This is a timeline of French history. To read about the background to these events see History of France. The Constitution of 1795, Constitution of 22 August 1795, Constitution of the Year III, or Constitution of 5 Fructidor was a national Constitution The Council of Five Hundred ( Conseil des Cinq-Cents) or simply the Five Hundred was the Lower house of the legislature of France The Council of Ancients or Council of Elders ( Conseil des Anciens) was the Upper house of the Directory (French Directoire) the The bicameral legislature had a term of three years, with one-third of the members renewed every year. The Ancients held a suspensory veto, but possessed no initiative in legislation.

The constitution specified the executive as consisting of five directors, chosen by the Ancients out of a list sent to them by the Five Hundred. One director faced retirement each year. Ministers for the various departments of State aided the directors. These ministers did not form a council or cabinet and had no general powers of government.

The system made provision for the stringent control of all local authorities by the central government. Since the new constitution sought to create a separation of powers, the directors had no voice in legislation or taxation, nor could directors or ministers sit in either house. Separation of powers, a term ascribed to French Enlightenment Political philosopher Baron de Montesquieu, is a model for the Governance The law guaranteed freedom of religion, freedom of the press, and freedom of labour, but forbade armed assemblies and even public meetings of political societies. Only individuals or public authorities could tender petitions.

From the beginning, however, circumstances restricted the free play of the constitution. The Convention had acquired so much unpopularity that, if its members had retired into private life, they would have courted danger and risked the undoing of their work. Therefore a decree required that two-thirds of the first legislature must come from among the members of the Convention.

When the constitution went before the primary assemblies, most electors held aloof, 1,050,000 voting for and only 5,000 voting against it. On 23 September it officially became law. Events 1122 - Concordat of Worms. 1459 - Battle of Blore Heath, the first major battle of the English Then all the parties which resented the limit upon freedom of election combined in Paris to rise in revolt. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city The government entrusted its defense to Barras, but on 13 Vendémiaire (5 October 1795) the young General Napoléon Bonaparte quelled ill-equipped and ill-led Parisian insurgents with a few thousand regular troops and well-placed artillery. Paul François Jean Nicolas vicomte de Barras ( June 30, 1755 &mdash January 29, 1829) was a French politician of the Events 869 - The Fourth Council of Constantinople is convened to decide about what to do about Patriarch Photius of Constantinople Year 1795 ( MDCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Further resistance seemed impossible. The Convention dissolved itself on 26 October 1795. Events 740 - An Earthquake strikes Constantinople, causing much damage and death Year 1795 ( MDCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a

After the selection of the Council of the Ancients by lot, it remained to name the directors. For its own security the Left resolved that all five must be old members of the Convention and regicides. The broad definition of regicide is the deliberate killing of a Monarch, or the person responsible for it The Ancients chose Rewbell, Barras, La Révellière Lépeaux, Carnot and Le Tourneur. Jean-François Rewbell ( October 8, 1747 &mdash November 23, 1807) was a French lawyer diplomat and politician of the Revolution Paul François Jean Nicolas vicomte de Barras ( June 30, 1755 &mdash January 29, 1829) was a French politician of the Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux ( August 24, 1753 - March 24, 1824) was a French Politician, member of the French Lazare Nicolas Marguerite Comte Carnot ( May 13, 1753 &mdash August 2, 1823) the Organizer of Victory in the French Étienne-François-Louis-Honoré Letourneur, Le Tourneur, or Le Tourneur de la Manche ( March 15, 1751 &mdash October 4, 1817

Rewbell was an able, although unscrupulous, man of action; Barras a dissolute and shameless adventurer; La Révellière Lépeaux, the chief of a new sect, the Theophilanthropists, was therefore a bitter foe to other religions, especially the Roman Catholic Church. The Theophilanthropists ("Friends of God and Man" were a Deistic Sect, formed in France during the latter part of the French Revolution Severe integrity and memorable public services raised Carnot far above his colleagues, but he was not a statesman and was hampered by his past. Integrity is Consistency of actions values methods measures and principles Le Tourneur, a harmless insignificant person, admired and followed Carnot.

