Algérie Française French Algeria Départments of France ← 1830 – 1962 → Flag Coat of arms French Algeria Capital Algiers History  - Invasion 1830  - Independence July 3, 1962

French rule of Algeria lasted from 1830 to 1962, under a variety of governmental systems. In the context of the political and geographic organization of France and many of its former colonies a department (département depaʁtǝmɑ̃ is an Administrative division This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. At about the time Spain was establishing its Presidios in the Maghreb, the Muslim Privateer brothers Aruj and Khair For the game see 1830 (board game. Year 1830 ( MDCCCXXX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The National flag of Algeria consists of two equal vertical bars green and white charged in the center with a red Star and crescent. The Emblem of Algeria (شعار الجزائر is the seal used by the government and it is similar to the Coat of arms of other nations This is a list of national capitals of the world in alphabetical order Algiers (الجزائر Algerian Arabic: Dzayer ( (From kabyle pronunciation Kabyle: Ledzayer, Alger) is the Capital and largest An invasion is a military offensive consisting of all or large parts of the Armed forces of one geopolitical entity aggressively entering territory For the game see 1830 (board game. Year 1830 ( MDCCCXXX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display Independence is the Self-government of a Nation, Country, or State by its residents and population or some portion thereof generally exercising Events 324 - Battle of Adrianople Constantine I defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium. Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. For the game see 1830 (board game. Year 1830 ( MDCCCXXX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display Year 1962 ( MCMLXII) was a Common year starting on Monday (the link is to a full 1962 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. One of France's longest-held overseas territories, Algeria became a destination for hundreds of thousands of European immigrants, known as colons who eventually took on the name of pieds-noirs. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's The European peoples are the various Nations and Ethnic groups of Europe. Pied-Noir ("Black-Foot" plural Pieds-Noirs, pronounced /pje However, indigenous Muslims remained a majority of the territory's population throughout its history. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Gradually, dissatisfaction among the Muslim population with its lack of political and economic status fueled calls for greater political autonomy, and eventually independence, from France. Tensions between the two population groups came to a head in 1954, when the first violent events of what was later called the Algerian War began. Year 1954 ( MCMLIV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full 1954 Gregorian calendar) The Algerian War ( French: Guerre d'Algérie; 1954-1962 also known as Algerian War of Independence, led to Algeria 's independence from The war concluded in 1962, when Algeria gained complete independence following the March 1962 Evian agreements. The Évian Accords comprise a Treaty which was signed on March 18, 1962 in Évian-les-Bains, France by France and the

Contents 1 The French conquest of Algeria 1.1 The Fan Affair 1.2 Invasion of Algiers (June 1830) 2 The Conquest of the Algerian territories under the July Monarchy (1830-1848) 3 Resistance of Lalla Fatma N'Soumer 4 Resistance of Abd al Qadir 5 Colonization and military control 6 Algeria under the French Second Republic and Second Empire (1848-1870) 6.1 The land and colonizers 7 Algeria and the Third Republic 8 Algeria's population 9 Hegemony of the Colons 10 Analogy with apartheid 11 Post colonial relations 12 References 13 Sources and bibliography 14 See also

The French conquest of Algeria

This article is part of the History of Algeria series
Prehistoric Central North Africa
North Africa during the Classical Period
Medieval Muslim Algeria
Ottoman rule in Algeria
French rule in Algeria
Nationalism and resistance in Algeria
Algerian War of Independence
History of Algeria since the 1960s to the 1980s
Algerian Civil War (1990s)
2000s in Algeria (2000s)
This box: view • talk • edit

The conquest of Algeria was initiated in the last days of the Bourbon Restoration by King Charles X as an attempt to increase his popularity amongst the French people, particularly in Paris, where many veterans of the Napoleonic conquests lived. Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814 the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne Charles X (9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836 ruled as King of France and Navarre from 20 May 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated He would bolster patriotic sentiment, and turn eyes away from his domestic policies by "skirmishing against the dey". Dey (Arabic داي from Turkish Dayı) was the title given to the rulers of the Regency of Algiers ( Algeria) and Tunis ( Tunisia) under ^[1]

On the other hand, the dey of Algiers itself was weak politically, economically, and militarily. Algeria was then part of the Barbary States, along with today's Morocco and Tunisia, which depended on the Ottoman Empire, then led by Mahmud II, but enjoyed relative independence. The Barbary Coast, or Barbary, was the term used by Europeans from the 16th until the 19th century to refer to the middle and western coastal regions of North Africa—what Stagnation of the Ottoman Empire ( 1683 - 1827) was a period after the territorial expansion of the Empire reached its maximum Mahmud II ( Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثاني Mahmud-ı sānī) ( July 20, 1785 July 1, 1839 The Barbary Coast was then the stronghold of the Barbary pirates, which carried out raids against European and American ships. The Barbary Coast, or Barbary, was the term used by Europeans from the 16th until the 19th century to refer to the middle and western coastal regions of North Africa—what The Barbary pirates, also sometimes called Ottoman corsairs, were Muslim Pirates and Privateers that operated from North Africa, from But since the beginning of the 19th century, the Mediterranean Sea had been put under military surveillance by the British Navy which had established a blockade. The British Royal Navy was formally created after the Union between England and Scotland in 1707 which merged the English Navy with the Royal Scots Navy

Conflicts between the Barbary States and the newly independent United States of America culminated in the First and Second Barbary War (1801-1805 and 1815). The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The First Barbary War (1801&ndash1805 also known as the Barbary Coast War or the Tripolitan War, was the first of two wars fought between the United The Second Barbary War (1815 also known as the Algerine or Algerian War) was the second of two wars fought between the United States of America The same year, an Anglo-Dutch expedition, led by Admiral Exmouth, carried out a punitive expedition, the August 1816 bombardment of Algiers. Admiral Edward Pellew 1st Viscount Exmouth, GCB ( April 9, 1757 &ndash January 23, 1833) was a British naval The Bombardment of Algiers ( August 27 1816) was an attempt by Britain to end the slavery practices of the Dey of Algiers. The dey was constrained to sign the Barbary treaties, while the technological advance of U. The Barbary Treaties refer to several treaties between the United States of America and the semi-autonomous North African city-states of Algiers, Tunis Early Modern warfare is associated with the start of the widespread use of Gunpowder and the development of suitable weapons to use the explosive S. , British and French armies overwhelmed the pirates' expertise at naval warfare. Naval warfare is Combat in and on Seas Oceans or any other major bodies of water such as large Lakes and wide Rivers History The name of "Algeria" itself came from the French: following the conquest under the July monarchy, the Algerian territories, disputed to the Ottoman Empire, were first named "French possessions in North Africa" before being called "Algeria" by General Soult in 1839. The July Monarchy (1830-1848 was a period of liberal monarchy rule of France under Louis-Philippe North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Nicolas Jean-de-Dieu Soult, 1st Duc de Dalmatie (29 March 1769 26 November 1851 the Hand of Iron, was a French general and statesman named ^[2]

The Fan Affair

During the Directory regime of the First French Republic (1795-1799), the Bacri and the Busnach, Jewish negotiants of Libourne, provided important quantities of grain for Napoleon's soldiers who participated in the Italian campaign of 1796. The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. Libourne is a commune in the Gironde department in Aquitaine in southwestern France. The French Revolutionary Wars continued from 1795, with the French in an increasingly strong position as members of the First Coalition made separate peaces However, Bonaparte refused to pay the bill back, claiming it was excessive. In 1820, Louis XVIII paid back half of the Directory's debts. Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. The dey, who had loaned to the Bacri 250,000 francs, requested from France the rest of the money. The franc (represented by the franc sign ₣ or more commonly just F) is a former Currency of France.

