Freedom Rider is also a song by Traffic and later Rascal Flatts

Civil Rights activists called Freedom Riders rode in interstate buses into the segregated southern United States to test the United States Supreme Court decision Boynton v. Virginia, (1960) 364 U. For the article about the song and character John Barleycorn, see John Barleycorn. Traffic were an English rock band formed in 1967 by Steve Winwood, Jim Capaldi, Chris Wood and Dave Mason. Rascal Flatts is an American Grammy Award -winning Country pop group founded in Nashville Tennessee. The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest judicial body in the United States and leads the federal judiciary. This is an index of chronological lists of cases decided by the Supreme Court of the United States. Boynton v Virginia, 364 US 454 ( 1960) was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. S. The first Freedom Ride left Washington D. C. on May 4, 1961, and was scheduled to arrive in New Orleans on May 17. Riders were arrested for trespassing, unlawful assembly, violating state and local Jim Crow laws, etc. The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enacted primarily but not exclusively in the Southern and border states of the United States between 1876 and 1965 Most of the subsequent rides were sponsored by the Congress of Racial Equality (CORE) while others belonged to the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC, pronounced Snick). The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (or SNCC, pronounced "snick" was one of the principal organizations of the American Civil Rights Movement The Freedom Rides followed on the heels of dramatic "sit-ins" against segregated lunch counters conducted by students and youth throughout the South, and boycotts beginning in 1960. A lunch counter is a small Restaurant, much like a Diner, where the patron sits on a stool on one side of the bar and the server serves from the other

Arguably, the Riders did not engage in civil disobedience because the Supreme Court's decision in Boynton v. Virginia granted them a legal right to disregard local segregation ordinances regarding interstate transportation facilities. Civil disobedience is the active refusal to obey certain Laws demands and commands of a Government, or of an occupying power, without resorting to physical Boynton v Virginia, 364 US 454 ( 1960) was a decision by the Supreme Court of the United States. But their rights were not enforced, and were considered criminal acts throughout most of the South. For example, upon the Riders' arrival in Mississippi, their journey ended with imprisonment for exercising their legal rights in interstate travel, and similar arrests took place in other southern cities. Mississippi ( is a state located in the Deep South of the United States Freedom Riders knew that they faced arrest by authorities determined to stop their protests and possible mob violence and before starting they committed themselves to a strategy of non-violent resistance. Riots are a form of Civil disorders characterized by disorganized groups lashing out in a sudden and intense rash of Violence, Vandalism or other Nonviolent resistance (or nonviolent action) is the practice of achieving socio-political goals through Symbolic Protests Civil disobedience,

The Freedom Riders faced much resistance against their cause, but ultimately received strong support from people both inside and outside the South for their efforts.

Contents 1 Starting Point 2 Mob Violence in Anniston and Birmingham 3 Mob Violence in Montgomery 4 Into Mississippi 5 Impact 6 Bibliography 7 References 8 External Links

Starting Point

The Freedom Rides were inspired by the 1947 Journey of Reconciliation, led by civil rights activists Bayard Rustin and George Houser. The Journey of Reconciliation was an attempt to challenge segregation laws on interstate buses in the Southern United States, through Non-violent direct action Rustin redirects here for the unrelated film see Rustin (film Bayard Rustin ( March 17, 1912 – August 24 Born in 1916 George M Houser was the son of missionaries and spent portions of his early life in the Far East Like the Freedom Rides of 1961, the Journey of Reconciliation was intended to test an earlier Supreme Court ruling that banned racial discrimination in interstate travel. List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that Rustin and a few of the other riders, chiefly members of CORE, were arrested and sentenced to serve on a chain gang in North Carolina for violating local Jim Crow laws regarding segregated seating on public transportation. A chain gang is a group of prisoners chained together to perform menial or physically challenging labor, such as chipping stone often along a highway or rail bed North Carolina ( is a state located on the Atlantic Seaboard in the southeastern United States The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws enacted primarily but not exclusively in the Southern and border states of the United States between 1876 and 1965 ^[1]

The first Freedom Ride began on May 4, 1961. Led by CORE Director James Farmer 13 riders (7 Black, 6 white) left Washington DC on Greyhound and Trailways buses. James Leonard Farmer Jr ( January 12, 1920 – July 9, 1999) was a Black civil rights activist who was one of the "big 4" leaders Their plan was to ride through Virginia, the Carolinas, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, ending with a rally in New Orleans Louisiana. Most of the Riders were from CORE, two were from SNCC. The Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (or SNCC, pronounced "snick" was one of the principal organizations of the American Civil Rights Movement Many were in their 40s and 50s.