The division in the legislature was reproduced in the Directory. A legislature is a type of representative Deliberative assembly with the power to create amend and change Laws The law created by a legislature is called Legislation Rewbell, Barras and La Révellière Lépeaux had a full measure of the Jacobin spirit; Carnot and Le Tourneur favoured a more temperate policy. ^[1]

Unpopularity of the Directory

With the establishment of the Directory, the Revolution might seem closed. The nation only desired rest and the healing of its many wounds. Those who wished to restore Louis XVIII of France and the Ancien Régime and those who would have renewed the Reign of Terror were insignificant in number. Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in Saint justjpg|thumbnail|200px| Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just]] The Reign of Terror' (5 September 1793 &ndash 28 July 1794 or simply The Terror (la Terreur was The possibility of foreign interference had vanished with the failure of the First Coalition. The First Coalition ( 1792 – 1797) was the first major concerted effort of multiple European powers to contain Revolutionary France. Nevertheless, the four years of the Directory were a time of arbitrary government and chronic disquiet. The late atrocities had made confidence or goodwill between parties impossible. The same instinct of self-preservation which had led the members of the Convention to claim so large a part in the new legislature and the whole of the Directory impelled them to keep their predominance.

As the majority of Frenchmen wanted to be rid of them, they could achieve their purpose only by extraordinary means. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. They habitually disregarded the terms of the constitution, and, when the elections went against them, appealed to the sword. They resolved to prolong the war as the best expedient for prolonging their power. War is an international relations Dispute, characterized by organized Violence between National Military units They were thus driven to rely upon the armies, which also desired war and were becoming less and less civic in temper.

Other reasons influenced them in this direction. The finances had been so thoroughly ruined that the government could not have met its expenses without the plunder and the tribute of foreign countries. If peace were made, the armies would return home and the directors would have to face the exasperation of the rank-and-file who had lost their livelihood, as well as the ambition of generals who could, in a moment, brush them aside. Barras and Rewbell were notoriously corrupt themselves and screened corruption in others. The patronage of the directors was ill-bestowed, and the general maladministration heightened their unpopularity.

The constitutional party in the legislature desired a toleration of the nonjuring clergy, the repeal of the laws against the relatives of the émigrés, and some merciful discrimination toward the émigrés themselves. Émigré is a French term that literally refers to a person who has "migrated out" but often carries a connotation of politico-social self- Exile. The directors baffled all such endeavours. On the other hand, the socialist conspiracy of Babeuf was easily quelled. Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution François-Noël Babeuf ( November 23, 1760 - May 27, 1797) known as Gracchus Babeuf (in tribute to the Roman reformers Little was done to improve the finances, and the assignats continued to fall in value. Assignats were paper money issued by the National Constituent Assembly in France during the French Revolution.

Military successes

However, the Directory was sustained by the military successes of 1796. Hoche again suppressed the Revolt in the Vendée. Louis Lazare Hoche ( June 24, 1768 - September 19, 1797) was a French soldier who rose to be general The War in Vendée ( 1793 to 1796) was a Civil war in Vendée between Royalists and Republicans during the French Bonaparte's victories in Italy more than compensated for the reverses of Jourdan and Moreau in Germany. Jean-Baptiste Jourdan, 1st Comte Jourdan ( April 29, 1762 &ndash November 23, 1833) was a Marshal of France. Jean Victor Marie Moreau ( February 14, 1763 &ndash September 2, 1813) was a French general who helped Napoleon Bonaparte Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The king of Sardinia made peace in May 1796, ceding Nice and Savoy to the French Republic and consenting to receive French garrisons in his Piedmontese fortresses. Victor Amadeus III ( Italian Vittorio Amedeo III di Savoia, June 26 1726 - October 16 1796) was King of Sardinia Nice (nis Niçard Occitan: Niça norm or Nissa, Italian: Nizza or Nizza Marittima, Greek For the two French départements of the region of Savoy see Savoie and Haute-Savoie Savoy ( French Piedmont ( Piemonte; Piedmontese and Occitan: Piemont; French: Piémont) is one of the 20 Regions of Italy. By the Treaty of San Ildefonso, concluded in August, Spain became the ally of France. The Second Treaty of San Ildefonso was signed on August 19, 1796 between the Spanish Empire and the First French Republic. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. In October 1796, Naples made peace. Naples ( Napoli, Neapolitan: Nàpule) is a historic City in southern Italy, the Capital of the