But another, more serious matter enraged the Dey. France had the commercial concession of a stockhouse in La Calle, and, by the intermediary of its representant Deval, had engaged itself not to fortify it. El Kala (القالة French: formerly La Calle) is a seaport of Algeria, in El Tarf Province, 56 miles (90 km by rail east of Annaba However, Paris did not respect its engagements. The dey first requested explanations by sending a letter to the French government, who chose not to respond him. Thus, the dey orally asked the reasons behind this disrespect of their conventions to the French consul, who refused to respond to him.

The dey responded to French disdain by hitting the consul Deval with his fan on 30 April 1827. Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule Year 1827 ( MDCCCXXVII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common This led to the rupture of diplomatic relations between France and the Dey, although the financial dealings between Deval and the Bacri-Busnach, as well as the Calle fortifications affairs were the real causes of the hostility.

Invasion of Algiers (June 1830)

Thereafter, the government of Charles X (1824-1830) took the "fan affair" ("l'affaire de l'éventail") as a pretext to invade Algeria and castigate the Dey for his "impudence. Charles X (9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836 ruled as King of France and Navarre from 20 May 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated " The French consul and residents took off for France, while the Minister of War, Clermont-Tonnerre, proposed a military expedition. The Minister of Defence ( Ministère de la Défense) is the French Government cabinet member charged with running the Military of France Clermont-Tonnerre is the name of a French family members of which played some part in the history of France especially in Dauphiné, from about 1100 to the The ultra-royalist Count of Villèle, President of the Council, and the monarch's heir opposed themselves to it. The term Ultra-Royalists or simply Ultras refers to a Reactionary faction which sat in the French parliament from 1815 Jean-Baptiste Guillaume Joseph Marie Anne Séraphin comte de Villèle (14 April 1773 - 13 March 1854 was a French statesman The Restoration finally decided to blockade Algiers for three years. But the important tonnage of French ships forced them to keep away from the coasts, while the Barbary pilots could easily exploit the geography of the coast. Although the History of the French Navy goes back to the Middle Ages when it was defeated by the English at the Battle of Sluys and with Castilian help managed The Barbary Coast, or Barbary, was the term used by Europeans from the 16th until the 19th century to refer to the middle and western coastal regions of North Africa—what Before the failure of the blockade, the Restoration decided on 31 January 1830 to engage a military expedition against Algiers. Events 1504 - France cedes Naples to Aragon. 1606 - Gunpowder Plot: Guy Fawkes For the game see 1830 (board game. Year 1830 ( MDCCCXXX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display

Admiral Duperré took the command in Toulon of an armada of 600 ships and then headed for Algiers. Guy-Victor Duperré ( La Rochelle, 20 February 1775 &ndash Paris, 2 November 1846) was a French Admiral Toulon ( Provençal Occitan: Tolon in classical norm or Touloun in Mistralian norm is a city in southern France and a large Using Napoleon's 1808 contingency plan for the invasion of Algeria, General de Bourmont then landed 27 kilometers west of Algiers, at Sidi Ferruch on 14 June 1830, with 34,000 soldiers. Louis-Auguste-Victor Count de Ghaisnes de Bourmont ( September 2, 1773 - October 27, 1846) was a Marshal of France. Sidi Ferruch is a coastal town in Algiers Province, Algeria. It is located within the territory of the municipality of Staouéli, on a Presque-isle Events 1276 - While taking exile in Fuzhou in southern China, away from the advancing Mongol invaders, the remnants of the For the game see 1830 (board game. Year 1830 ( MDCCCXXX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display To face the French, the dey sent 7,000 janissaries, 19,000 troops from the beys of Constantine and Oran, and about 17,000 Kabyles. The Janissaries (derived from Ottoman Turkish ينيچرى ( yeniçeri) meaning "new soldier" comprised Infantry units that formed Constantine ( Arabic: is the capital of Constantine Province in north-eastern Algeria. Oran ( Arabic:ar وهران pronounced Wahran; also transliterated as Ouahran, Spanish: Orán. The Kabyles ( Iqvaylyen or Iqbayliyen in Kabyle, iqβajlijən are a Berber people whose traditional Homeland is highlands of The French established a strong beachhead and pushed toward Algiers, thanks in part to superior artillery and better organization. The French troops took the advantage on 19 June during the battle of Staoueli, and entered in Algiers on 5 July 1830, after a three-week campaign. Events 1179 - The Norwegian Battle of Kalvskinnet outside Nidaros. Events 1295 - Scotland and France form an alliance the beginnings of the Auld Alliance, against England. For the game see 1830 (board game. Year 1830 ( MDCCCXXX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display The Dey Hussein accepted capitulation in exchange of his freedom and the offer to retain possession of his personal wealth. Five days later, he exiled himself with his family, on board of a French ship heading for the Italian peninsula, then under the control of the Austrian Empire. Th Italian Peninsula or Apennine Peninsula (Penisola italiana or Penisola appenninica) is one of the three Peninsulas of Southern Europe For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. 2,500 janissaries also quit the Algerian territories, heading for Asia, on 11 July. The Janissaries (derived from Ottoman Turkish ينيچرى ( yeniçeri) meaning "new soldier" comprised Infantry units that formed Events 911 - Signing of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between Charles the Simple and Rollo of Normandy. After ruling it for 313 years, the Ottomans abandoned the Regency in Algiers and therefore the administration of the country, which they had taken care of since 1517.

The French army then put under foot the first zouaves regiments in October, and then the spahis regiments, while France expropriated all the Beliks (Turkish settlers)'s land properties. Zouave was the title given to certain Infantry regiments in the French Army, normally serving in French North Africa between 1831 and 1962 Sipahi ( Ottoman Turkish: ota سپاهی also transliterated as Spahi, Sepahi, and Spakh; traditionally rendered as Spahia Expropriation refers to Confiscation of Private property with the stated purpose of establishing social equality. In the western region of Oran, the sultan of Morocco, Abderrahmane, Commander of the Believers, could not remain much longer indifferent to the massacres committed by the French Christian troops and to belligerent calls to enter jihad from the marabouts. Oran ( Arabic:ar وهران pronounced Wahran; also transliterated as Ouahran, Spanish: Orán. Moulay Sharif Abderrahmane (Abd-al-Rahman(عبد الرحمان was Sultan of Morocco from 1822 to 1859 Jihad (جهاد ʤɪhæːd an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. A marabout (مَربوط or مُرابِط, one who is attached/garrisoned) is an Islamic religious leader and teacher in West Africa, and (historically Despite the diplomatic rupture between Morocco and the Two Sicilies in 1830, and the naval warfare engaged against the Austrian Empire as well as with Spain, then headed by Ferdinand VII, Abderrahmane lent his support to the Algerian insurgency triggered by Abd El-Kader. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies ( Regno delle Due Sicilie) commonly known as just the Two Sicilies, was the name of a Kingdom in Europe. Spain in the mid-nineteenth century was a country in turmoil Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814 a massively destructive " war of independence " ensued Early life In his youth he occupied the painful position of an heir apparent who was jealously excluded from all share in government by his parents and the royal favorite `Abd al-Qādir al-Jazā'irī ( 6 September, 1808 - 26 May, 1883, in Arabic عبد القادر الجزائري was an The latter would fight during years against the French. Directing army of 12,000 men, he first organized the blockade of Oran.