Only minor trouble was encountered in Virginia and North Carolina, but John Lewis was attacked in Rock Hill, and some of the Riders were arrested in Charlotte NC, and Winnsboro SC. John Robert Lewis (born February 21, 1940) is an American politician and was a leader in the American Civil Rights Movement.

Mob Violence in Anniston and Birmingham

In Anniston, Alabama, a mob attacked the Greyhound bus and slashed its tires. Anniston is a city in Calhoun County in the state of Alabama, United States. When the crippled bus had to stop several miles outside of town, it was firebombed by the mob chasing it in cars. [1] As the bus burned, the mob held the doors shut, intent on burning the riders to death. An undercover law enforcement officer finally drew his gun and forced the doors to be opened. The Riders were viciously beaten as they fled the burning bus.

When the Trailways bus reached Birmingham it too was attacked by a mob of Ku Klux Klan members aided and abetted by the police under the orders of Commissioner Eugene "Bull" Connor. Birmingham (ˈbɝmɪŋhæm is the largest City in the US state of Alabama and is the County seat of Jefferson County. Ku Klux Klan ( KKK) is the name of several past and present secret domestic terrorist organizations in the United States, generally in the southern states that are Theophilus Eugene "Bull" Connor ( July 11 1897, Selma Alabama &ndash March 10 1973) was As the riders exited the bus they were mercilessly beaten by the mob with baseball bats, iron pipes and bicycle chains. Among the Klansmen attacking the riders was FBI informant Gary Thomas Rowe. White Freedom Riders were particularly singled out for frenzied beatings. Two riders were hospitalized, including white Freedom Rider Jim Peck who required 52 stitches to close the wounds in his head. [2]

That night, the hospitalized Freedom Riders were kicked out of the Hospital at 2 AM because the staff feared the mob outside the hospital. Local civil rights leader Rev. Fred Shuttlesworth organized several cars of blacks who defied the mob to rescue the injured Freedom Riders. Fred Shuttlesworth (born Freddie Lee Robinson on March 18, 1922) is a civil rights activist who led the fight against segregation and other

When reports of the bus burning and beatings reached US Attorney General Robert Kennedy, he urged restraint on the part of Freedom Riders and sent an assistant, John Seigenthaler, to Alabama to try to calm the situation. Robert Francis "Bobby" Kennedy (November 20 1925 – June 6 1968 also called RFK, was the United States Attorney General from 1961 to 1964 and a John Lawrence Seigenthaler (ˈsiːgɛnˌθɔːlɚ born July 27 1927 is an American journalist, writer and political figure.

With all of the original Freedom Riders injured, and the Trailways and Greyhound drivers afraid to drive any bus containing Freedom Riders, it was suggested that the Freedom Rides be discontinued. Most of the original Freedom Riders flew to New Orleans to attend a previously scheduled rally. New Orleans (nʲuːˈɔrliənz nʲuːˈɔrlənz French: La Nouvelle-Orléans) is a major United States port city and the largest city in Louisiana

Nashville student and SNCC leader Diane Nash, felt that if violence were allowed to halt the Freedom Rides, the movement would be set back years. Diane Judith Nash (born May 15 1938 in Chicago) was a leader of the Nashville Student Movement a founder of the now defunct SNCC, and a key She pushed to find replacements to resume the ride, and on May 17th a new set of riders, students from Nashville, took a bus to Birmingham where they were arrested by Bull Connor and jailed. Theophilus Eugene "Bull" Connor ( July 11 1897, Selma Alabama &ndash March 10 1973) was These students kept their spirits up in jail by singing Freedom Songs. Out of frustration, Police Chief Bull Connor drove them back up to the Tennessee line and dropped them off, stating "I just couldn't stand their singing. " They immediately return to Birmingham.

