| French Consulate | |
 A portrait of the three Consuls, Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès, Napoleon Bonaparte and Charles-François Lebrun (left to right). Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès 1st Duc de Parma, ( 18 October 1753 &ndash 8 March 1824) was Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Charles-François Lebrun 1st Duc de Plaisance, Prince of the Empire ( March 19, 1739 &ndash June 16, 1824) |
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| In office November 10, 1799 – May 18, 1804 |
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| Preceded by | French Directory |
| Succeeded by | Napoleon I as ruler of the First French Empire |
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The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the Napoleonic Empire in 1804. The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine. Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following 18 Brumaire, the coup of 18 Brumaire or sometimes simply Brumaire refers to the Coup d'état by which General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a By extension, the term The Consulate also refers to this period of French history.
During this period, Napoléon Bonaparte, as First Consul had established himself as the head of government in France while not declaring himself head of state. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. First Consul (Premier Consul was a title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France. Nevertheless, due to the long-lasting institutions established during these years, Robert B. Holtman has called the Consulate "one of the most important periods of all French history. "[1]
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Fall of the Directory government
French military disasters in 1798 and 1799 had shaken the Directory, and eventually shattered it. The Coup of 30 Prairial Year VII ( Coup d'État du 30 prairial an VII) also known as the Revenge of the Councils ( revanche des conseils 18 Brumaire, the coup of 18 Brumaire or sometimes simply Brumaire refers to the Coup d'état by which General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew The start of the political downfall of the Directory is usually dated from 18 June 1799, (30 Prairial Year VII by the French Republican calendar) when Emmanuel-Joseph Sieyès with the help of Paul Barras successfully rid himself of the other then-sitting directors. Events 618 - Coronation of the Chinese governor Li Yuan as Emperor Gaozu of Tang, the new Emperor of China, initiating three centuries Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The French Republican Calendar or French Revolutionary Calendar was a Calendar proposed during the French Revolution, and used by the French government Paul François Jean Nicolas vicomte de Barras ( June 30, 1755 &mdash January 29, 1829) was a French politician of the An irregularity emerged in the election of Jean Baptiste Treilhard, who retired in favor of Gohier. Jean-Baptiste Treilhard (1742&mdash December 1, 1810) was a French political figure of the revolutionary period. Louis-Jérôme Gohier ( February 27, 1746 &ndash May 29, 1830) was a French politician of the Revolutionary period Within days, Philippe-Antoine Merlin (Merlin de Douai) and Louis-Marie de La Revellière (La Révellière-Lépeaux) were driven to resign; Moulin and Ducos replaced them. Philippe Antoine, Comte Merlin, or Merlin of Douai in short ( October 30, 1754 &ndash December 26, 1838) was Louis Marie de La Révellière-Lépeaux ( August 24, 1753 - March 24, 1824) was a French Politician, member of the French Pierre Roger Ducos (1747&ndash1816 better known as Roger Ducos, was a French political figure during the Revolution and First Empire, a member The three new directors were generally seen as non-entities.
A few more military disasters, royalist insurrections in the south, Chouan disturbances in a dozen departments of the western part of France, mainly in Bretagne, Maine and eventually Normandie, Orleanist intrigues, and the end was certain. The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. The Chouannerie was a royalist uprising in twelve of the western departements of France (particularly Brittany and Maine) against the French The State of Maine ( is a state in the New England region of the northeastern United States of America, bordering the Atlantic Ocean Normandy (Normandie Norman: Normaundie) is a geographical region corresponding to the former Duchy of Normandy. The Orléanists were a French Right-wing / Center-right Political faction or party which arose out of the French Revolution In order to soothe the populace and protect the frontier, more than the French Revolution's usual terrorist measures (such as forced taxation or the law of hostages) was necessary. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Terrorism is the systematic use of terror especially as a means of coercion In 1799, late in the French Revolution, the Law of Hostages was enacted by the Executive Directory (Fr The new Directory government, led by Sieyès, decided that the necessary revision of the constitution would require "a head" (his own) and "a sword" (a general to back him). Jean Victor Moreau being unattainable as his sword, Sieyès favoured Barthelemy Catherine Joubert; but, when Joubert was killed at the Battle of Novi (15 August 1799), he turned to General Napoleon Bonaparte. Jean Victor Marie Moreau ( February 14, 1763 &ndash September 2, 1813) was a French general who helped Napoleon Bonaparte Barthélemy Catherine Joubert ( April 14, 1769 &mdash August 15, 1799) was a French general The Battle of Novi was a Battle near Novi Ligure, Italy. It was fought on August 15, 1799 in the French Revolutionary Wars Events 778 - The Battle of Roncevaux Pass, at which Roland is killed Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe.