Algerian refugees were welcomed by the Moroccan population, while the Sultan's instructions recommended to the authorities of Tetuan of assisting them, by providing them jobs in the administration or the military forces. Tétouan ( Arabic: تطوان (meaning eyes in the Berber language) also spelled Tetuan, sometimes Tettawen or Tettawan, is a city The inhabitants of Tlemcen, close to the Moroccan borders, demanding the Sultan to be placed under his authority in order to escape to the invaders. Tlemcen is a town in Northwestern Algeria, and the capital of the the province of the same name. Abderrahmane thus named nephew, prince Moulay Ali, as Caliph of Tlemcen, charged of the protection of the city. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah France executed in retaliations two Moroccans, Mohamed Beliano and Benkirane, under the pseudo-motives of espionage, while all their goods were seized by the military governor of Oran, General Boyer.

Hardly had the news of the capture of Algiers reached Paris than Charles X was deposed during the Three Glorious Days of July 1830, and his cousin Louis-Philippe, the "citizen king," was named to preside over a constitutional monarchy. The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, saw the overthrow of King Charles X, the French Louis Philippe ( 6 October 1773 &ndash 26 August 1850) was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 in what was known as the The July Monarchy (1830-1848 was a period of liberal monarchy rule of France under Louis-Philippe The new government, composed of liberal opponents of the Algiers expedition, was reluctant to pursue the conquest ordered by the old regime, but withdrawing from Algeria proved more difficult than conquering it. Liberalism and radicalism in France do not form the same type of ideology A parliamentary commission that examined the Algerian situation concluded that although French policy, behaviour, and organization were failures, the occupation should continue for the sake of national prestige.

The Conquest of the Algerian territories under the July Monarchy (1830-1848)

On December 1, 1830, King Louis-Philippe name the duc de Rovigo head of military staff in Algeria. Events 800 - Charlemagne judges the accusations against Pope Leo III in the Vatican For the game see 1830 (board game. Year 1830 ( MDCCCXXX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display Louis Philippe ( 6 October 1773 &ndash 26 August 1850) was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 in what was known as the Anne Jean Marie René Savary 1st Duc de Rovigo ( April 26, 1774 - June 1833 French general and Diplomat, was born at De Rogivo took control of Bône and initiated colonisation of the land, expropriations, etc. Annaba (عنابة formerly Bône, historically Hippo) is a city in the northeastern corner of Algeria near the river Seybouse and He was recalled in 1833 due to the overtly violent nature of the repression. Wishing to avoid a conflict with Morocco, Louis-Philippe sent an extraordinary mission to the Sultan, mixed with displays of military might, sending war ships to the bay of Tangiers. An embassador was sent to the Sultan Moulay Abderrahmane in February 1832, headed by count de Mornay and including the painter Eugène Delacroix. Moulay Sharif Abderrahmane (Abd-al-Rahman(عبد الرحمان was Sultan of Morocco from 1822 to 1859 Ferdinand Victor Eugène Delacroix (26 April 1798 &ndash 13 August 1863 was a French Romantic artist regarded from the outset of his career as the leader of The Sultan, however, refused French demands to evacuate Tlemcen.

In 1834, France annexed the occupied areas of Algeria, which had an estimated Muslim population of about two million, as a colony. This article is about a type of political territory For other uses see Colony (disambiguation. Colonial administration in the occupied areas — the so-called régime du sabre (government of the sword) — was placed under a governor general, a high-ranking army officer invested with civil and military jurisdiction, who was responsible to the minister of war. The historical phenomenon of Colonisation is one that stretches around the globe and across time including such disparate peoples as the Hittites, the Incas and the List of colonial heads of Algeria Beylerbey: Bey of beys Kalifah: Governor acting in the absence of the Beylerbey Aga ( Agha Marshall Bugeaud, who became the first governor-general, headed the conquest, making a systemic use of torture and following a "scorched earth" policy. Thomas Robert Bugeaud Marquis de la Piconnerie Duc d'Isly ( October 15, 1784 - June 10, 1849) was a Marshal of France and Torture, according to the United Nations Convention Against Torture, is "any act by which severe pain or suffering, whether physical or mental is intentionally A scorched earth policy is a military strategy or operational method (possibly more often referred to as a tactic but this is not entirely correct as there is a difference between The French military exterminated a third of the Algerian population. The Military of France encompasses an army, a navy, an air force and a military police force.

Soon after the conquest of Algiers, the soldier-politician Bertrand Clauzel and others formed a company to acquire agricultural land and, despite official discouragement, to subsidize its settlement by European farmers, triggering a land rush. Bertrand comte Clausel (or Clauzel) ( December 12, 1772 &ndash April 21, 1842) Marshal of France, was born at Mirepoix Clauzel recognized the farming potential of the Mitidja Plain and envisioned the production there of cotton on a large scale. Size and boundaries Area comparative Australia comparative slightly smaller than Western Australia Canada comparative Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp As governor general (1835–36), he used his office to make private investments in land and encouraged army officers and bureaucrats in his administration to do the same. This development created a vested interest among government officials in greater French involvement in Algeria. Commercial interests with influence in the government also began to recognize the prospects for profitable land speculation in expanding the French zone of occupation. They created large agricultural tracts, built factories and businesses, and exploited cheap local labor.

Among others testimonies, Lieutenant-Colonel de Montagnac wrote on 15 March 1843, in a letter to a friend:

"All populations which do not accept our conditions must be despoiled. Everything must be seized, devastated, without age or sex distinction: grass must not grow any more where the French army has put the foot. Who wants the end wants the means, whatever may say our philanthropists. I personally warn all good militaries which I have the honour to lead that if they happen to bring me a living Arab, they will receive a beating with the flat of the saber. . . This is how, my dear friend, we must do war against Arabs: kill all men over the age of fifteen, take all their women and children, charged the buildings with them [i. e. probable allusion to military brothels], send them to the Marquesas Islands or elsewhere. In one word, annihilate all that will not crawl beneath our feet like dogs. "^[3]

In the same way, Alexis de Tocqueville, deputy and famous representative of the liberal tradition in political philosophy, declared in 1841:

"war in Africa is a science. Everyone is familiar with its rules and everyone can apply those rules with almost complete certainty of success. One of the greatest services that Field Marshal Bugeaud has rendered his country is to have spread, perfected and made everyone aware of this new science. . . As far as I am concerned, I came back from Africa with the pathetic notion that at present in our way of waging war we are far more barbaric than the Arabs themselves. These days, they represent civilization, we do not. This way of waging war seems to me as stupid as it is cruel. It can only be found in the head of a coarse and brutal soldier. Indeed, it was pointless to replace the Turks only to reproduce what the world rightly found so hateful in them. This, even for the sake of interest is more noxious than useful; for, as another officer was telling me, if our sole aim is to equal the Turks, in fact we shall be in a far lower position than theirs: barbarians for barbarians, the Turks will always outdo us because they are Muslim barbarians. In France, I have often heard men I respect but do not approve of, deplore that crops should be burnt and granaries emptied and finally that unarmed men, women and children should be seized. In my view these are unfortunate circumstances that any people wishing to wage war against the Arabs must accept. I think that all the means available to wreck tribes must be used, barring those that the human kind and the right of nations condemn. I personally believe that the laws of war enable us to ravage the country and that we must do so either by destroying the crops at harvest time or any time by making fast forays also known as raids the aim of which it to get hold of men or flocks. "^[4][5]