In 1797, Bonaparte finished the conquest of northern Italy and forced Austria to make the treaty of Campo Formio (October), whereby the emperor ceded Lombardy and the Austrian Netherlands to the French Republic in exchange for Venice and undertook to urge upon the Diet the surrender of the lands beyond the Rhine. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich The Treaty of Campo Formio was signed on October 17, 1797 (26 Vendémiaire Year VI of the French Republic by Napoleon Bonaparte and Count Ludwig Francis II (Franz II Heiliger Römischer Kaiser ( 12 February 1768 &ndash 2 March 1835) was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling Lombardy (Lombardia Latin: Langobardia, Western Lombard: Lumbardìa, Eastern Lombard: Lombardia) is one of the The Southern Netherlands (Zuidelijke Nederlanden Países Bajos del Sur Pays-Bas du sud were a part of the Low Countries controlled by Spain ( Spanish Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the The Holy Roman Empire was one of the strangest political structures in the world The Rhine (Rhein Rijn Rhin Reno Rain Rhenus is one of the longest and most important Rivers in Europe at 1320 kilometres (820 mi with an average discharge Notwithstanding the victory of Cape St Vincent, the United Kingdom was brought into such extreme peril by the mutinies in the fleet that she offered to acknowledge the French conquest of the Netherlands and to restore the French colonies. In the Battle of Cape St Vincent ( 14 February, 1797) a British fleet under John Jervis defeated a larger Spanish fleet under The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands

The selfishness of the three directors threw away this golden opportunity. In March and April, the election of a new third of the Councils had been held. It gave a majority to the constitutional party. Among the directors, the lot fell on Le Tourneur to retire, and he was succeeded by Barthélemy, an eminent diplomatist, who allied himself with Carnot. François marquis de Barthélemy ( October 20, 1747 &ndash April 3, 1830 Paris) was a French politician and diplomat The political disabilities imposed upon the relatives of émigrés were repealed. Priests who would declare their submission to the Republic were restored to their rights as citizens. It seemed likely that peace would be made and that moderate men would gain power.

18 Fructidor

Barras, Rewbell, and La Révellière-Lépeaux then sought help from the armies. Although Royalists formed but a petty fraction of the majority, they accused that fraction of seeking to restore monarchy and to undo the work of the Revolution. The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. A monarchy is a Form of government in which supreme power is actually or nominally lodged in an individual who is the Head of state, often for life or Hoche, then in command of the Army of Sambre-et-Meuse, visited Paris and sent troops. The Army of Sambre-et-Meuse ( Armée de Sambre-et-Meuse) is the most well known of the armies of the French Revolution. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Bonaparte sent General Augereau, who executed the coup d'état of 18 Fructidor (4 September 1797). Charles Pierre François Augereau 1st Duc de Castiglione ( October 21, 1757 &ndash June 12, 1816) was a French soldier and military Events 476 - Romulus Augustus, last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, is deposed when Odoacer proclaims himself Year 1797 ( MDCCXCVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common

The councils were purged, the elections in forty-nine departments were cancelled, and many deputies and other men of note were arrested. Some of them, including Barthélemy,Pichegru, Barbé-Marbois and Laffon de Ladebat were deported to Cayenne ^[2]. Cayenne is the Capital of French Guiana, an overseas ''région'' and ''département'' of France located in South America Carnot made good his escape. The two vacant places in the Directory were filled by Merlin de Douai and Nicolas-Louis François de Neufchâteau. Philippe Antoine, Comte Merlin, or Merlin of Douai in short ( October 30, 1754 &ndash December 26, 1838) was Nicolas-Louis François, Comte de Neufchâteau ( April 17, 1750 - January 10, 1828) was a French statesman poet Then the government frankly returned to Jacobin methods. The law against the relatives of émigrés was reenacted, and military tribunals were established to condemn émigrés who should return to France.