Mob Violence in Montgomery

The Freedom Riders who had answered SNCC's (Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee) call from across the Eastern US joined John Lewis and Hank Thomas, the two young SNCC members of the original Ride who had remained in Birmingham. On May 19, they attempted to resume the ride, but terrified by the howling mob surrounding the bus depot, the drivers refused. Harassed and besieged by the KKK mob, the riders waited all night for a bus.

Under intense public pressure from the Kennedy administration, Greyhound was forced to provide a driver and Alabama Governor Patterson reluctantly promised to protect the bus from KKK mobs and snipers on the road between Birmingham and Montgomery. John Malcolm Patterson (born September 27, 1921) is an American Politician who was the forty-ninth Governor of Alabama, On the morning of May 20, the Freedom Ride resumed, with the bus carrying the riders streaking toward Montgomery at 90 miles an hour protected by a contingent of the Alabama State Highway Patrol.

However, when they reached the Montgomery city limits, the Highway Patrol abandoned them. At the bus station, a huge white mob was waiting and viciously beat the Freedom Riders with baseball bats and iron pipes. The local police allowed the beatings to go on uninterrupted. Again, white Freedom Riders, branded "nigger-Lovers," were singled out for particularly brutal beatings. Reporters and news photographers were also attacked and their cameras destroyed, but there is a famous picture taken later of Jim Zwerg in the hospital, beaten and bruised. [3]. Justice Department official Seigenthaler was beaten and left unconscious lying in the street. Ambulances refused to take the wounded to the hospital. Local blacks rescued them, and a number of the Freedom Riders were hospitalized.

The following night, Sunday May 21st, more than 1200 people packed Reverend Abernathy's 1st Baptist church to honor the Freedom Riders. Ralph David Abernathy ( March 11 1926 – April 17 1990) was an American Civil rights activist and leader and a close associate of Among the speakers were Dr. King, Rev. Martin Luther King Jr ( January 15, 1929 April 4, 1968) was an American clergyman, Activist and prominent leader Fred Shuttlesworth, and James Farmer. Outside, an enormous mob of more than 3,000 whites attacked blacks and the handful of Federal marshals protecting the church from assault and fire bombs. With city and state police making no effort to restore order, Kennedy threatened to commit Federal troops, but Governor Patterson forestalled that by ordering the Alabama National Guard to disperse the mob. John Fitzgerald "Jack" Kennedy (May 29 1917&ndashNovember 22 1963 often referred to by his initials JFK, was the thirty-fifth President of

Into Mississippi

The next day, Monday May 22, more Freedom Riders from CORE and SNCC arrived in Montgomery to continue the rides and replace the wounded riders still in hospital. Behind the scenes, the Kennedy administration arranged a deal with the governors of Alabama and Mississippi. The governors agreed that state police and National Guard would protect the Riders from mob violence (thereby ending embarrassing media coverage of bloody lawlessness), and in return the Federal government would not intervene to stop local police from arresting Freedom Riders for violating segregation ordinances when the buses arrived at the depots (even though such arrests violated the Supreme Court's Boynton decision).

On Wednesday morning, May 24, Freedom Riders boarded buses for the journey to Jackson MS. Surrounded by Highway Patrol and National Guard, the buses arrived in Jackson without incident, and the riders were immediately arrested when they tried to use the "white-only" facilities at the depot. In Montgomery, Freedom Riders including Yale University Chaplin William Sloane Coffin, Shuttlesworth, Abernathy, Wyatt Tee Walker, and others were similarly arrested for violating local segregation ordinances. Rev William Sloane Coffin Jr ( June 1, 1924 – April 12, 2006) was a liberal Christian clergyman and long-time Wyatt Tee Walker (born August 16, 1929) is a United States black Civil rights leader