Although Guillaume Marie Anne Brune and André Masséna won the Battle of Bergen and of Zürich, and although the Allies of the Second Coalition lingered on the frontier as they had done after the Battle of Valmy, still the fortunes of the Directory were not restored. Guillaume Marie Anne Brune 1st Comte Brune ( March 13, 1763 &mdash August 2, 1815) was a French soldier and political figure who rose The Battle of Bergen, also called the Battle of Bergen-Binnen, was fought on September 19, 1799, and resulted in a French - The " Second Coalition " ( 1799 &ndash 1802) was the second attempt by other European powers to contain or eliminate Revolutionary The Battle of Valmy, also known as the Cannonade of Valmy, was a tactically indecisive artillery engagement but strategically it ensured the survival of the French Success was reserved for Bonaparte, suddenly landing at Fréjus with the prestige of his victories in the East, and now, after Roche's death, appearing as sole master of the armies. Fréjus can also refer to the Fréjus Road Tunnel and the Fréjus Rail Tunnel in the Alps The term Eastern world refers very broadly to the various Cultures social structures and philosophical systems of " the East "
In the coup of 18 Brumaire Year VIII (9 November 1799) France and the army fell together at Napoleon's feet. 18 Brumaire, the coup of 18 Brumaire or sometimes simply Brumaire refers to the Coup d'état by which General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a By a twofold coup d’état, parliamentary and military power went into the hands of a single man. There was little resistance to this move; after years of turmoil and revolution, France was tired and appeared to accept the sacrifice of the liberty and democracy that she had known for so short a time in return for simple stability and a strong hand at the reins of government.
On the night of the 19 Brumaire (10 November 1799) a remnant of the Council of Ancients abolished the Constitution of the Year III, ordained the Consulate, and legalised the coup d’état in favour of Bonaparte. Events 1444 - Battle of Varna: The crusading forces of King Vladislaus III of Varna (aka Ulaszlo I of Hungary and Wladyslaw Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Council of Ancients or Council of Elders ( Conseil des Anciens) was the Upper house of the Directory (French Directoire) the The Constitution of 1795, Constitution of 22 August 1795, Constitution of the Year III, or Constitution of 5 Fructidor was a national Constitution For the next fifteen years, the history of France and a great part of Europe was to be summed up in the person of a single man.
The New Government
The initial 18 Brumaire coup seemed to be a victory for Sieyès, rather than for Bonaparte. Sieyès was a proponent of a new system of government for the Republic, and the coup initially seemed certain to bring his system into force. Bonaparte's cleverness lay in counterposing Pierre Claude François Daunou's plan to that of Sieyès, and in retaining only those portions of both which could serve his ambition. Pierre Claude François Daunou ( August 18, 1761 – June 20, 1840) was a French statesman and Historian of the French [2]
The new government was composed of three parliamentary assemblies: the Council of State which drafted bills, the Tribunate which discussed them without voting them, and the Legislative Assembly which voted them without discussing them. TalkParliament#Screen-size. -->A parliament is a Legislature, especially in those Tribune (from the Latin: tribunus; Byzantine Greek form τριβούνος) was a title shared by 2–3 elected magistracies in the Popular suffrage was retained, though mutilated by the lists of notables (on which the members of the Assemblies were to be chosen by the conservative Senate). Executive authority was vested in three consuls, who were elected for ten years. First Consul (Premier Consul was a title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France.