The nonjuring priests were again persecuted. Many hundreds were either sent to Cayenne or imprisoned in the hulks of Ré and Oléron. La Révellière Lépeaux seized the opportunity to propagate his religion. Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux ( August 24, 1753 - March 24, 1824) was a French Politician, member of the French Many churches were turned into Theophilanthropic temples. The Theophilanthropists ("Friends of God and Man" were a Deistic Sect, formed in France during the latter part of the French Revolution The government strained its power to secure the recognition of the décadi as the day of public worship and the non-observance of Sunday. Liberty of the press ceased. Freedom Constitutional or statutory protections pertaining to freedom of the press Newspapers were confiscated and journalists were deported wholesale. A newspaper is a written Publication containing News, information and Advertising, usually printed on low-cost paper called Newsprint. It was proposed to banish from France all members of the old noblesse. Aristocracy is a form of Government, where rule is established through an internal struggle over who has the most status and influence over society and internal relations Although the proposal was dropped, they were all declared to be foreigners and were forced to obtain naturalisation if they would enjoy the rights of other citizens. A formal bankruptcy of the state, the cancelling of two-thirds of the interest on the public debt, crowned the misgovernment of this disastrous time. Bankruptcy is a legally declared inability or impairment of ability of an individual or organization to pay their Creditors Creditors may file a bankruptcy petition against Government debt (also known as public debt or national debt) is Money (or credit) owed by any level of government either Central government

1798

In the spring of 1798, not only a new third of the legislature had to be chosen, but the places of the members expelled by the revolution of Fructidor had to be filled. The constitutional party had been rendered helpless, and the mass of the electors were indifferent. However, among the Jacobins themselves, there had arisen an extreme party hostile to the directors. With the support of many who were not Jacobins but detested the government, it bade fair to gain a majority. Before the new deputies could take their seats, the directors forced through the councils the law of 22 Floréal, annulling or perverting the elections in thirty departments and excluding forty-eight deputies by name. Even this coup d'état did not secure harmony between the executive and the legislature. In the councils, the directors were loudly charged with corruption and misgovernment. The retirement of François de Neufchâteau and the choice of Treilhard as his successor (15 May 1798) made no difference in the position of the Directory. Jean-Baptiste Treilhard (1742&mdash December 1, 1810) was a French political figure of the revolutionary period. Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Year 1798 ( MDCCXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a

While France was thus inwardly convulsed, its rulers were doubly bound to husband the national strength and practise moderation towards other states. Since December 1797, a congress had been sitting at Rastatt to regulate the future of Germany. Rastatt is a city in the District of Rastatt, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. That it should be brought to a successful conclusion was of the utmost import for France. However, the directors were driven by self-interest to new adventures abroad. Bonaparte was resolved not to sink into obscurity, and the directors were anxious to keep him as far as possible from Paris. They, therefore, sanctioned the expedition to Egypt which deprived the Republic of its best army and most renowned captain. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Coveting the treasures of Bern, the Directors sent Brune to invade Switzerland and remodel its constitution. The city of Berne or Bern (, Berne, Berna, Romansh: Berna, Bernese German: Bärn) is the Bundesstadt ( Federal Guillaume Marie Anne Brune 1st Comte Brune ( March 13, 1763 &mdash August 2, 1815) was a French soldier and political figure who rose Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation In revenge for the murder of General Duphot (28 December 1797), they sent Berthier to invade the Papal States and erect the Roman Republic. Events 1065 - Westminster Abbey is Consecrated. 1308 - The reign of Emperor Hanazono, Emperor of Year 1797 ( MDCCXCVII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Louis Alexandre Berthier, 1st Duc de Wagram, 1st Duc de Valengin, 1st Sovereign Prince de Neuchâtel ( February The Papal States, State(s of the Church or Pontifical States (in Italian Stato Ecclesiastico, Stato della Chiesa, Stati della Chiesa The Roman Republic (Repubblica Romana was proclaimed on February 15, 1798 after Louis Alexandre Berthier, a general of Napoleon, had invaded They also occupied and virtually annexed Piedmont. Piedmont ( Piemonte; Piedmontese and Occitan: Piemont; French: Piémont) is one of the 20 Regions of Italy. In all these countries, they organised such an effective pillage that the French became universally hated.

As the armies were far below the strength required by the policy of unbounded conquest and rapine, the first permanent law of conscription was passed in the summer of 1798. Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority The attempt to enforce it caused a revolt of the peasants in the Belgian departments. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those The priests were held responsible and some eight thousand were condemned to deportation en masse, although the much greater part escaped by the goodwill of the people. Few soldiers were obtained by the conscription, for the government was as weak as it was tyrannical.