"Whatever the case", continued Tocqueville, "we may say in a general manner that all political freedoms must be suspended in Algeria. Political freedom is the absence of interference with the sovereignty of an individual by the use of coercion or aggression A state of emergency is a governmental declaration that may suspend certain normal functions of government alert citizens to alter their normal behaviors or order government agencies ^[6]

Whatever initial misgivings Louis Philippe's government may have had about occupying Algeria, the geopolitical realities of the situation created by the 1830 intervention argued strongly for reinforcing the French presence there. France had reason for concern that Britain, which was pledged to maintain the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, would move to fill the vacuum left by a French pullout. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 The French devised elaborate plans for settling the hinterland left by Ottoman provincial authorities in 1830, but their efforts at state building were unsuccessful on account of lengthy armed resistance. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish

The most successful local opposition immediately after the fall of Algiers was led by Ahmad ibn Muhammad, bey of Constantine. Constantine ( Arabic: is the capital of Constantine Province in north-eastern Algeria. He initiated a radical overhaul of the Ottoman administration in his beylik by replacing Turkish officials with local leaders, making Arabic the official language, and attempting to reform finances according to the precepts of Islam. Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. After the French failed in several attempts to gain some of the bey's territories through negotiation, an ill-fated invasion force led by Bertrand Clauzel had to retreat from Constantine in 1836 in humiliation and defeat. Constantine ( Arabic: is the capital of Constantine Province in north-eastern Algeria. Nonetheless, the French captured Constantine the following year.

The controversial historian Daniel Lefeuvre has contested the common estimates concerning the death toll. He has recently alleged that if the Algerian population has decreased by 875,000 people between 1830 and 1872, the French military were not responsible for all of them, as a fraction of these deaths could be explained by the grasshopper invasions of 1866 and 1868, as well as by a rigorous winter in 1867-68, which caused a famine followed by an epidemics of cholera^[7]

Resistance of Lalla Fatma N'Soumer

The French began their occupation of Algiers in 1830, starting with a landing in Algiers. Ninety-one percent of the Algerian population lives along the Mediterranean coast on 12% of the country's total land mass A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation Cholera, sometimes known as Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera, is an infectious Gastroenteritis caused by the Bacterium This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Algiers (الجزائر Algerian Arabic: Dzayer ( (From kabyle pronunciation Kabyle: Ledzayer, Alger) is the Capital and largest As occupation turned into colonization, Kabylia remained the only region independent of the French government. This article focuses on the region in Algeria For the ethnic group see Kabyle people. Pressure on the region increased, and the will of her people to resist and defend Kabylie increased as well.

A turning point in Lalla Fadma's life was the arrival in Kabylie, in about 1849, of a mysterious man who presented himself as Mohamed ben Abdallah (the name of the Prophet), but who is more commonly known as Bou Baghla. Year 1849 ( MDCCCXLIX) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets He was probably an ex-lieutenant in the army of Emir Abdelkader, defeated for the last time by the French in 1847. `Abd al-Qādir al-Jazā'irī ( 6 September, 1808 - 26 May, 1883, in Arabic عبد القادر الجزائري was an Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Bou Baghla refused to surrender at that battle, and retreated to Kabylie. From there he began a war against the French armies and their allies, often employing guerrilla tactics . Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Bou Baghla was a relentless fighter, and very eloquent in Arabic. He was very religious, and some legends tell about his thaumaturgic skills. Thaumaturgy (from the Greek words θαῦμα thaûma, stem thaumat-, meaning "miracle" or "marvel" and ἔργον érgon

Bou Baghla went often to Summer to talk with the high-ranking members of the religious community, and Lalla Fadhma was soon attracted by his strong personality. At the same time, the relentless combatant was attracted by a woman so resolutely willing to contribute, by any means possible, to the war against the French. With her inspiring speeches, she convinced many men to fight as imseblen (volunteers ready to die as martyrs) and she herself, together with other women, participated in combat by providing cooking, medicines, and comfort to the fighting forces.

Traditional sources tell that a strong bond was formed between Lalla Fadhma and Bou Baghla. She saw this as a wedding of peers, rather than the traditional submission as a slave to a husband. In fact, at that time Bou Baghla left his first wife (Fatima Bent Sidi Aissa) and sent back to her owner a slave he had as a concubine (Halima Bent Messaoud). But on her side, Lalla Fadhma wasn't free: even if she was recognized as tamnafeqt ("woman who left her husband to get back to his family", a Kabylie institution), the matrimonial tie with her husband was still in place, and only her husband's will could free her. However he did not agree to, even when offered large bribes. The love between Fadhma and Bou remained platonic, but there were public expressions of this feeling between the two.

Fadhma was personally present at many fights in which Bou Baghla was involved, particularly the battle of Tachekkirt won by Bou Baghla forces (18–19 July 1854), where the French General Randon was caught but managed to escape later. Events 390 BC - Roman - Gaulish Wars Battle of the Allia - a Roman army is defeated by raiding Gauls, Events 711 - Muslim forces under Tariq ibn Ziyad defeat the Visigoths led by their king Roderic. Year 1854 ( MDCCCLIV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year On 26 December 1854, Bou Baghla was killed; some sources claim it was due to the treason of some of his allies. Events 1481 - Battle of Westbrook - Holland defeats troops of Utrecht. The resistance remained without a charismatic leader and a commander able to guide it efficiently. For this reason, during the first months of 1855, on a sanctuary built on top of the Azru Nethor peak, not far from the village where Fadhma was born, there was a great council among combatants and important figures of the tribes in Kabylie. Year 1855 ( MDCCCLV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year They decided to grant Lalla Fadhma, assisted by her brothers, the command of combat.

Resistance of Abd al Qadir

The French faced other opposition as well in the area. The superior of a religious brotherhood, Muhyi ad Din, who had spent time in Ottoman jails for opposing the bey's rule, launched attacks against the French and their makhzen allies at Oran in 1832. Oran ( Arabic:ar وهران pronounced Wahran; also transliterated as Ouahran, Spanish: Orán. Year 1832 ( MDCCCXXXII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian In the same year, tribal elders chose Muhyi ad Din's son, twenty-five-year-old Abd al Qadir, to take his place leading the jihad. `Abd al-Qādir al-Jazā'irī ( 6 September, 1808 - 26 May, 1883, in Arabic عبد القادر الجزائري was an Jihad (جهاد ʤɪhæːd an Islamic term, is a religious duty of Muslims. Abd al Qadir, who was recognized as Amir al-Muminin (commander of the faithful), quickly gained the support of tribes throughout Algeria. Amir al-Mu'minin ( Arabic أمير المؤمنين Latinized as Miramolinus hence Italian Miramolino usually translated Commander of the Faithful A devout and austere marabout, he was also a cunning political leader and a resourceful warrior. From his capital in Tlemcen, Abd al Qadir set about building a territorial Muslim state based on the communities of the interior but drawing its strength from the tribes and religious brotherhoods. Tlemcen is a town in Northwestern Algeria, and the capital of the the province of the same name. By 1839, he controlled more than two-thirds of Algeria. Year 1839 ( MDCCCXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common His government maintained an army and a bureaucracy, collected taxes, supported education, undertook public works, and established agricultural and manufacturing cooperatives to stimulate economic activity.