Napoleon vetoed Sieyès' original idea of having a single Grand Elector as supreme executive and Head of State. Head of state is the generic term for the individual or collective office that serves as the chief public representative of a Monarchic or Republican Nation-state Sieyès had intended to reserve this important position for himself, and by denying him the job Napoleon helped reinforce the authority of the consuls, an office which he would assume. Nor was Napoleon content simply to be part of an equal triumvirate. The term triumvirate (from Latin, "of three men" is commonly used to describe a political regime dominated by three powerful individuals As the years would progress he would move to consolidate his own power as First Consul, and leave the two other consuls, Jean Jacques Régis de Cambacérès and Charles-François Lebrun, duc de Plaisance, as well as the Assemblies, weak and subservient. First Consul (Premier Consul was a title used by Napoleon Bonaparte following his seizure of power in France. Jean-Jacques-Régis de Cambacérès 1st Duc de Parma, ( 18 October 1753 &ndash 8 March 1824) was Charles-François Lebrun 1st Duc de Plaisance, Prince of the Empire ( March 19, 1739 &ndash June 16, 1824)
By consolidating power, Bonaparte was able to transform the aristocratic constitution of Sieyès into an unavowed dictatorship. A dictatorship is usually defined as an autocratic Form of government in which the Government is ruled by a Dictator.
On February 7, 1800, a public referendum confirmed Napoleon as First Consul, a position which would give him executive powers above the other two consuls. Events 457 - Leo I becomes emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 1074 - Battle of Montesarchio in which the Prince Year -of the Julian calendar. The Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar until Friday, but 12 days ahead since Saturday. A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita A full 99. 9% of voters approved the motion, according to the released results.
While this near-unanimity is certainly open to question, Napoleon was genuinely popular among many voters, and after a period of strife, many in France were reassured by his dazzling but unconvincing and unsuccessful offers of peace to the victorious Second Coalition, his rapid disarmament of La Vendée, and his talk of stability of government, order, justice and moderation. The " Second Coalition " ( 1799 &ndash 1802) was the second attempt by other European powers to contain or eliminate Revolutionary The Vendée is a department in the Pays-de-la-Loire region in west central France, on the Atlantic Ocean. JUSTICE is a Human rights and law reform organisation based in the United Kingdom. He gave everyone a feeling that France was governed once more by a real statesman, and that a competent government was finally in charge. A statesman or stateswoman or statesperson is usually a Politician or other notable figure of State who has had a long and respected career in
Napoleon's consolidation of Power
Bonaparte had now to rid himself of Sieyès and of those republicans who had no desire to hand over the republic to one man, particularly of Moreau and Masséna, his military rivals. Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty The victory of Marengo (14 June 1800) momentarily in the balance, but secured by Desaix and Kellermann, offered a further opportunity to his jealous ambition by increasing his popularity. In the Battle of Marengo was fought on 14 June 1800 between French forces under Napoleon Bonaparte and Austrian forces near the city of Alessandria Events 1276 - While taking exile in Fuzhou in southern China, away from the advancing Mongol invaders, the remnants of the Year -of the Julian calendar. The Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar until Friday, but 12 days ahead since Saturday. Louis Charles Antoine Desaix ( August 17, 1768 - June 14, 1800) was a French General and military leader François Christophe Kellermann or de Kellermann 1st Duc de Valmy (28 May 1735 - 23 September 1820) was Marshal of France during The royalist plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise on 24 December 1800 allowed him to make a clean sweep of the democratic republicans, who despite their innocence were deported to French Guiana. The plot of the Rue Saint-Nicaise, also known as the Machine infernale ( English: Infernal machine) plot was an Assassination attempt on the Events 563 - The Byzantine church Hagia Sophia in Constantinople is dedicated for the second time after being destroyed by Earthquakes Year -of the Julian calendar. The Gregorian calendar was 11 days ahead of the Julian calendar until Friday, but 12 days ahead since Saturday. French Guiana (Guyane française officially fr ''Guyane'' is an Overseas department (French département d'outre-mer, or DOM) of France He annulled the Assemblies and made the Senate omnipotent in constitutional matters. The Senate (Sénat is the Upper house of the Parliament of France, presided over by a president.