Under these circumstances, Horatio Nelson's victory of Aboukir (1 August 1798), which gave the British full command of the Mediterranean and isolated Bonaparte in Egypt, was the signal for a second coalition. Vice-Admiral Horatio Nelson 1st Viscount Nelson 1st Duke of Bronté, KB (29 September 1758– 21 October 1805 was a British The Battle of the Nile or Aboukir Bay (August 1-2 1798 saw a British fleet under Rear-Admiral Horatio Nelson defeat a French Events 30 BC - Octavian (later known as Augustus enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman Year 1798 ( MDCCXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The " Second Coalition " ( 1799 &ndash 1802) was the second attempt by other European powers to contain or eliminate Revolutionary Naples, Austria, Russia and Turkey joined Great Britain against France. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Ferdinand IV of Naples, rashly taking the offensive before his allies were ready, was defeated and forced to seek a refuge in Sicily. Ferdinand I ( Ferdinando Antonio Pasquale Giovanni Nepomuceno Serafino Gennaro Benedetto, January 12, 1751 &ndash January 4, 1825) Sicily ( Italian and Sicilian: Sicilia) is an autonomous region of Italy.

1799

In January 1799, the French occupied Naples and set up the Parthenopaean Republic. The Parthenopaean Republic (Italian Repubblica Partenopea) was a French -supported Republic in the territory of the Kingdom of Naples, formed But the consequent dispersion of their weak forces only exposed them to greater peril. At home, the Directory was in a most critical position. In the elections of April 1799, a large number of Jacobins gained seats. A little later Rewbell retired. It was imperative to fill his place with a man of ability and influence. The choice fell upon Sieyès, who had kept aloof from office and retained not only his immeasurable self-conceit but the respect of the public.

Sieyès felt that the Directory had bankrupted its own reputation, and he intended to do far more than merely serve as a member of a board. He hoped to concentrate power in his own hands, to bridle the Jacobins, and to remodel the constitution. With the help of Barras, he proceeded to rid himself of the other directors. An irregularity having emerged in Treilhard's election, he retired, and Gohier took his place (30 Prairial, 18 June 1799). Louis-Jérôme Gohier ( February 27, 1746 &ndash May 29, 1830) was a French politician of the Revolutionary period Events 618 - Coronation of the Chinese governor Li Yuan as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, the new Emperor of China, initiating three centuries Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Merlin de Douai and La Révellière Lépeaux were driven to resign in June 1799; Moulin and Ducos replaced them. Pierre Roger Ducos (1747&ndash1816 better known as Roger Ducos, was a French political figure during the Revolution and First Empire, a member The three new directors so lacked significance that they could give no trouble, but for the same reason they could give little service.

Such a government proved ill-fitted to cope with the dangers then gathering round France. The directors resolved on a French offensive in Germany. The French crossed the Rhine early in March, but Archduke Charles of Austria defeated them at Stockach on 25 March 1799. Archduke Charles of Austria Duke of Teschen ( de: Erzherzog Karl von Österreich Herzog von Teschen, also known as Karl von Österreich-Teschen Stockach is a town in the district of Konstanz, in southern Baden-Württemberg, Germany. Events 1199 - Richard I is wounded by a crossbow bolt while fighting France which leads to his death on April 6. Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The congress at Rastatt, which had sat for fifteen months without doing anything, broke up in April, and Austrian hussars murdered the French envoys. The Second Congress of Rastatt, which was opened in December 1797, was intended to rearrange the map of Germany by providing compensation for those princes In Italy, the allies took the offensive with an army partly Austrian, partly Russian, under the command of the Russian field marshal (future generalissimo) Suvorov. Alexander Vasilyevich Suvorov (Алекса́ндр Васи́льевич Суво́ров (sometimes transliterated as Aleksandr, Aleksander and Suvarov After defeating Moreau at Cassano d'Adda on 27 April 1799, he occupied Milan and Turin. Cassano d'Adda is a town and commune in the Province of Milan, Lombardy, Italy, located on the right side of the Adda River. Events 1124 - David I becomes King of Scotland. 1296 - Battle of Dunbar: The Scots are defeated Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. The puppet republics established by the French in Italy collapsed, and Suvorov defeated the French army on the Trebbia as it retreated from Naples. The Trebbia (stressed Trèbbia; Trebia is a River of Liguria and Emilia Romagna in northern Italy.