The French in Algiers viewed with concern the success of a Muslim government and the rapid growth of a viable territorial state that barred the extension of European settlement. Abd al Qadir fought running battles across Algeria with French forces, which included units of the Foreign Legion, organized in 1831 for Algerian service. Although his forces were defeated by the French under General Thomas Bugeaud in 1836, Abd al Qadir negotiated a favorable peace treaty the next year. Thomas Robert Bugeaud Marquis de la Piconnerie Duc d'Isly ( October 15, 1784 - June 10, 1849) was a Marshal of France and Year 1836 ( MDCCCXXXVI) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap The treaty of Tafna gained conditional recognition for Abd al Qadir's regime by defining the territory under its control and salvaged his prestige among the tribes just as the shaykhs were about to desert him. The Treaty of Tafna was signed by both Abd-el-Kader and General Thomas Robert Bugeaud on May 30, 1837. To provoke new hostilities, the French deliberately broke the treaty in 1839 by occupying Constantine. Year 1839 ( MDCCCXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Constantine ( Arabic: is the capital of Constantine Province in north-eastern Algeria. Abd al Qadir took up the holy war again, destroyed the French settlements on the Mitidja Plain, and at one point advanced to the outskirts of Algiers itself. He struck where the French were weakest and retreated when they advanced against him in greater strength. The government moved from camp to camp with the amir and his army. Gradually, however, superior French resources and manpower and the defection of tribal chieftains took their toll. Reinforcements poured into Algeria after 1840 until Bugeaud had at his disposal 108,000 men, one-third of the French army. Year 1840 ( MDCCCXL) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The French Army, officially the Armée de Terre (Land Army is the land-based component of the French Armed Forces and its largest Bugeaud's strategy was to destroy Abd al Qadir's bases, then to starve the population by destroying its means of subsistence — crops, orchards, and herds. On several occasions, French troops burned or asphyxiated noncombatants hiding from the terror in caves. One by one, the amir's strongholds fell to the French, and many of his ablest commanders were killed or captured so that by 1843 the Muslim state had collapsed. Year 1843 ( MDCCCXLIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common Abd al Qadir took refuge in 1841 with his ally, the sultan of Morocco, Abd ar Rahman II, and launched raids into Algeria. Morocco (المغرب "al-Maghrib" officially the Kingdom of Morocco (المملكة المغربية is a country located in North Africa Moulay Sharif Abderrahmane (Abd-al-Rahman(عبد الرحمان was Sultan of Morocco from 1822 to 1859 However, Abd al Qadir was obliged to surrender to the commander of Oran Province, General Louis de Lamoricière, at the end of 1847. Oran ( Arabic:ar وهران pronounced Wahran; also transliterated as Ouahran, Spanish: Orán. Christophe Léon Louis Juchault de Lamoricière ( 5 September 1806 - 11 September 1865) was a French General. Year 1847 ( MDCCCXLVII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common

Abd al Qadir was promised safe conduct to Egypt or Palestine if his followers laid down their arms and kept the peace. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Palestine is a name which has been widely used since Roman times to refer to the region between the Mediterranean Sea and the Jordan River. He accepted these conditions, but the minister of war — who years earlier as general in Algeria had been badly defeated by Abd al Qadir — had him consigned to prison in France.

Colonization and military control

A royal ordinance in 1845 called for three types of administration in Algeria. Year 1845 ( MDCCCXLV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common In areas where Europeans were a substantial part of the population, colons elected mayors and councils for self-governing "full exercise" communes (communes de plein exercice). In the "mixed" communes, where Muslims were a large majority, government was in the hands of appointed and some elected officials, including representatives of the grands chefs (great chieftains) and a French administrator. The indigenous communes (communes indigènes), remote areas not adequately pacified, remained under the régime du sabre.

By 1848 nearly all of northern Algeria was under French control. Year 1848 ( MDCCCXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap Important tools of the colonial administration, from this time until their elimination in the 1870s, were the bureaux arabes (Arab offices), staffed by Arabists whose function was to collect information on the indigenous people and to carry out administrative functions, nominally in cooperation with the army. Events and Trends Technology The invention of the prototype telephone by Alexander G The bureaux arabes on occasion acted with sympathy to the local population and formed a buffer between Muslims and colons. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion

Under the régime du sabre, the colons had been permitted limited self-government in areas where European settlement was most intense, but there was constant friction between them and the army. The colons charged that the bureaux arabes hindered the progress of colonization. Colonisation (also known as Colonization) occurs whenever any one or more species populates a new area They agitated against military rule, complaining that their legal rights were denied under the arbitrary controls imposed on the colony and insisting on a civil administration for Algeria fully integrated with metropolitan France. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The army warned that the introduction of civilian government would invite Muslim retaliation and threaten the security of Algeria. The French government vacillated in its policy, yielding small concessions to the colon demands on the one hand while maintaining the régime du sabre to control the Muslim majority on the other.

Algeria under the French Second Republic and Second Empire (1848-1870)

Shortly after Louis Philippe's constitutional monarchy was overthrown in the revolution of 1848, the new government of the Second Republic ended Algeria's status as a colony and declared in the 1848 Constitution the occupied lands an integral part of France. Year 1848 ( MDCCCXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs Three civil territories — Algiers, Oran, and Constantine — were organized as French départements (local administrative units) under a civilian government. Algiers (الجزائر Algerian Arabic: Dzayer ( (From kabyle pronunciation Kabyle: Ledzayer, Alger) is the Capital and largest Oran is a former French département in Algeria existing from 1848 until 1962 Constantine ( Arabic: is the capital of Constantine Province in north-eastern Algeria. In the context of the political and geographic organization of France and many of its former colonies a department (département depaʁtǝmɑ̃ is an Administrative division For the first time, French citizens in the civil territories elected their own councils and mayors; Muslims had to be appointed, could not hold more than one-third of council seats, and could not serve as mayors or assistant mayors. A mayor (from the Latin māior, meaning "greater" is a modern title used in many countries for the highest ranking officer in a municipal government The administration of territories outside the zones settled by colons remained under the French Army. Local Muslim administration was allowed to continue under the supervision of French Army commanders, charged with maintaining order in newly pacified regions, and the bureaux arabes. Theoretically, these areas were closed to European colonization.

The land and colonizers

Even before the decision was made to annex Algeria, major changes had taken place. In a bargain-hunting frenzy to take over or buy at low prices all manner of property — homes, shops, farms and factories — Europeans poured into Algiers after it fell. French authorities took possession of the beylik lands, from which Ottoman officials had derived income. Over time, as pressures increased to obtain more land for settlement by Europeans, the state seized more categories of land, particularly that used by tribes, religious foundations, and villages.