The Treaty of Lunéville, signed in February 1801 with Austria (which had been disarmed by Moreau’s victory at Hohenlinden), restored peace to Europe, gave nearly the whole of Italy to France, and permitted Bonaparte to eliminate from the Assemblies all the leaders of the opposition in the discussion of the Civil Code. The Treaty of Lunéville was signed on February 9 1801 between the French Republic and the Holy Roman Empire by Joseph Bonaparte and Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich The Battle of Hohenlinden was fought on December 3 1800 during the French Revolutionary Wars, near Munich, modern Germany. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest A civil code is a systematic compilation of laws designed to comprehensively deal with the core areas of Private law. The Concordat of 1801, drawn up not in the Church's interest but in that of his own policy, by giving satisfaction to the religious feeling of the country, allowed him to put down the constitutional democratic Church, to rally round him the consciences of the peasants, and above all to deprive the royalists of their best weapon. The Concordat of 1801 is a reflection of an agreement between Napoleon Bonaparte and Pope Pius VII that reaffirmed the Roman Catholic Church as the majority The Articles Organiques hid from the eyes of his companions-in-arms and councillors a reaction which, in fact if not in law, restored to a submissive Church, despoiled of her revenues, her position as the religion of the state.
The Peace of Amiens (25 March 1802) with the United Kingdom, of which France's allies, Spain and the Batavian Republic, paid all the costs, finally gave the peacemaker a pretext for endowing himself with a Consulate, not for ten years but for life, as a recompense from the nation. The Treaty of Amiens temporarily ended the hostilities between France and the United Kingdom during the French Revolutionary Wars. Events 1199 - Richard I is wounded by a crossbow bolt while fighting France which leads to his death on April 6. Year 1802 ( MDCCCII) was a Common year starting on Friday of the Gregorian calendar or a Common year starting on Wednesday of the The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. The Batavian Republic (Bataafse Republiek was the successor of the Republic of the United Netherlands. The Rubicon was crossed on that day: Bonaparte’s march to empire began with the Constitution of the Year X. Rubicon ( Rubicō, Italian: Rubicone) is a 29 km long River in northern Italy. The Constitution of the Year X was a national Constitution of France adopted during the Year X (1802 of the French Revolutionary Calendar.
In August 1802 a second national referendum was held, this time to confirm Napoleon as "First Consul for Life. " Once again, a rigged vote claimed 99% approval.
As Napoleon increased his power, he borrowed many techniques of the ancien régime in his new form of one-man government. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in Like the old monarchy, he re-introduced plenipotentiaries, an over-centralised, strictly utilitarian administrative and bureaucratic methods, and a policy of subservient pedantic scholasticism towards the nation's universities. Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries He constructed or consolidated the funds necessary for national institutions, local governments, a judiciary system, organs of finance, banking, codes, traditions of conscientious well-disciplined labour force. In Law, the judiciary or judicial system is the system of Courts which administer Justice in the name of the sovereign or State
France enjoyed a high level of peace and order under Napoleon that helped to raise the standard of comfort. Provisions, in Paris which had so often suffered from hunger and thirst, and lacked fire and light, had become cheap and abundant; while trade prospered and wages ran high. Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. The pomp and luxury of the nouveaux riches were displayed in the salons of the good Joséphine, the beautiful Madame Tallien, and the "divine" Juliette Récamier. Joséphine de Beauharnais (born Marie Josèphe Rose de Tascher de la Pagerie June 23 1763 &ndash May 29 1814) was the first Thérésa Cabarrus, best known as Madame Tallien ( 31 July 1773 &ndash 15 January 1835) was a French social Jeanne-Françoise Julie Adélaïde Bernard Récamier ( December 4, 1777 - May 11, 1849) was a Frenchwoman who was a leader of
However, the republicans, and above all the military, continued to view Napoleon as little more than a tyrant. They criticized the regime's bullying police, the prostration before authority, the sympathy lavished on royalists, the recall of the émigrés, the contempt for the Assemblies, the purification of the Tribunate, the platitudes of the servile Senate, and the silence of the press. Émigré is a French term that literally refers to a person who has "migrated out" but often carries a connotation of politico-social self- Exile. In strengthening the machinery of state, Napoleon created the elite order of the Légion d'honneur (The Legion of Honour), the Concordat, and restored indirect taxes, and act seen as betrayal of the Revolution. A concordat usually refers to an agreement between the Apostolic See and a Government of a certain country on religious matters although it is also used
Napoleon was largely able to quell dissent within government by expelling his more vocal critics, such as Benjamin Constant and Madame de Staël. This article concerns the European writer and politician for others see Benjamin Constant (disambiguation. Baronne Anne Louise Germaine de Staël-Holstein ( née Necker ( April 22, 1766 &ndash July 14, 1817) (stal commonly known as The expedition to San Domingo reduced the republican army to a nullity. Saint-Domingue was a French Colony on the Caribbean island of Hispaniola from 1659 to 1804 when it became the independent nation of Constant war helped demoralise and scatter the military's leaders, who were jealous of their "comrade" Bonaparte. The last major challenge to Napoleon's authority came from Moreau, who was compromised in a royalist plot; he too was sent into exile.