Thus threatened with invasion on her German and Italian frontiers, France seemed disabled by anarchy within. The finances stood in the last distress; the anti-religious policy of the government kept many départements on the verge of revolt; and commerce almost ground to a halt due to the decay of roads and the increase of bandits. In the context of the political and geographic organization of France and many of its former colonies a department (département depaʁtǝmɑ̃ is an Administrative division The French lacked any real political freedom, yet also lacked the ease or security which enlightened despotism can bestow. The Terrorists lifted their heads in the Council of Five Hundred. A Law of Hostages, which was really a new Law of Suspects, and a progressive income tax showed the temper of the majority. In 1799, late in the French Revolution, the Law of Hostages was enacted by the Executive Directory (Fr The Law of Suspects is a term which is used to refer to an enactment passed on September 17 1793 during the course of the French Revolution. A progressive tax is a Tax imposed so that the Tax rate increases as the amount subject to taxation increases The Jacobin Club re-opened and became once more the focus of disorder. The Jacobin Club was the largest and most powerful political club of the French Revolution. The Jacobin press renewed the licence of Hébert and Marat. Jacques René Hébert ( November 15, 1757 &mdash March 24, 1794) was editor of the extreme radical newspaper Le Père Duchesne Never since the outbreak of the Revolution had the public temper seemed so gloomy.

In this extremity, Sieyès chose as minister of police the old Terrorist Joseph Fouché, who best understood how to deal with his brethren. Joseph Fouché, 1st Duc d' Otrante ( May 21, 1759 Le Pellerin, near Nantes, France - December 25, Fouché closed the Jacobin Club and deported a number of journalists. However, like his predecessors, Sieyès felt that for the revolution which he meditated, he must have the help of a soldier. As his man of action, he chose General Joubert, one of the most distinguished among French officers. Barthélemy Catherine Joubert ( April 14, 1769 &mdash August 15, 1799) was a French general The Directory sent Joubert to restore the fortunes of the war in Italy. At Novi, on 15 August 1799, he encountered Suvorov. Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a He was killed at the outset of the battle and his men suffered defeat.

After this disaster, the French held scarcely any territory south of the Alps save Genoa. Genoa ( Genova, ˈdʒɛːnova in Italian; Zena in Genoese and Ligurian; Genua in Latin and archaically in English The Russian and Austrian governments then agreed to drive the enemy out of Switzerland and to invade France from the east. At the same time, the joint forces of Great Britain and Russia assailed the Netherlands. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands However, the narrow views and conflicting interests of the members of the second coalition doomed it to failure like the first. Lack of co-ordination between Austrians and Russians, and André Masséna's victory at Zürich (25 - 26 September 1799) stalled the invasion of Switzerland. Zürich (, Zürich German: Züri, Zurich, Zurigo; in English generally Zurich) is the largest city in Switzerland and capital of the Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar dedicates a Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a In October, the British and the Russians had to evacuate the Netherlands. All immediate danger to France ended, but the issue of war remained in suspense. The Directors had felt forced to recall Bonaparte from Egypt. He anticipated their order and on 9 October 1799 landed at Fréjus

End of the Directory

Main article: 18 Brumaire

The Directory and the French Revolution itself came to an end with the coup d'état of 18 Brumaire (November 9, 1799) in which General Napoléon Bonaparte overthrew the Directory and replaced it with the Consulate. Events 768 - Carloman I and Charlemagne are crowned Kings of The Franks. Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Fréjus can also refer to the Fréjus Road Tunnel and the Fréjus Rail Tunnel in the Alps 18 Brumaire, the coup of 18 Brumaire or sometimes simply Brumaire refers to the Coup d'état by which General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew 18 Brumaire, the coup of 18 Brumaire or sometimes simply Brumaire refers to the Coup d'état by which General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the

In November 1799, France was suffering the effects of military reverses brought on by Bonaparte's adventurism in the Middle East. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The looming threat of opportunistic invasion by the Second Coalition had provoked internal unrest, with Bonaparte stuck in Egypt. The " Second Coalition " ( 1799 &ndash 1802) was the second attempt by other European powers to contain or eliminate Revolutionary A return to Jacobinism seemed possible. This page describes the political term "Jacobin" For discussion of the political organization of the French Revolution era see Jacobin Club.