Called either colons (settlers), Algerians, or later, especially following the 1962 independence of Algeria, pieds noirs (literally, black feet), the European settlers were largely of peasant farmer or working-class origin from the poor southern areas of Italy, Spain, and France. Pied-Noir ("Black-Foot" plural Pieds-Noirs, pronounced /pje Others were criminal and political deportees from France, transported under sentence in large numbers to Algeria. In the 1840s and 1850s, to encourage settlement in rural areas, official policy was to offer grants of land for a fee and a promise that improvements would be made. A distinction soon developed between the grands colons (great settlers) at one end of the scale, often self-made men who had accumulated large estates or built successful businesses, and smallholders and workers at the other end peroratively portrayed as, whose lot was often not much better than that of their Muslim counterparts. According to historian John Ruedy, although by 1848 only 15,000 of the 109,000 European settlers were in rural areas, "by systematically expropriating both pastoralists and farmers, rural colonization was the most important single factor in the destructuring of traditional society. "

European migration, encouraged during the Second Republic, stimulated the civilian administration to open new land for settlement against the advice of the army. With the advent of the Second Empire in 1852, Napoleon III returned Algeria to military control. Year 1852 ( MDCCCLII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President In 1858 a separate Ministry of Algerian Affairs was created to supervise administration of the country through a military governor general assisted by a civil minister. Year 1858 ( MDCCCLVIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common The term governor general or governor-general refers to a vice-regal representative of a Monarch in an independent realm or a major colonial circonscription

Napoleon III visited Algeria twice in the early 1860s. Events and trends Technology The First Transcontinental Railroad in the USA was completed in 1869 He was profoundly impressed with the nobility and virtue of the tribal chieftains, who appealed to the emperor's romantic nature, and was shocked by the self-serving attitude of the colon leaders. He decided to halt the expansion of European settlement beyond the coastal zone and to restrict contact between Muslims and the colons, whom he considered to have a corrupting influence on the indigenous population. He envisioned a grand design for preserving most of Algeria for the Muslims by founding a royaume arabe (Arab kingdom) with himself as the roi des Arabes (king of the Arabs). He instituted the so-called politics of the grands chefs to deal with the Muslims directly through their traditional leaders.

To further his plans for the royaume arabe, Napoleon III issued two decrees affecting tribal structure, land tenure, and the legal status of Muslims in French Algeria. The first, promulgated in 1863, was intended to renounce the state's claims to tribal lands and eventually provide private plots to individuals in the tribes, thus dismantling "feudal" structures and protecting the lands from the colons. Year 1863 ( MDCCCLXIII) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Tribal areas were to be identified, delimited into douars (administrative units), and given over to councils. Arable land was to be divided among members of the douar over a period of one to three generations, after which it could be bought and sold by the individual owners. Unfortunately for the tribes, however, the plans of Napoleon III quickly unraveled. French officials sympathetic to the colons took much of the tribal land they surveyed into the public domain. In addition, some tribal leaders immediately sold communal lands for quick gains. The process of converting arable land to individual ownership was accelerated to only a few years when laws were enacted in the 1870s stipulating that no sale of land by an individual Muslim could be invalidated by the claim that it was collectively owned. Events and Trends Technology The invention of the prototype telephone by Alexander G The cudah and other tribal officials, appointed by the French on the basis of their loyalty to France rather than the allegiance owed them by the tribe, lost their credibility as they were drawn into the European orbit, becoming known derisively as beni-oui-ouis ("yes men"). The Beni-oui-ouis were Muslim yes-men who collaborated with the French colonial regime in Algeria.

Napoleon III visualized three distinct Algerias: a French colony, an Arab country, and a military camp, each with a distinct form of local government. The second decree, issued in 1865, was designed to recognize the differences in cultural background of the French and the Muslims. Year 1865 ( MDCCCLXV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year As French nationals, Muslims could serve on equal terms in the French armed forces and civil service and could migrate to metropolitan France. The Military of France encompasses an army, a navy, an air force and a military police force. They were also granted the protection of French law while retaining the right to adhere to Islamic law in litigation concerning their personal status. But if Muslims wished to become full citizens, they had to accept the full jurisdiction of the French legal code, including laws affecting marriage and inheritance, and reject the competence of the religious courts. In effect, this meant that a Muslim had to renounce some of the mores of his religion in order to become a French citizen. This condition was bitterly resented by Muslims, for whom the only road to political equality was perceived to be apostasy. Over the next century, fewer than 3,000 Muslims chose to cross the barrier and become French citizens. A similar status applied to the Jewish natives. PLEASE TAKE NOTE************

Algeria and the Third Republic

When the Prussians captured Napoleon III at the Battle of Sedan (1870), ending the Second Empire, the colons in Algiers toppled the military government and installed a civilian administration. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The Battle of Sedan was fought during the Franco-Prussian War on 1 September 1870 Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Meanwhile, in France the government of the Third Republic directed one of its ministers, Adolphe Crémieux, "to destroy the military regime … [and] to completely assimilate Algeria into France. The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe Adolphe Crémieux ( April 30, 1796 &ndash February 10, 1880) was a French - Jewish lawyer and statesman and a staunch defender " In October 1870, Crémieux, whose concern with Algerian affairs dated from the time of the Second Republic, issued a series of decrees providing for representation of the Algerian départements in the National Assembly of France and confirming colon control over local administration. The French National Assembly. The other is the Senate ( “Sénat”) A civilian governor general was made responsible to the Ministry of Interior. The Crémieux Decrees also granted blanket French citizenship to Algerian Jews, who then numbered about 40,000. This act set them apart from Muslims, in whose eyes they were identified thereafter with the colons. The measure had to be enforced, however, over the objections of the colons, who made little distinction between Muslims and Jews. (Automatic citizenship was subsequently extended in 1889 to children of non-French Europeans born in Algeria unless they specifically rejected it. Year 1889 ( MDCCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common )

The loss of Alsace-Lorraine to Prussia in 1871 after the Franco-Prussian War, led to pressure on the French government to make new land available in Algeria for about 5,000 Alsatian and Lorrainer refugees who were resettled there. Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 Alsace (Alsace alzas Alsatian and Elsass pre-1996 German: Elsaß; Alsatia is one of the 26 Regions of France, located on the eastern Lorraine (Lorraine Lothringen is a historical area in present-day northeast France. During the 1870s, both the amount of European-owned land and the number of settlers were doubled, and tens of thousands of unskilled Muslims, who had been uprooted from their land, wandered into the cities or to colon farming areas in search of work.