In contradistinction to the opposition of senators and republican generals, the majority of the French populace remained uncritical of Bonaparte's authority. No suggestion of the possibility of his death was tolerated.
The Duke of Enghien Affair
Because Napoleon's hold on political power was still tenuous, French Royalists devised a plot that involved kidnapping and assassinating him and inviting Louis Antoine Henri, the Duke of Enghien, to lead a coup d'état that would precede the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy with Louis XVIII on the throne. The title of Duke of Enghien (or Duke d'Enghien, or Duc d'Enghien, pronounced /dɑ̃ɡɛ̃/ the i is silent may like many noble titles refer Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. The British government of William Pitt the Younger had contributed to this Royalist conspiracy by financing one million pounds and providing naval transport (with the ship of Captain John Wesley Wright) to the conspirators Georges Cadoudal and General Charles Pichegru for their return to France from England. William Pitt the Younger (28 May 1759 &ndash 23 January 1806 was a British politician of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries. Pichegru met Jean Victor Marie Moreau, one of Napoleon's generals and a former protege of Pichegru, on January 28, 1804. Jean Victor Marie Moreau ( February 14, 1763 &ndash September 2, 1813) was a French general who helped Napoleon Bonaparte The next day, a British secret agent named Courson was arrested and he, under torture, confessed that Pichegru, Moreau and Cadoudal were conspiring to overthrow the Consulate. The French government sought more details of this plot by arresting and torturing Louis Picot, Cadoudal's servant. Joachim Murat ordered the city gates of Paris to be closed from 7 p. Joachim-Napoléon Murat (born Joachim Murat) ( Gioacchino Napoleone Murat) ( March 25 1767 &ndash October 13 1815) m. to 6 a. m. while Pichegru and Moreau were arrested during the next month.
These further arrests revealed that the Royalist conspiracy would eventually involve the active participation of the Duke of Enghien, who was a relatively young Bourbon prince and thus another possible heir to a restored Bourbon monarchy. The Duke, at that time, was living as a French émigré in the Grand Duchy of Baden, but he also kept a rented house in Ettenheim, which was close to the French border. Émigré is a French term that literally refers to a person who has "migrated out" but often carries a connotation of politico-social self- Exile. The Grand Duchy of Baden (Großherzogtum Baden was a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. Perhaps at the urging of Talleyrand, Napoleon's foreign minister, and Fouché, Napoleon's minister of police who had warned that "the air is full of daggers", the First Consul came to the political conclusion that the Duke must die. Charles Maurice de Talleyrand-Périgord 1st Sovereign Prince of Beneventum (2 February 1754 17 May 1838 the Prince of Diplomats, was a French Joseph Fouché, 1st Duc d' Otrante ( May 21, 1759 Le Pellerin, near Nantes, France - December 25, In a blatant violation of Baden's neutrality and sovereignty, two hundred French soldiers surrounded the Duke's home in Baden and arrested him. He was taken to the Parisian stronghold at Vincennes where he was quickly tried without legal counsel, evidence or public witnesses, condemned and immediately executed by firing squad.