This established a pattern followed by subsequent Freedom Rides in which they traveled to Jackson where they were arrested and jailed. The strategy became one of trying to fill the jails. Once the Jackson City and Hinds County jails were filled to overflowing, Freedom Riders were transferred to the infamous Parchman Penitentiary ("Parchman Farm"). Mississippi State Penitentiary, also known as Parchman Farm, is the oldest Prison and the only maximum security prison in the state of Mississippi, There abusive treatment included placement in the Maximum Security Unit (Death Row), issuance of only underwear, no exercise, no mail, and, when Freedom Riders refused to stop singing Freedom Songs, they took away mattresses, sheets and toothbrushes and removed the screens from the windows. When the cell block became filled with mosquitoes, they hosed everyone down with DDT at 2 AM. DDT (from its trivial name D ichloro- D iphenyl- T richloroethane is one of the best known synthetic Pesticides It is a chemical with a long

Impact

The Kennedys called for a "cooling off period" and condemned the Rides as unpatriotic because they embarrassed the nation on the world stage. Attorney General Robert Kennedy — the chief law enforcement officer of the land — was quoted as saying that he "Does not feel that the Department of Justice can side with one group or the other in disputes over Constitutional rights. "

Defying the Kennedys, CORE, SNCC, and SCLC rejected any "cooling off period. The Southern Christian Leadership Conference ( SCLC) is an American Civil rights organization " They formed a Freedom Riders Coordinating Committee to keep the Rides rolling through June, July, August, and September. During those months, more than 60 different Freedom Rides criss-crossed the South[4], most of them converging on Jackson where every Rider was arrested, more than 300 in total, plus an unknown number of riders arrested in other southern towns. It is estimated that almost 450 riders participated in one or more Freedom Rides. About 75% were male, and the same percentage were under the age of 30, mostly evenly divided between black and white.

During the summer of 1961, Freedom Riders also campaigned against other forms of racial discrimination. List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that They sat together in segregated restaurants, lunch counters and hotels. This was especially effective when it targeted large companies who, fearing boycotts in the North, began to desegregate their businesses.

In mid-June, a group of Freedom Riders were scheduled to end their ride in Tallahassee, Florida, with plans to fly home from the Tallahassee airport. They were provided a police escort to the airport from the City's bus facilities. At the airport, they decided to eat at a restaurant that was signed "For Whites Only". The owners decided to close, rather than serve the Freedom Riders. Although the restaurant was privately owned, it was leased from the County government. Canceling their plane reservations, the Riders decided to wait until the restaurant re-opened so they could be served. They waited until 11:00 pm that night, and returned the following day. During this time, hostile crowds gathered, threatening violence. On June 16th, 1961, the Freedom Riders were arrested in Tallahassee for unlawful assembly. ^[2] That arrest became known as Dresner v. City of Tallahassee, which made its way to the US Supreme Court in 1963, in which a hearing was refused, based on technical reasons. ^[3]

Eventually, bowing to public opinion, the Kennedy administration got the Interstate Commerce Commission (ICC) to issue yet another desegregation order. The Interstate Commerce Commission (or ICC) was a Regulatory body in the United States created by the Interstate Commerce Act of 1887 which was signed The ICC was reluctant, but in September of 1961 it issued the necessary orders, and the new policies went into effect on November 1, 1961. After the new ICC rule took effect, passengers were permitted to sit wherever they pleased on interstate buses and trains, "white" and "colored" signs came down in the terminals, separate drinking fountains, toilets, and waiting rooms were consolidated, and the lunch counters begin serving people regardless of skin color.

The Freedom Rides established great credibility with blacks and whites throughout the United States who became motivated to engage in direct action for civil rights. Perhaps most significantly, Freedom Riders impressed blacks living in rural areas throughout the South who later formed the backbone of the civil rights movement. This credibility inspired many subsequent civil rights campaigns, including voter registration, freedom schools, and the black power movement. Black Power is a racially based Political slogan and a name for various associated ideologies

Bibliography

• Raymond Arsenault, Freedom Riders: 1961 and the Struggle for Racial Justice (Oxford University Press, 2006).
• David Fankhauser, FREEDOM RIDES: Recollections by David Fankhauser

A web page with personal description of the experiences of a Freedom Rider, with illustrations. He has given specific permission to cite this copyrighted page: FREEDOM RIDES

References

External Links

Freedom Rides ~ Civil Rights Movement Veterans

Get On the Bus: The Freedom Riders of 1961 National Public Radio

A Brief History of the Freedom Riders by David Lisker

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