The most serious native insurrection since the time of Abd al Qadir broke out in 1871 in the Kabylie and spread through much of Algeria. `Abd al-Qādir al-Jazā'irī ( 6 September, 1808 - 26 May, 1883, in Arabic عبد القادر الجزائري was an Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The revolt was triggered by Crémieux's extension of civil (that is, colon) authority to previously self-governing tribal reserves and the abrogation of commitments made by the military government, but it clearly had its basis in more long-standing grievances. Since the Crimean War (1854–56), the demand for grain had pushed up the price of Algerian wheat to European levels. The Crimean War, also known in Russia as the Eastern War (Восточная война Vostochnaya Vojna) (March 1854–February 1856 was fought Year 1854 ( MDCCCLIV) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common year Year 1856 ( MDCCCLVI) was a Leap year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Storage silos were emptied when the world market's impact was felt in Algeria, and Muslim farmers sold their grain reserves — including seed grain — to speculators. A silo is a structure for storing bulk materials. Silos are used in Agriculture to store grain (see Grain elevators or fermented feed But the community-owned silos were the fundamental adaptation of a subsistence economy to an unpredictable climate, and a good year's surplus was stored away against a bad year's dearth. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of When serious drought struck Algeria and grain crops failed in 1866 and for several years following, Muslim areas faced starvation, and with famine came pestilence. Year 1866 ( MDCCCLXVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common It was estimated that 20% of the Muslim population of Constantine died over a three-year period. In 1871 the civil authorities repudiated guarantees made to tribal chieftains by the previous military government for loans to replenish their seed supply. This act alienated even pro-French Muslim leaders, while it undercut their ability to control their people. It was against this background of misery and hopelessness that the stricken Kabyles rose in revolt. The Kabyles ( Iqvaylyen or Iqbayliyen in Kabyle, iqβajlijən are a Berber people whose traditional Homeland is highlands of

In the aftermath of the 1871 uprising, French authorities imposed stern measures to punish and control the whole Muslim population. France confiscated more than 5,000 km² of tribal land and placed the Kabylie under a régime d'exception (extraordinary rule), which denied the due process guaranteed French nationals. A state of emergency is a governmental declaration that may suspend certain normal functions of government alert citizens to alter their normal behaviors or order government agencies Due process (more fully due process of law) is the principle that a person has a right to receive notice and be heard in an orderly proceeding in order to protect his or her A special indigénat (native code) listed as offenses acts such as insolence and unauthorized assembly not punishable by French law, and the normal jurisdiction of the cudah was sharply restricted. The Code de l'indigénat was a set of laws creating in practice an inferior legal status for natives of French Colonies from 1887 until 1944 - 1947. The governor general was empowered to jail suspects for up to five years without trial. The argument was made in defense of these exceptional measures that the French penal code as applied to Frenchmen was too permissive to control Muslims.

Algeria's population

1830 - 1,500,000

1851 - 2,554,100

1900 - 4,675,000

1960 - 10,853,000^[8][9]

Hegemony of the Colons

A commission of inquiry set up by the French Senate in 1892 and headed by former Premier Jules Ferry, an advocate of colonial expansion, recommended that the government abandon a policy that assumed French law, without major modifications, could fit the needs of an area inhabited by close to two million Europeans and four million Muslims. The Senate (Sénat is the Upper house of the Parliament of France, presided over by a president. Year 1892 ( MDCCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Jules François Camille Ferry (5 April 1832 17 March 1893 was a French statesman and ardent imperialist Early life Born in Saint-Dié, Muslims had no representation in Algeria's National Assembly and were grossly underrepresented on local councils. Because of the many restrictions imposed by the authorities, by 1915 only 50,000 Muslims were eligible to vote in elections in the civil communes. Year 1915 ( MCMXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year Attempts to implement even the most modest reforms were blocked or delayed by the local administration in Algeria, dominated by colons, and by the 27 colon representatives in the National Assembly (six deputies and three senators from each department).

Once elected to the National Assembly, colons became permanent fixtures. Because of their seniority, they exercised disproportionate influence, and their support was important to any government's survival. The leader of the colon delegation, Auguste Warnier(1810-1875), succeeded during the 1870s in modifying or introducing legislation to facilitate the private transfer of land to settlers and continue the Algerian state's appropriation of land from the local population and distribution to settlers. Consistent proponents of reform, like Georges Clemenceau and socialist Jean Jaurès, were rare in the National Assembly. Georges Benjamin Clemenceau ( Mouilleron-en-Pareds ( Vendée) 28 September 1841 24 November 1929 was a French statesman physician and Journalist Jean Léon Jaurès (full name Auguste Marie Joseph Jean Léon Jaurès; 3 September 1859 31 July 1914) was a French

The bulk of Algeria's wealth in manufacturing, mining, agriculture, and trade was controlled by the grands colons. Manufacturing (from Latin manu factura, "making by hand" is the use of tools and labor to make things for use or sale Mining is the extraction of valuable Minerals or other geological materials from the earth usually (but not always from an Ore body Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Trade is the willing exchange of goods, services, or both Trade is also called Commerce. The modern European-owned and -managed sector of the economy centered around small industry and a highly developed export trade, designed to provide food and raw materials to France in return for capital and consumer goods. Europeans held about 30% of the total arable land, including the bulk of the most fertile land and most of the areas under irrigation. By 1900, Europeans produced more than two-thirds of the value of output in agriculture and practically all agricultural exports. Year 1900 ( MCM) was an exceptional Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar The modern, or European, sector was run on a commercial basis and meshed with the French market system that it supplied with wine, citrus, olives, and vegetables. The term " vegetable " generally means the edible parts of Plants The definition of the word is traditional rather than Scientific, however Nearly half of the value of European-owned real property was in vineyards by 1914. Year 1914 ( MCMXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year By contrast, subsistence cereal production — supplemented by olive, fig, and date growing and stock raising — formed the basis of the traditional sector, but the land available for cropping was submarginal even for cereals under prevailing traditional cultivation practices.

The colonial regime imposed more and higher taxes on Muslims than on Europeans. The Muslims, in addition to paying traditional taxes dating from before the French conquest, also paid new taxes, from which the colons were often exempted. In 1909, for instance, Muslims, who made up almost 90% of the population but produced 20% of Algeria's income, paid 70% of direct taxes and 45% of the total taxes collected. Year 1909 ( MCMIX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year starting And colons controlled how these revenues would be spent. As a result, colon towns had handsome municipal buildings, paved streets lined with trees, fountains and statues, while Algerian villages and rural areas benefited little if at all from tax revenues.

The colonial regime proved severely detrimental to overall education for Algerian Muslims, who had previously relied on religious schools to learn reading, writing, and engage in religious studies. Not only did the state appropriate the habus lands (the religious foundations that constituted the main source of income for religious institutions, including schools) in 1843, but colon officials refused to allocate enough money to maintain schools and mosques properly and to provide for an adequate number of teachers and religious leaders for the growing population. Year 1843 ( MDCCCXLIII) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common In 1892, more than five times as much was spent for the education of Europeans as for Muslims, who had five times as many children of school age. Year 1892 ( MDCCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Because few Muslim teachers were trained, Muslim schools were largely staffed by French teachers. Even a state-operated madrasah (school) often had French faculty members. "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. Attempts to institute bilingual, bicultural schools, intended to bring Muslim and European children together in the classroom, were a conspicuous failure, rejected by both communities and phased out after 1870. According to one estimate, fewer than 5% of Algerian children attended any kind of school in 1870. Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common

Efforts were begun by 1890 to educate a small number of Muslims along with European students in the French school system as part of France's "civilizing mission" in Algeria. Year 1890 ( MDCCCXC) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Civilization mission (Mission civilisatrice was the underlying principle of French colonial rule in the late 19th and early 20th centuries The curriculum was entirely French and allowed no place for Arabic studies, which were deliberately downgraded even in Muslim schools. Within a generation, a class of well-educated, gallicized Muslims — the évolués (literally, the evolved ones) — had been created. Almost all of the handful of Muslims who accepted French citizenship were évolués; more significantly, it was in this privileged group of Muslims, strongly influenced by French culture and political attitudes, that a new Algerian self-consciousness developed.