The coup was first prepared by the Abbé Sieyès, then one of the five Directors. Bonaparte returned from Egypt a hero to the public despite his reverses. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Sieyès believed he had found the general indispensable to his coup. However, Bonaparte promptly began a coup within the coup. Ultimately, the coup brought to power Bonaparte, not Sieyès.

The plan was, through the use of troops conveniently arrayed around Paris, first to persuade the Directors to resign, then to persuade the two Councils to appoint a pliant commission to draw up a new constitution. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity

On the morning of 18 Brumaire, members of the Council of Ancients sympathetic to the coup warned their colleagues of a Jacobin conspiracy and persuaded them to remove to Saint-Cloud, west of Paris. The Council of Ancients or Council of Elders ( Conseil des Anciens) was the Upper house of the Directory (French Directoire) the Saint-Cloud is a commune in the western suburbs of Paris, France. Bonaparte was charged with the safety of the two Councils. Three directors, including Sieyès himself resigned, destroying quorum. However, the two Jacobin Directors, Gohier and Moulin, refused to resign. Louis-Jérôme Gohier ( February 27, 1746 &ndash May 29, 1830) was a French politician of the Revolutionary period Moulin escaped, Gohier was taken prisoner, and the two Councils were not immediately intimidated and continued to meet.

By the following day, the deputies had worked out that they were facing an attempted coup rather than being protected from a Jacobin rebellion. Faced with their recalcitrance, Bonaparte stormed into the chambers accompanied by a small escort of grenadiers. He met with heckling in both houses; he was first jostled, then outright assaulted. His brother Lucien, President of the Council, called upon the grenadiers to defend their leader. Lucien Bonaparte Prince Français 1st Principe di Canino and 1st Principe di Musignano (born Luciano Buonaparte; ( May 21, 1775 &ndash Napoleon escaped, but only through the use of military force. Ultimately, military force also dispersed the legislature.

The Consulate was declared, with Bonaparte, Sieyès, and Roger Ducos as consuls. Pierre Roger Ducos (1747&ndash1816 better known as Roger Ducos, was a French political figure during the Revolution and First Empire, a member

The lack of reaction from the streets proved that the revolution was, indeed, over. In the words of the 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica, "A shabby compound of brute force and imposture, the 18th Brumaire was nevertheless condoned, nay applauded, by the French nation. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica Weary of revolution, men sought no more than to be wisely and firmly governed. " Resistance by Jacobin officeholders in the provinces was quickly crushed, twenty Jacobin legislators were exiled, and others were arrested.

Bonaparte completed his coup within a coup by the adoption of a constitution under which the First Consul, a position he was sure to hold, had greater power than the other two. None could prevent his creating an empire. Between 1795 and 1799 the constitution governing France dictated there be an executive arm of government – the ''Directoire'', composed of five Directors

List of Directeurs

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(5 at any time)

• 2 November 1795 – 26 May 1797 Étienne-François Le Tourneur, dit (that is, also known as) Le Tourneur (de la Manche)
• 26 May 1797 – 5 September 1797 François Barthélemy
• 9 September 1797 – 19 May 1798 François de Neufchâteau
• 20 May 1798 – 17 June 1799 Jean-Baptiste Treilhard
• 17 June 1799 – 10 November 1799 Louis-Jérôme Gohier

• 4 November 1795 – 5 September 1797 Lazare Carnot
• 8 September 1797 – 18 June 1799 Philippe-Antoine Merlin, dit Merlin de Douai
• 20 June 1799 – 10 November 1799 Jean-François-Auguste Moulin

• 2 November 1795 – 19 May 1799 Jean-François Rewbell
• 20 May 1799 – 10 November 1799 Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès

• 2 November 1795 – 18 June 1799 Louis-Marie de La Révellière, dit La Révellière-Lépeaux
• 19 June 1799 – 10 November 1799 Pierre-Roger Ducos, dit Roger-Ducos

• 2 November 1795 – 10 November 1799 Paul Barras

See also

• Timeline of the French Revolution
• Directoire fashion

Notes

External links

• Members of the Executive Directory
• Presidents of the Executive Directory
• WorldStatesmen (here Italy linked)
• WorldStatesmen (here Italy linked)
• The coup d'état of 18 Fructidor[1]

References

This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone

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