Murat, as governor of Paris, was the person who signed the papers that started the legal prosecution of the Duke, but Murat did so with reluctance. Although the Duke, while still breathing and alive, was a serious potential threat to the Consulate and the achievements of the French Revolution, he had, up to the time of his show trial and swift execution, played no real active role in the Royalist conspiracy to depose the First Consul and restore the pre-Revolution regime. Napoleon may have regarded his ordering of the Duke's death to be necessary for the safety, interest and honour of the French people, but it was nonetheless a Machiavellian act of political survival that was talked about all over Europe. Machiavellianism is the term that some social and personality psychologists use to describe a person's tendency to deceive and manipulate others for personal gain
The End of the Republic
After thwarting yet another conspiracy against his rule, Napoleon enjoyed a great outpouring of adulation, which he in turn took advantage of to put the crowning touch to his ambitious dream. On 18 May 1804 the French Senate voted to give Bonaparte the title of emperor, a move that was ratified by yet another public referendum on the same day. Events 1152 - Henry II of England marries Eleanor of Aquitaine. Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a An emperor (from the Latin " Imperator " is a (male Monarch, usually the sovereign ruler of an Empire or another type of The Emperor Napoleon I crowned himself later that same year - the Consulate had passed away in favour of the Empire. The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or
References
This article incorporates text from the Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain. The History of France has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the list to the right Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western For Gaul before the Roman conquest see Gaul. Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in the Roman Empire, in modern day The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group France in the Middle Ages covers an area roughly corresponding to modern day France, from the death of Charlemagne in 814 to the middle of the 15th Early Modern France is the Early modern period of French history from the end of the 15th century to the end of the 18th century (or from the French Renaissance The History of France from 1789 to 1914 ( The long 19th century) extends from the French Revolution to World War I and includes The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The cause of the French Revolution is a significant subject of Historical debate The Estates-General (or States-General) of 1789 (Les États-Généraux de 1789 was the first meeting since 1614 of the French Estates-General The National Assembly of France is the lower legislative house under the French Fifth Republic. The Storming of the Bastille in Paris occurred on 14 July 1789. The National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante was formed from the National Assembly on 9 July 1789, during the first stages of the The National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante was formed from the National Assembly on 9 July 1789, during the first stages of the The French Revolution was a period in the History of France covering the years 1789 to 1799, in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon The Civil Constitution of the Clergy divided the French people During the French Revolution, the Legislative Assembly was the legislature of France from October 1 1791 to September 1792. The French Revolution was a period in the History of France covering the years 1789 to 1799 in which republicans overthrew the Bourbon monarchy During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly Saint justjpg|thumbnail|200px| Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just]] The Reign of Terror' (5 September 1793 &ndash 28 July 1794 or simply The Terror (la Terreur was The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following The War in Vendée ( 1793 to 1796) was a Civil war in Vendée between Royalists and Republicans during the French The Chouannerie was a royalist uprising in twelve of the western departements of France (particularly Brittany and Maine) against the French This is a glossary of the French Revolution. It generally does not explicate names of individual people or their political associations those can be found in List of people associated The following is a Timeline of the French Revolution Events preceding but pertinent to the French Revolution The Enlightenment, which led to many The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1792 until 1802 fought between the French Revolutionary government and several European states This is a partial '''list''' of people associated with the French Revolution, including supporters and opponents The French Revolution stretches back over two hundred years prior to the event itself The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814 the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne The July Monarchy (1830-1848 was a period of liberal monarchy rule of France under Louis-Philippe History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The History of France from 1914 to the present includes the later years of the Third Republic (1871–1941 World War I (1914–18 The Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition (1910–1911 is a 29-volume reference work that marked the beginning of the Encyclopædia Britannica The public domain is a range of abstract materials &ndash commonly referred to as Intellectual property &ndash which are not owned or controlled by anyone
- ^ Robert B. Holtman, The Napoleonic Revolution (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1981), 31.
- ^ Antoine-Claire Thibaudeau, “Creation of the Consular Government,” Napoleon: Symbol for an Age, A Brief History with Documents, ed. Rafe Blaufarb (New York: Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2008), 54-56.
- Tom Holmberg, "The d'Enghien Affair: Crime or Blunder?" (September 2005), The Napoleonic Series website. Accessed October 2006.
- "Louis Antoine Henri, duke of Enghien", (undated, copyright notice says 1997-2001) Histoire et Figurines website (English language version). Accessed October 2006.
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