Reporting to the French Senate in 1894, Governor General Jules Cambon wrote that Algeria had "only a dust of people left her. Year 1894 ( MDCCCXCIV) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Jules-Martin Cambon ( April 5, 1845 in Paris - September 19, 1935 in Vevey, Switzerland) was a French " He referred to the destruction of the traditional ruling class that had left Muslims without leaders and had deprived France of interlocuteurs valables (literally, valid go-betweens), through whom to reach the masses of the people. He lamented that no genuine communication was possible between the two communities.

The colons who ran Algeria maintained a dialogue only with the beni-oui-ouis. The Beni-oui-ouis were Muslim yes-men who collaborated with the French colonial regime in Algeria. Later they thwarted contact between the évolués and Muslim traditionalists on the one hand and between évolués and official circles in France on the other. They feared and mistrusted the Francophone évolués, who were classified either as assimilationists, insisting on being accepted as Frenchmen but on their own terms, or as integrationists, eager to work as members of a distinct Muslim elite on equal terms with the French.

Analogy with apartheid

Following its conquest of Ottoman controlled Algeria in 1830, for well over a century France maintained colonial rule in the territory which has been described as "quasi-apartheid". The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. France was a dominant empire in the world from the 1600s to the late 1960s possessing many colonies in various locations around the world ^[10] The colonial law of 1865 allowed Arab and Berber Algerians to apply for French citizenship only if they abandoned their Muslim identity; Azzedine Haddour argues that this established "the formal structures of a political apartheid". ^[11] Camille Bonora-Waisman writes that, "[i]n contrast with the Moroccan and Tunisian protectorates", this "colonial apartheid society" was unique to Algeria. ^[12]

This "internal system of apartheid" met with considerable resistance from the Muslims affected by it, and is cited as one of the causes of the 1954 insurrection. The Algerian War ( French: Guerre d'Algérie; 1954-1962 also known as Algerian War of Independence, led to Algeria 's independence from ^[13]

Post colonial relations

Main article: Foreign relations of France

Relations between post-colonial Algeria and France have remained close through-out the years, although sometimes difficult. A charter member of the United Nations, France holds one of the permanent seats in the Security Council and is a member of most of its specialized and related agencies In 1962, the Evian Accords peace treaty provided land in the Sahara for the French Army, which it used under de Gaulle to carry out its first nuclear tests (Gerboise bleue). The Évian Accords comprise a Treaty which was signed on March 18, 1962 in Évian-les-Bains, France by France and the Charles André Joseph Marie de Gaulle ( ( 22 November 1890 – 9 November 1970) was a French General and statesman who led the Free French Gerboise Bleue ("blue jerboa" was the name of the first French nuclear test. Many European settlers (pieds-noirs) living in Algeria and Jews, who had been granted French citizenship by the Crémieux decrees at the end of the 19th century, were expelled to France where they formed a new community. Pied-Noir ("Black-Foot" plural Pieds-Noirs, pronounced /pje On the other hand, the issue of the harkis, the Muslims who had fought on the French side during the war, still remained unresolved. Harki (adjective from the Arabic harka, standard Arabic haraka حركة "war party" or "movement" i Large numbers of harkis were killed in 1962, during the immediate aftermath of the Algerian War, while those who escaped with their families to France have tended to remain an unassimilated refugee community. The present Algerian government continues to refuse to allow harkis and their descendents to return to Algeria.

On February 23, 2005 the French law on colonialism was an act passed by the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP) conservative majority, which imposed on high-school (lycée) teachers to teach the "positive values" of colonialism to their students, in particular in North Africa (article 4). Events 1455 - Traditional date for the publication of the Gutenberg Bible, the first Western Book printed from Movable Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The February 23, 2005 French law on colonialism was an act passed by the Union for a Popular Movement (UMP conservative majority which imposed Conservatism is a term used to describe political philosophies that favour Tradition, where tradition refers to various religious cultural or nationally defined See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism The law created a public uproar and opposition from the whole of the left-wing, and was finally repealed by president Jacques Chirac (UMP) at the beginning of 2006, after accusations of historical revisionism from various teachers and historians. For the critical reexamination of historical facts see Historical revisionism. It also jeopardized the Franco-Algerian Peace Treaty, which Algerian President Abdelaziz Bouteflika refused to sign following the vote of this law. Abdelaziz Bouteflika (abdəlazɪz butəflika ( عبد العزيز بوتفليقة) (born March 2 1937 in Oujda, Morocco) has been the President

Algerians feared that the French law on colonialism would hinder the task the French confronting the dark side of their colonial rule in Algeria because article four of the law decreed among other things that "School programmes are to recognise in particular the positive role of the French presence overseas, especially in North Africa, . . . "^[14] Benjamin Stora a leading specialist on French Algerian history and an opponent of the French law on colonialism, said "France has never taken on its colonial history. It is a big difference with the Anglo-Saxon countries, where post-colonial studies are now in all the universities. We are phenomenally behind the times. "^[14] In his opinion, although the historical facts were known to academics, they were not well known by the French public and this led to a lack of honesty in France over French colonial treatment of the Algerian people. ^[14]

References

Sources and bibliography

• Original text: Library of Congress Country Study of Algeria
• (French) Patrick Weil, Le statut des musulmans en Algérie coloniale, Une nationalité française dénaturée, European University Institute, Florence (on the legal statuses of Muslim populations in Algeria)
• (French) Olivier LeCour Grandmaison, Coloniser, Exterminer - Sur la guerre et l'Etat colonial, Fayard, 2005, ISBN 2-213-62316-3 (Table of contents)
• (French) Charles-Robert Ageron, Histoire de l'Algérie contemporaine, 1871-1954, 1979 (a groundbreaking work on the historiography of French colonialism)

See also

• Scramble for Africa
• Nationalism and resistance in Algeria
• Ahmad al-Alawi (1869-1934), Algerian founder of one of the most important modern Sufi Muslim orders, the Darqawiyya Alawiyya, a branch of the Shadhiliyya. The European University Institute (EUI in Florence ( Italy) is an international postgraduate and post-doctoral teaching and research Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany Olivier LeCour Grandmaison ( September 19, 1960, Paris) is a French Historian. Fayard (complete name Librairie Arthème Fayard) is a French Paris -based Publishing house established in 1857. The Scramble for Africa, also known as the Race for Africa, was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New Algerian nationalism A new generation of Muslim leadership emerged in Algeria at the time of World War I and grew to maturity during the 1920s and 1930s Sheikh Ahmad ibn Mustafa al-Alawi (1869&ndash 14 July 1934) (أحمد بن مصطفى العلاوي was the founder of a popular modern Sufi order Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion The Darqawiyya or Darqawa Sufi order was a revivalist branch of the Shadhiliyah brotherhood The Tariqa ash Shadhiliyya is a Sufi order founded by Abu-l-Hassan ash-Shadhili.
• Kabyles du Pacifique
• History of Algeria

Kabyles du Pacifique (" Kabyles of the Pacific " were a group of men and women deported by French authorities to Labor camps The fertile Coastal plain of North Africa, especially west of Tunisia, is often called the Maghreb (or Maghrib

---

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic