Franco-Prussian War
Part of the wars of German unification
Pierre-Georges Jeanniot's La ligne de feu (1886), depicting the Battle of Mars-La-Tour
Date 19 July 1870 – 10 May 1871 Location France and Prussia Result Decisive Prussian and German victory; Treaty of Frankfurt Territorial changes North German Confederation and other German states unite to form German Empire; Germany annexes Alsace-Lorraine; End of the Second French Empire; Formation of the French Third Republic
Belligerents
Second French Empire	Kingdom of Prussia North German Confederation allied with South German states (later German Empire)
Commanders
Napoleon III François Achille Bazaine Patrice de Mac-Mahon, duc de Magenta	Otto von Bismarck Helmuth von Moltke the Elder
Strength
492,585 active[1] 417,366 Garde Mobile[2]	300,000 regular 900,000 reserves and Landwehr[3]
Casualties and losses
138,871 dead or wounded[4] 474,414 captured[5]	116,696 dead or wounded[6]

The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War^[7] (19 July 1870 – 10 May 1871) was a conflict between France and Prussia, while Prussia was backed by the North German Confederation and the South German states of Baden, Württemberg and Bavaria. The unification of Germany took place on January 18, 1871, when Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck managed to unify a number of independent Pierre-Georges Jeanniot (1848 &ndash 1934 was a French painter, Designer, watercolorist and Engraver who was born in Geneva Switzerland The Battle of Mars-La-Tour was fought on 16 August 1870 during the Franco-Prussian War near the town of Mars-La-Tour in north-east Events 711 - Muslim forces under Tariq ibn Ziyad defeat the Visigoths led by their king Roderic. Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising The Treaty of Frankfurt (Le traité de Francfort Friede von Frankfurt was a Peace treaty signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1871, at the end of The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President François Achille Bazaine ( 13 February, 1811 - 23 September, 1888) was a French General and from 1864 a Marshal of France, "who Marie Edme Patrice Maurice de Mac-Mahon, 1st Duc de Magenta, Marshal of France (13 June 1808 - 17 October 1893 was a French Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) Helmuth Karl Bernhard Graf After the Franco-Prussian War Moltke superintended the preparation of its history which was published between 1874 and 1881 by the great general staff During the crises that led up to the Franco-Prussian War, Adolphe Niel, Minister of War for France under Louis-Napoleon attempted to bolster French military Landwehr, or Landeswehr, is a German language term used in referring to certain national armies, or Militias found in nineteenth- and early twentieth-century Events 711 - Muslim forces under Tariq ibn Ziyad defeat the Visigoths led by their king Roderic. Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The Kingdom of Prussia (Königreich Preußen was a German kingdom from 1701 to 1918 and from 1871 was the leading state of the German Empire, comprising The North German Confederation (Norddeutscher Bund came into existence in August 1866 as a military alliance of 22 states of northern Germany with the Kingdom of The Grand Duchy of Baden (Großherzogtum Baden was a historical state in the southwest of Germany, on the right bank of the Rhine. History of Württemberg Origins The origin of the name Württemberg remains obscure scholars having universally rejected the once popular derivation from "Wirth The Kingdom of Bavaria (Königreich Bayern was a German state that existed from 1806&ndash1918 The thorough Prussian and German victory brought about the final unification of the German Empire under King William I of Prussia. The unification of Germany took place on January 18, 1871, when Prussian Chief Minister Otto von Bismarck managed to unify a number of independent The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification It also marked the downfall of Napoleon III and the end of the Second French Empire, which was replaced by the Third Republic. Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe As part of the settlement, almost all of the territory of Alsace-Lorraine was taken by Prussia to become a part of Germany, which it would retain until the end of World War I. The Treaty of Frankfurt (Le traité de Francfort Friede von Frankfurt was a Peace treaty signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1871, at the end of Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All

The conflict was a culmination of years of tension between the two powers, which finally came to a head over the issue of a Hohenzollern candidate for the vacant Spanish throne, following the deposition of Isabella II in 1868. Spain in the mid-nineteenth century was a country in turmoil Occupied by Napoleon from 1808 to 1814 a massively destructive " war of independence " ensued The Glorious Revolution (Spanish La Gloriosa) took place in Spain in 1868, deposing Queen Isabella II. "Isabella II" redirects here For the Queen of Jerusalem also known as Isabella II see Yolande of Jerusalem. The public release of the Ems Dispatch, which played up alleged insults between the Prussian king and the French ambassador, inflamed public opinion on both sides. The Ems Dispatch (Emser Depesche sometimes called the Ems Telegram, is the document that was used by France as a pretext to declare the Franco-Prussian France mobilized, and on 19 July declared war on Prussia only, but the other German states quickly joined on Prussia's side. Events 711 - Muslim forces under Tariq ibn Ziyad defeat the Visigoths led by their king Roderic.

The superiority of the Prussian and German forces was soon evident, due in part to efficient use of railways^[8] and innovative Krupp artillery. "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their Steel production and for their manufacture of Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine A series of swift Prussian and German victories in eastern France culminated in the Battle of Sedan, at which Napoleon III was captured with his whole army on 2 September. The Battle of Sedan was fought during the Franco-Prussian War on 1 September 1870 Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. Yet this did not end the war, as the Third Republic was declared in Paris on 4 September 1870, and French resistance continued under the Government of National Defence and later Adolphe Thiers. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Events 476 - Romulus Augustus, last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, is deposed when Odoacer proclaims himself Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Le Gouvernement de la Défense Nationale, or The Government of National Defence, was the first Government of the Third Republic of France from September Louis-Adolphe fr Thiers ( Marseille, 16 April 1797&ndash3 September 1877 was a French politician and Historian.

Over a five-month campaign, the German armies defeated the newly recruited French armies in a series of battles fought across northern France. Following a prolonged siege, Paris fell on 28 January 1871. The Siege of Paris, lasting from September 19, 1870 &ndash January 28, 1871, brought about French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War Events 1077 - Walk to Canossa: The Excommunication of Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor is lifted Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Ten days earlier, the German states had proclaimed their union under the Prussian King, uniting Germany as a nation-state, the German Empire. For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy The final peace Treaty of Frankfurt was signed 10 May 1871, during the time of the bloody Paris Commune of 1871. The Treaty of Frankfurt (Le traité de Francfort Friede von Frankfurt was a Peace treaty signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1871, at the end of Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England. Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May

Contents 1 Causes of the war 2 Opposing forces 2.1 French Army 2.2 Prussian Army 2.3 French and Prussian naval activities 3 French Army incursion 3.1 Preparations for the offensive 3.2 Occupation of Saarbrücken 4 Wiretapping in Paris 5 Prussian Army advance 5.1 Battle of Wissembourg 5.2 Battle of Spicheren 5.3 Battle of Wörth (known also as Fröschwiller or Reichshoffen) 5.4 Battle of Mars-La-Tour 5.5 Battle of Gravelotte 5.6 Siege of Metz 5.7 Battle of Sedan 6 The Government of National Defence 6.1 Armistice rejection and continuance of hostilities 6.2 Siege of Paris 6.3 Loire campaign 6.4 Northern campaign 6.5 Eastern campaign 6.6 Armistice 7 Dutch part in the war 8 Result of the war 8.1 Prussian reaction and withdrawal 8.2 French reaction to the defeat 8.3 German unification and power 9 Notes 10 External links 11 References

Causes of the war

Main article: Causes of the Franco-Prussian War

The causes of the Franco-Prussian War are deeply rooted in the events surrounding balance of power after the Napoleonic Wars. See also Franco-Prussian War The causes of the Franco-Prussian War are deeply rooted in the events surrounding balance of power after the Napoleonic Wars The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions France and Prussia had been combatants against each other, with France being on the losing side and Napoleon I being exiled to Elba. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Elba (Ilva is an island in Tuscany, Italy, from the coastal town of Piombino. Upon the ascension of Napoleon III thanks to a coup in France and Otto von Bismarck taking over as minister in Prussia, events soon brought them to war after the Austro-Prussian War of 1866. Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) The Austro-Prussian Year 1866 ( MDCCCLXVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common

Opposing forces

French Army

After the stunning Prussian victory over Austria in 1866, Marshal Adolphe Niel, French Minister of War, decided to embark on a program of army reorganization to improve the quality of soldiers within the army. The Illustrated London News was a Magazine founded by Herbert Ingram and his friend Mark Lemon, the editor of Punch For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. Adolphe Niel ( 4 October 1802 - 13 August 1869) was a French General and Statesman, also Marshal of France He immediately revoked all bonuses given out for reenlisting soldiers, and the results were crippling - a large number of veteran soldiers left the service, and a high number of reservists called up (one in four) were buying their way out of their obligation. The Military Law of 1868, created by Marshal Niel and modeled after Prussian organization, increased service in the French army from 7 to 9 years. However, it was subverted by the French legislature, who provided only a small amount of money to support the Garde Mobile, and enacted several rules severely limiting the effective training of these units. This article is for the post-Revolutionary and present-day institution They were forbidden from travelling outside of their home region, and not required to stay in the barracks during training. These conditions were borne out of fear of another repeat of the military structure under Napoleon I, which was still fresh in the memory of the representatives. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. ^[9]

The French Army in July of 1870 had 492,585 regular soldiers, some of them veterans of previous French campaigns in the Crimean War, Algeria, Franco-Austrian War, and the French intervention in Mexico. The Crimean War, also known in Russia as the Eastern War (Восточная война Vostochnaya Vojna) (March 1854–February 1856 was fought French rule of Algeria lasted from 1830 to 1962 under a variety of governmental systems The Second War of Italian Independence, Franco-Austrian War, or Austro-Sardinian War was fought by Napoleon III of France and the Kingdom of Piedmont-Sardinia The French intervention in Mexico, also known as the Maximilian Affair and The Franco-Mexican War, was an invasion of Mexico by the army of the Of this number, 300,000 were to be ready in three weeks according to the new French War Minister, Marshal Edmond Le Bœuf (Marshal Niel had died the year previous). Edmond Leboeuf ( 5 November 1809 - 7 June 1888) was a Marshal of France. This strength would increase to 662,000 on full mobilisation with the recall of reservists, with another 417,366 in the loosely organised Garde Mobile, which would require time to train. ^[10]

After receiving reports of the effectiveness of the Prussian breech-loading rifles in 1866, the French had hastily equipped their infantry with the Chassepot rifle, one of the most modern mass-produced firearms in the world at the time. A breech-loading weapon is a Firearm (a Rifle, a Gun etc in which the Bullet or shell is inserted or loaded at the rear of the The Chassepot, officially known as Fusil modèle 1866, was a Bolt action military breechloading Rifle, famous as the arm of the With a rubber ring seal and a smaller bullet, the Chassepot had a maximum effective range of 1600 yards (1463 m) with a faster rate of fire. ^[11] In addition, the army was equipped with the precursor to the machine-gun — the mitrailleuse. The mitrailleuse was a manually-fired Volley gun originally developed in Belgium in the 1850s by Fafschamps and improved during the early 1860s by Christophe and Produced secretly beginning in 1866, it was made up of 25 barrels activated by a hand crank, firing 150 rounds per minute up to a range of 2,000 yards (1,829 m). Despite its revolutionary design and huge potential, it was ineffective due to a lack of training, deployment in tight formation, and fired at long range with minimal accuracy. ^[12]

The artillery could not be re-equipped as the money was not voted by the Assembly, and was made up of three main pieces, four-pounders, twelve pounders, and the mitrailleuse. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine The mitrailleuse was a manually-fired Volley gun originally developed in Belgium in the 1850s by Fafschamps and improved during the early 1860s by Christophe and The muzzle-loading four-pounder guns had an effective range of 1,300 yards (1,189 m) for short burst, or 2,500 yards (2,286 m) for a long burst, while the muzzle-loading twelve-pounder was provided for heavier duties. ^[13] French civilians were invited to view the massive Krupp artillery at the Exposition Universelle (1867) in Paris, but were largely oblivious to the danger, perceiving the weapons as too large and expensive to be relevant, or viewing war as obsolete or irrelevant to real progress. In 1864 it was decreed by Emperor Napoleon III that an international exposition should be held in Paris in 1867. As Victor Hugo is translated, "The enormous steel cannonballs, which cost a thousand francs each, shot from the titanic Prussian cannons forged by Krupp's gigantic hammer, which weighs a hundred thousand pounds and costs three million {francs}, are just as effective against progress as soap bubbles floating off the end of a pipe blown by a small child. Victor-Marie Hugo ( ( February 26, 1802 – May 22, 1885) was a French Poet, Playwright, Novelist "^[14] Early in 1868, French experts in weaponry witnessed the superiority of the Krupp breech-loading artillery pieces in a demonstration in Belgium. Year 1868 ( MDCCCLXVIII) was a Leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their Steel production and for their manufacture of The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Despite their positive endorsement, Marshal Le Bœuf wrote "Rien à faire" (Nothing to do) on the Krupp order and the matter was closed. Edmond Leboeuf ( 5 November 1809 - 7 June 1888) was a Marshal of France. After the war, it was revealed that he and his associates were trying to protect the French Schneider works from competition. ^[15]

The army was nominally led by Napoleon III. Marshals Bazaine, MacMahon and Canrobert were initially selected to command field armies. François Achille Bazaine ( 13 February, 1811 - 23 September, 1888) was a French General and from 1864 a Marshal of France, "who Marie Edme Patrice Maurice de Mac-Mahon, 1st Duc de Magenta, Marshal of France (13 June 1808 - 17 October 1893 was a French François Certain Canrobert ( June 27, 1809 - January 28, 1895) was a Marshal of France. They and many of their subordinates had gained high reputations for bravery and leadership in the Crimean War, Franco-Austrian War and various colonial wars. The Crimean War, also known in Russia as the Eastern War (Восточная война Vostochnaya Vojna) (March 1854–February 1856 was fought ^[16]

In practice, the French army, which had undertaken urgent reforms as a result of the outcome and lessons of the Austro-Prussian War, was nevertheless crippled by its poor administration and lack of coherent planning. The Austro-Prussian Although Minister Le Bœuf had stated that the French Army was ready for war, "down to the last gaiter button", as the fighting began, many of its formations were understrength as reservists were living hand-to-mouth at depots and railway stations as they tried to find their regiments. Among various deficiencies in supplies and equipment, most of the medical supplies were still at the Invalides in Paris, awaiting transport. Les Invalides in Paris, France, is a complex of buildings in the city's 7th arrondissement containing Museums and monuments all relating ^[17] Throughout the war, the movements of French formations were to be badly directed and confused.

Prussian Army

Thanks to the hard work of General Albrecht von Roon and King William I of Prussia in mid-1858 and beyond, the entire military organization of Prussia was transformed. Artillery (from French artillerie) is a military Combat Arm which employs any apparātus machine The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their Steel production and for their manufacture of Albrecht Theodor Emil Graf von Roon ( 30 April 1803 23 February 1879) was a Prussian Soldier and Politician Year 1858 ( MDCCCLVIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Common After enacting reforms, the Prussian Army was composed not of regulars but conscripts and reservists. ^[18] Service was compulsory for all men of military age, thus Prussia and its North and South German allies could mobilize and field some 1. 2 million soldiers in time of war^[19], which it did within days. Prussia retained a decisive advantage in mobility due to its ability to move men and material to areas of choice swiftly, and avoided logistical nightmares that hampered the French. ^[20]

The army was still equipped with the Dreyse "needle-gun" rifle, made famous at the Battle of Königgrätz, which was by this time showing that it was not nearly as effective as the French Chassepot rifle. Johann Nikolaus von Dreyse ( November 20, 1787 - December 9, 1867) was a German firearms inventor and manufacturer The Dreyse needle-gun ( German Zündnadelgewehr, which translates roughly as "needle ignition Rifle " was a military Breechloading The Battle of Königgrätz (Schlacht von Königgrätz also known as the Battle of Sadowa, Sadová, or Hradec Králové, was the decisive Battle The Chassepot, officially known as Fusil modèle 1866, was a Bolt action military breechloading Rifle, famous as the arm of the The range of the needle-gun was not comparable to the Chassepot, which meant that the Prussian infantry would have to make it through French fire before their rifles could threaten the enemy. Head of the General Staff, Field-Marshal Helmuth von Moltke, had probably not kept up with improving rifle technology due to its overwhelming success against the Austrians. The German General Staff ( Großer Generalstab literally Great General Staff) was an institution whose rise and development gave the German military a decided Helmuth Karl Bernhard Graf After the Franco-Prussian War Moltke superintended the preparation of its history which was published between 1874 and 1881 by the great general staff ^[21] The deficiencies of the needle-gun were more than compensated for by the Krupp 6 pounder (3 kg) breech-loading cannons being issued to Prussian artillery batteries. The Krupp family, a prominent 400-year-old German dynasty from Essen, have become famous for their Steel production and for their manufacture of In Military organizations an artillery battery is a unit of Guns mortars or Rockets so grouped in order to facilitate better battlefield The Krupp gun had a longer range, faster rate of fire, and was much more accurate than the French muzzle-loading cannon. ^[13]

The Prussian army had its Commander in Chief of the Federal Army, King William I, who carried with him military cabinet officials, Bismarck, Roon, and other military experts such as August Keim. August Keim was a German officer in the Bundeswehr during the Wilhelmine era Royal and noble officers such as the Crown Prince Frederick commanded the major formations. Frederick III (German Friedrich Wilhelm Nikolaus Karl, English Frederick William Nicholas Charles; October 18 1831 – June 15 1888 (German Friedrich In practice, all operations were directed by Field-Marshal von Moltke. ^[22] The Prussian army was unique in Europe for having the only General Staff in existence, whose sole purpose was to direct operational movement, organise logistics and communications and develop the overall war strategy. A military staff is a group of officers and enlisted personnel that provides a bi-directional flow of information between a commander and subordinate units Military Logistics is the art and science of planning and carrying out the movement and maintenance of military forces Military strategy is a National defence policy implemented by Military organisations to pursue desired strategic goals Derived from the Greek General Staff officers, who had undergone rigorous selection procedures and training performed similar functions at all major headquarters. A Chief of Staff was an important figure in the Prussian Army because he was expected to maintain a trusting bond between superior and suboordinate. ^[23]

French and Prussian naval activities

At the outset of the war, the French government ordered a blockade of the North German coasts, which the relatively small North German navy (Norddeutsche Bundesmarine) could do little to oppose. A blockade is any effort to prevent supplies Troops information or aid from reaching an opposing force The Norddeutsche Bundesmarine (Northern German Federal Navy was the Navy of the North German Confederation, formed out of the Prussian Navy. Despite this, the blockade was only partially successful due to crucial oversights by the planners in Paris. Conscripts that were supposed to be at the ready in case of war were in use in Newfoundland fisheries or in Scotland, thereby reducing manpower. Therefore, partial elements of the 470-ship French Navy, overall commanded by Admiral Bouet-Villaumez, were put to sea on 22 July 1870. The French Navy, officially the Marine nationale ( National Navy) and often called La Royale ( The Royal Navy) is the maritime arm Events 1099 - First Crusade: Godfrey of Bouillon is elected the first Defender of the Holy Sepulchre of The Kingdom of Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Before too long, the French navy suffered chronic shortages of coal which concerned Admiral Bouet-Villaumez. An unsuccessful blockade of Wilhelmshafen and conflicting orders on whether or not to proceed to the Baltic Sea or to return to France made the French naval efforts ineffective. The Baltic Sea is a Brackish inland sea located in Northern Europe, from 53°N to 66°N Latitude and from 20°E to 26°E Longitude. ^[24]

To take pressure from the expected German attack into Alsace-Lorraine, Napoleon III and others in the French high command planned at the outset of the war to launch a seaborne invasion of northern Germany. It was hoped that the invasion would not only divert German troops from the front, but also inspire Denmark to assist with its 50,000 strong army and the substantial Danish Navy. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe The Royal Danish Navy ( RDN) (officially Kongelige Danske Marine in Danish but commonly Søværnet (literally 'Sea Defence' is the sea-based However it was discovered that Prussia had recently installed formidable coastal defences around the major North German ports, including coastal artillery batteries consisting of Krupp heavy artillery that could hit French ships from a distance of 4,000 yards. Coastal artillery is the branch of Armed forces concerned with operating anti-ship Artillery or fixed gun batteries in coastal Fortifications. The French Navy lacked the necessary heavy weaponry to deal with these coastal defences, while the difficult topography of the Prussian coastline made a seaborne invasion of northern Germany impossible. Topography ( topo-, "place" and graphia, "writing" is the study of Earth 's Surface features or those of Planets ^[25]

The French Marines and naval infantry tasked with the invasion of northern Germany were subsequently dispatched to bolster the French Army of Châlons, where they were captured at the Battle of Sedan along with Napoleon III. The fr Troupes de marine, are an arm of the French Army with naval heritage Marines (from the English adjective marine, meaning of the sea, from Latin language mare, meaning sea via French adjective The Battle of Sedan was fought during the Franco-Prussian War on 1 September 1870 Suffering a severe shortage of officers following the capture of most of the professional French army at the Siege of Metz and the Battle of Sedan, naval officers were taken from their ships to officer the hastily assembled gardes mobiles or French reserve army units. The Siege of Metz lasting from September 3 &ndash October 23 1870 was a crushing defeat for the French during the Franco-Prussian War. ^[26]

As the autumn storms of the North Sea took their toll on the remaining patrolling French ships, the blockade became less and less effective. By September 1870, the blockade was finally abandoned altogether for the winter, and the French Navy retired to ports along the English Channel, remaining in port for the rest of the war. ^[26]

Isolated engagements took place between French and German ships in other theaters, such as the blockade by FS Dupleix of the German ship Hertha in Nagasaki, Japan^[27], and the gunboat battle between the Prussian Meteor and the French Bouvet outside of Havana, Cuba in November 1870. Bombardment of Shimonoseki ( is the Capital and the largest city of Nagasaki Prefecture in Japan. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. Havana ( IPA: aˈβana officially Ciudad de La Habana, is the Capital city, major port and leading Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common ^[28]

French Army incursion

Preparations for the offensive

On 28 July 1870 Napoleon III left Paris for Metz and assumed command of the newly titled Army of the Rhine, some 202,448 strong and expected to grow as the French mobilization progressed. Events 30 BC - Battle of Alexandria: Mark Antony achieves a minor victory over Octavian 's forces but most of his army subsequently Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1540 - Thomas Cromwell is executed at the order of Henry VIII of England on charges of Treason. Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Metz (mɛs in French) is a city in the northeast of France, capital of the Lorraine région and Préfecture ^[29] Marshal MacMahon took command of I Corps (4 infantry divisions) near Wissembourg, Marshal François Canrobert brought VI Corps (4 infantry divisions) to Châlons-sur-Marne in northern France as a reserve and to guard against a Prussian advance through Belgium. Wissembourg (in Wissembourg visɑ̃buʁ in South Franconian: Weisseburch, pronounced; in Weißenburg is a small town and commune situated on the François Certain Canrobert ( June 27, 1809 - January 28, 1895) was a Marshal of France. Châlons-en-Champagne is a city and commune in France. It is the administrative centre ( Préfecture) of both the département

A pre-war plan laid out by the late Marshal Adolphe Niel called for a strong French offensive from Thionville towards Trier and into the Prussian Rhineland. Adolphe Niel ( 4 October 1802 - 13 August 1869) was a French General and Statesman, also Marshal of France Thionville (Diedenhofen Diedennuewen Diedenhoven is a town and commune in the Moselle département, in the Lorraine Trier (Trèves Luxembourgish: Tréier; Augusta Treverorum is a City in Germany on the banks of the Moselle River. This plan was discarded in favour of a defensive plan by Generals Charles Frossard and Bartélemy Lebrun, which called for the Army of the Rhine to remain in a defensive posture near the German border and repel any Prussian offensive. Charles Auguste Frossard ( 26 April 1807 - 25 August 1875) was a French general As Austria along with Bavaria, Württemberg and Baden were expected to join in a revenge war against Prussia, I Corps would invade the Bavarian Palatinate and proceed to "free" the South German states in concert with Austro-Hungarian forces. The Palatinate (Pfalz Pfälzer dialect Palz) historically also Rhenish Palatinate (palatinatum Renensis Rheinpfalz is a region in south-western Germany VI Corps would reinforce either army as needed. ^[30]

Unfortunately for General Frossard's plan, the Prussian army was mobilizing far more rapidly than expected. The Austro-Hungarians, still smarting after their defeat by Prussia, were treading carefully before stating that they would only commit to France's cause if the southern Germans viewed the French positively. This did not materialize as the South German states had come to Prussia's aid and were mobilizing their armies against France. ^[31]

Occupation of Saarbrücken

Napoleon III was under immense domestic pressure to launch an offensive before the full might of Moltke's forces were mobilized and deployed. Reconnaissance by General Frossard had identified only the Prussian 16th Infantry Division guarding the border town of Saarbrücken, right before the entire Army of the Rhine. Saarbrücken (ˈzaːɐ̯ˈbrʏkn in German; Sarrebruck is the capital of the state of Saarland in Germany. Accordingly, on July 31 the Army marched forward toward the Saar River to seize Saarbrücken. Events 30 BC - Battle of Alexandria: Mark Antony achieves a minor victory over Octavian 's forces but most of his army subsequently The Saar ( French: Sarre) is a River in northeastern France and western Germany, and a right tributary of the Moselle River ^[32]

General Frossard's II Corps and Marshal Bazaine's III Corps crossed the German border on 2 August, and began to force the Prussian 40th Regiment of the 16th Infantry Division from the town of Saarbrücken with a series of direct attacks. Events 338 BC - A Macedonian army led by Philip II defeated the combined forces of Athens and Thebes in the Saarbrücken (ˈzaːɐ̯ˈbrʏkn in German; Sarrebruck is the capital of the state of Saarland in Germany. The Chassepot rifle proved its worth against the Dreyse rifle, with French riflemen regularly outdistancing their Prussian counterparts in the skirmishing around Saarbrücken. However the Prussians resisted strongly, and the French suffered 86 casualties to the Prussian 83 casualties. Saarbrücken also proved to be a major obstacle in terms of logistics. Only one single railway there led to the German hinterland which could be easily defended by a single force, and the only river systems in the region ran along the border instead of inland. ^[33] While the French hailed the invasion as the first step towards the Rhineland and later Berlin, General Le Bœuf and Napoleon III were receiving alarming reports from foreign news sources of Prussian and Bavarian armies massing to the southeast in addition to the forces to the north and northeast. ^[34]

Moltke had indeed massed three armies in the area— the Prussian First Army with 50,000 men, commanded by General Karl von Steinmetz opposite Saarlouis, the Prussian Second Army with 134,000 men commanded by Prince Friedrich Karl opposite the line Forbach— Spicheren, and the Prussian Third Army with 120,000 men commanded by Crown Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, poised to cross the border at Wissembourg. Karl Friedrich von Steinmetz ( December 27, 1796 - August 2, 1877) was a German Generalfeldmarschall, born at Saarlouis (zaːrˈlʊɪ in German; French: Sarrelouis) is a city in the Saarland, Germany, capital of the district of Saarlouis Forbach is also a town in south-western Germany. Forbach is a town and commune, in the Moselle département The Battle of Spicheren, also known as the Battle of Forbach, was a battle during the Franco-Prussian War. Frederick III (German Friedrich Wilhelm Nikolaus Karl, English Frederick William Nicholas Charles; October 18 1831 – June 15 1888 (German Friedrich Wissembourg (in Wissembourg visɑ̃buʁ in South Franconian: Weisseburch, pronounced; in Weißenburg is a small town and commune situated on the ^[35]

Wiretapping in Paris

Main article: Wiretapping in Paris

By December of 1870, Paris was under siege by the Prussians. The invention of the telegraph cable had changed the dynamics of warfare and the Prussians did not neglect this important aspect. They went to work in a severely scientific and business-like way. In Paris they discovered subterranean lines of wires which they cut. They also found some in the cellars of Meudon. Meudon is a municipality in the southwestern suburbs of Paris, France. Doubtless before they were destroyed they were made to furnish a wealth of intelligence to benefit the besieging army. ^[36]

Prussian Army advance

Battle of Wissembourg

Main article: Battle of Wissembourg

Upon learning from captured Prussian soldiers and a local area police chief that the Second Army was just 30 miles (48 km) from Saarbrücken near the town of Wissembourg, General Le Bœuf and Napoleon III decided to retreat to defensive positions. The Battle of Wissembourg or Battle of Weissenburg, the first of the Franco-Prussian War, was joined when three German Army corps surprised the small General Frossard, without instructions, hastily withdrew the elements of Army of the Rhine in Saarbrücken back to Spicheren and Forbach. ^[37]

Marshal MacMahon, now closest to Wissembourg, left his four divisions spread 20 miles (32 km) apart in depth to react to any Prussian invasion. This organization of forces was due to a lack of supplies, forcing each division to seek out basic provisions along with the representatives of the army supply arm that was supposed to aid them. What made a bad situation much worse was the conduct of General Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot, commander of MacMahon's 1st Division. Auguste-Alexandre Ducrot ( February 24 1817, Nevers - August 16 1882, Versailles) was a French general He told General Abel Douay, commander of MacMahon's 2nd Division, on 1 August that "The information I have received makes me suppose that the enemy has no considerable forces very near his advance posts, and has no desire to take the offensive". Events 30 BC - Octavian (later known as Augustus enters Alexandria, Egypt, bringing it under the control of the Roman ^[38] Two days later, he told MacMahon that he had not found "a single enemy post [. . . ] it looks to me as if the menace of the Bavarians is simply bluff". Even though Ducrot shrugged off the possibility of an attack by the Germans, MacMahon still tried to warn the other divisions of his army, without success. ^[39]

The first action of the Franco-Prussian War took place on 4 August 1870. Events 70 - The Destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans. Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common This bloody little battle saw the unsupported division of General Douay of I Corps, with some attached cavalry, which was posted to watch the border, attacked in overwhelming but poorly coordinated fashion by the German 3rd Army. As the day wore on, elements of one Bavarian and two Prussian Corps became embroiled in the fight, and were aided by Prussian artillery which blasted holes in the defences of the town. Douay held a very strong position initially thanks to the accurate long range fire of the Chassepots, but his force was too thinly stretched to hold it. Douay himself was killed in the late morning when a caisson of the divisional mitrailleuse battery exploded near him. A limber is a two-wheeled Cart designed to support the trail of an Artillery piece, allowing it to be towed The mitrailleuse was a manually-fired Volley gun originally developed in Belgium in the 1850s by Fafschamps and improved during the early 1860s by Christophe and No matter who took his place, the encirclement of the town by the enemy had put the entire division in peril. ^[40]

The fighting within the town itself had become extremely intense, becoming a door to door battle of survival. Despite a never ending attack of Prussian infantry, the soldiers of the 2nd Division kept to their positions. It was the people of the town of Wissembourg that surrendered to the Germans, refusing to even help their own soldiers fight on, thinking of it as a lost cause. Those who did not surrender retreated westward, leaving behind 1,000 captured men and all of its remaining ammunition. ^[41] The Prussians seemed poised to capitalize on these happenings, and the French appeared still woefully unaware of the now forming Prussian juggernaut.

Battle of Spicheren

Main article: Battle of Spicheren

The Battle of Spicheren, on 5 August, was the second of three critical French defeats. The Battle of Spicheren, also known as the Battle of Forbach, was a battle during the Franco-Prussian War. Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia. Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 642 - Battle of Maserfield - Penda of Mercia defeats and kills Oswald of Bernicia. Moltke had originally planned to keep Bazaine's army on the Saar River until he could attack it with the 2nd Army in front and the 1st Army on its left flank, while the 3rd Army closed towards the rear. The Saar ( French: Sarre) is a River in northeastern France and western Germany, and a right tributary of the Moselle River The aging General Karl von Steinmetz made an overzealous, unplanned move, leading the 1st Army south from his position on the Moselle. Karl Friedrich von Steinmetz ( December 27, 1796 - August 2, 1877) was a German Generalfeldmarschall, born at Moselle is a ''département'' in the east of France named after the Moselle River. He moved straight toward the town of Spicheren, cutting off Prince Frederick Charles from his forward cavalry units in the process. Spicheren is a Town and commune in the Moselle département of north-eastern France. ^[42]

On the French side, planning after the disaster at Wissembourg had become essential. General Le Bœuf, flushed with anger, was intent upon going on the offensive over the Saar and countering their loss. However, planning for the next encounter was more based upon the reality of unfolding events rather than emotion or pride, as Intendant General Wolff told him and his staff that supply beyond the Saar would be impossible. Therefore, the armies of France would take up a defensive position that would protect against every possible attack point, but also left the armies unable to support each other. ^[43]

While the French army under General MacMahon engaged the German 3rd Army at the Battle of Worth, the German 1st Army under Steinmetz finished their advance west from Saarbrücken. The Battle of Wœrth, also known as the Battle of Reichshoffen or as the Battle of Frœschwiller, should more correctly be called the second battle of Wörth A patrol from the German 2nd Army under Prince Friedrich Karl of Prussia spotted decoy fires close and Frossard's army farther off on a distant plateau south of the town of Spicheren, and took this as a sign of Frossard's retreat. Ignoring Moltke's plan again, both German armies attacked Frossard's French 2nd Corps, fortified between Spicheren and Forbach. ^[44]

The French were unaware of their numerical superiority at the beginning of the battle as the German 2nd Army did not attack all at once. By treating the oncoming attacks as merely skirmishes, Frossard did not request additional support from other units. By the time he realized what kind of a force he was opposing, it was too late. Seriously flawed communications between Frossard and those in reserve under Bazaine slowed down so much that by the time the reserves received orders to move out to Spicheren, German soldiers from the 1st and 2nd armies had charged up the heights. ^[45] Because the reserves had not arrived, Frossard erroneously believed that he was in grave danger of being outflanked as German soldiers under General von Glume were spotted in Forbach. Instead of continuing to defend the heights, by the close of battle after dusk he retreated to the south. The German casualties of course had been relatively high due to the advance and the effectiveness of the chassepot rifle. They were quite startled in the morning when they had found out that their efforts were not in vain- Frossard had abandoned his position on the heights. ^[46]

Battle of Wörth (known also as Fröschwiller or Reichshoffen)

Main article: Battle of Wörth

The two armies clashed again only two days later (6 August 1870) near Wörth in the town of Fröschwiller, less than ten miles (16 km) from Wissembourg. The Battle of Wœrth, also known as the Battle of Reichshoffen or as the Battle of Frœschwiller, should more correctly be called the second battle of Wörth Aimé Morot (1850 Nancy - 1913 Dinard) was a French painter Morot attended the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris and took the Prix de Rome Events 1538 - Bogotá, Colombia, is founded by Gonzalo Jiménez de Quesada. Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The German 3rd army had drawn reinforcements which brought its strength up to 140,000 troops. The French had also been reinforced, but their recruitment was slow, and their force numbered only 35,000. Although badly outnumbered, the French defended their position just outside Fröschwiller. By afternoon, both sides had suffered about 10,000 casualties, and the French army was too battered to continue resisting. To make matters even more dire for the French, the Germans had taken the town of Fröschwiller which sat on a hilltop in the centre of the French line. Having lost any outlook for victory and facing a massacre, the French army broke off the battle and retreated in a western direction, hoping to join other French forces on the other side of the Vosges mountains. The German 3rd army did not pursue the withdrawing French. It remained in Alsace and moved slowly south, attacking and destroying the French defensive garrisons in the vicinity.

The battle of Wörth was the first major one of the Franco-German war, with more than 100,000 troops in the battlefield. It was also one of the first clashes where troops from various German states (Prussians, Badeners, Bavarians, Saxons, etc. ) fought jointly. These facts have led some historians to call the battlefield of Wörth the "cradle of Germany". It was not without cost, however, as Prussia lost 10,500 to death or wounds. The situation of MacMahon was more dire, as France lost 19,200 to not only death or wounds but to the enemy as prisoners. ^[47]

Battle of Mars-La-Tour

Main article: Battle of Mars-La-Tour

With the Prussian army now steamrolling, 130,000 French soldiers were bottled up in the fortress of Metz following several defeats at the front. Their attempt to leave Metz in order to link up with French forces at Châlons was spotted by a Prussian cavalry patrol under Major Oskar von Blumenthal. This article relates to the von Blumenthal Family of German nobility from Brandenburg-Prussia. Four days after their retreat, on 16 August, the ever-present Prussian forces, a grossly outnumbered group of 30,000 men of III Corps (of the 2nd Army) under General Konstantin von Alvensleben, found the French Army near Vionville, east of Mars-la-Tour. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting

Despite odds of four to one, the III Corps launched a risky attack. The French were routed, and the III Corps captured Vionville, blocking any further escape attempts to the west. Once blocked from retreat, the French in the fortress of Metz had no choice but to engage in a fight that would see the last major cavalry engagement in Western Europe. The battle soon erupted, and III Corps was decimated by the incessant cavalry charges, losing over half its soldiers. Cavalry charge redirects here For the football tactic see Cavalry charge (football. Meanwhile, French suffered equivalent numerical losses of 16,000 soldiers, but still held on to overwhelming numerical superiority.

On 16 August, the French had a chance to sweep away the key Prussian defence, and to escape. Events 1384 - The Hongwu Emperor of Ming China, Emperor Dong hears a case of a couple who tore paper money bills while fighting Two Prussian corps attacked the French advanced guard thinking that it was the rearguard of the retreat of the French Army of the Meuse. Despite this misjudgment the two Prussian corps held the entire French army for the whole day. Outnumbered 5 to 1, the extraordinary élan of the Prussians prevailed over gross indecision by the French.

Battle of Gravelotte

Main article: Battle of Gravelotte

The Battle of Gravelotte, or Gravelotte-St. The Battle of Gravelotte ( August 18, 1870) was a battle of the Franco-Prussian War named after Gravelotte, a village in Lorraine Privat, was the largest battle during the Franco-Prussian War. It was fought about six miles (10 km) west of Metz, Lorraine, France where on the previous day, having intercepted the French army's retreat to the west at the Battle of Mars-La-Tour, the Prussians were now closing in to complete the destruction of the French forces.

The combined German forces, under Field Marshal Count Helmuth von Moltke, were the Prussian First and Second Armies of the North German Confederation numbering about 210 infantry battalions, 133 cavalry squadrons, and 732 heavy cannons totaling 188,332 officers and men. The French Army of the Rhine, commanded by Marshal François-Achille Bazaine, numbering about 183 infantry battalions, 104 cavalry squadrons, backed by 520 heavy cannons, totaling 112,800 officers and men, dug in along high ground with their southern left flank at the town of Rozerieulles, and their northern right flank at St. Privat.

On 18 August, the battle began when at 08:00 Moltke ordered the First and Second Armies to advance against the French positions. Events 293 BC - The oldest known Roman temple to Venus is founded starting the institution of Vinalia Rustica. By 12:00, General Manstein opened up the battle before the village of Amanvillers with artillery from the 25th Infantry Division. The 25th Division ( 25 Division) officially the Grand Ducal Hessian (25th Division ( Großherzoglich Hessische (25 But the French had spent the night and early morning digging trenches and rifle pits while placing their artillery and their mitrailleuses in concealed positions. The mitrailleuse was a manually-fired Volley gun originally developed in Belgium in the 1850s by Fafschamps and improved during the early 1860s by Christophe and With them finally aware of the Prussian advance, the French opened up a massive return fire against the mass of advancing Germans. The battle at first appeared to favour the French with their superior Chassepot rifle. The Chassepot, officially known as Fusil modèle 1866, was a Bolt action military breechloading Rifle, famous as the arm of the However, the Prussian artillery was superior with the all-steel Krupp breech-loading gun.

By 14:30, General Steinmetz, the commander of the First Army, unilaterally launched his VIII Corps across the Mance Ravine in which the Prussian infantry were soon pinned down by murderous rifle and mitrailleuse fire from the French positions. Juliusz Fortunat Kossak ( December 15, 1824 - February 3, 1899) was a Polish painter At 15:00, the massed guns of the VII and VIII Corps opened fire to support the attack. But by 16:00, with the attack in danger of stalling, Steinmetz ordered the VII Corps forward, followed by the 1st Cavalry Division.

By 16:50, with the Prussian southern attacks in danger of breaking up, the 3rd Prussian Guard Infantry Brigade of the Second Army opened an attack against the French positions at St-Privat which were commanded by General Canrobert. At 17:15, the 4th Prussian Guard Infantry Brigade joined the advance followed at 17:45 by the 1st Prussian Guard Infantry Brigade. All of the Prussian Guard attacks were pinned down by lethal French gunfire from the rifle pits and trenches. At 18:15 the 2nd Prussian Guard Infantry Brigade, the last of the 1st Guard Infantry Division, was committed to the attack on St. The 1st Guard Infantry Division (German 1 Garde-Infanterie-Division) was a unit of the Prussian (and later Imperial German Army and was stationed in Berlin Privat while Steinmetz committed the last of the reserves of the First Army across the Mance Ravine. By 18:30, a considerable portion of the VII and VIII Corps disengaged from the fighting and withdrew towards the Prussian positions at Rezonville.

With the defeat of the First Army, Crown Prince Frederick Charles ordered a massed artillery attack against Canrobert's position at St. Privat to prevent the Guards attack from failing too. At 19:00 the 3rd Division of Fransecky's II Corps of the Second Army advanced across Ravine while the XII Corps cleared out the nearby town of Roncourt and with the survivors of the 1st Guard Infantry Division launched a fresh attack against the ruins of St. Privat. At 20:00, the arrival of the Prussian 4th Infantry Division of the II Corps and with the Prussian right flank on Mance Ravine, the line stabilised. The 4th Division ( 4 Division) was a unit of the Prussian German Army. By then, the Prussians of the 1st Guard Infantry Division and the XII and II Corps captured St. Privat forcing the decimated French forces to withdraw. With the Prussians exhausted from the fighting, the French were now able to mount a counter-attack. General Bourbaki, however, refused to commit the reserves of the French Old Guard to the battle because, by that time, he considered the overall situation a 'defeat'. Charles Denis Sauter Bourbaki ( April 22, 1816 &ndash September 27, 1897) was a French general

By 22:00, firing largely died down across the battlefield for the night. The next morning, the French Army of the Rhine, rather than resume the battle with an attack of its own against the battle-weary German armies, retreated to Metz where they were besieged and forced to surrender two months later.

The casualties were horrible, especially for the attacking Prussian forces. A grand total of 20,163 German troops were killed, wounded or missing in action during the August 18 battle. The French losses were 7,855 killed and wounded along with 4,420 prisoners of war (half of them were wounded) for a total of 12,275. While most of the Prussians fell under the French Chassepot rifles, most French fell under the Prussian Krupp shells. In a breakdown of the casualties, Frossard's II Corps of the Army of the Rhine suffered 621 casualties while inflicting 4,300 casualties on the Prussian First Army under Steinmetz before the Pointe du Jour. The Prussian Guard Infantry Divisions losses were even more staggering with 8,000 casualties out of 18,000 men. The Special Guard Jäger lost 19 officers, a surgeon and 431 men out of a total of 700. For other uses see Jäger. Jäger (plural also Jäger, ˈjɛːgɐ (егерь yeger was adopted in the Enlightenment era The 2nd Guard Infantry Brigade lost 39 officers and 1,076 men. The 3rd Guard Infantry Brigade lost 36 officers and 1,060 men. On the French side, the units holding St. Privat lost more than half their number in the village.

Siege of Metz

Main article: Siege of Metz

With the defeat of Marshal Bazaine's Army of the Rhine at Gravelotte, the French were forced to retire to Metz where they were besieged by over 150,000 Prussian troops of the First and Second Armies. The Siege of Metz lasting from September 3 &ndash October 23 1870 was a crushing defeat for the French during the Franco-Prussian War. The further crushing French loss was sealed when he surrendered 180,000 soldiers on 27 October. Events 312 - Constantine the Great is said to have received his famous Vision of the Cross.

Battle of Sedan

Main article: Battle of Sedan

Napoleon III, along with Field Marshal MacMahon, formed the new French Army of Châlons to march on to Metz to rescue Bazaine. The Battle of Sedan was fought during the Franco-Prussian War on 1 September 1870 With Napoleon III personally leading the army with Marshal MacMahon in attendance, they led the Army of Châlons in a left-flanking march northeast towards the Belgian border in an attempt to avoid the Prussians before striking south to link up with Bazaine.

The Prussians, under the command of Field Marshal Count Helmuth von Moltke, took advantage of this incompetent manoeuvre to catch the French in a pincer grip. Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President Otto Eduard Leopold von Bismarck Count of Bismarck-Schönhausen Duke of Lauenburg Prince of Bismarck ( April 1, 1815 July 30, 1898) The Battle of Sedan was fought during the Franco-Prussian War on 1 September 1870 Leaving the Prussian First and Second Armies besieging Metz, Moltke formed the Army of the Meuse under the Crown Prince of Saxony by detaching three corps from them, and took this army and the Prussian Third Army northward, where they caught up with the French at Beaumont on 30 August. Events 1363 - Beginning date of the Battle of Lake Poyang; the forces of two Chinese rebel leaders— Chen Youliang and After a hard-fought battle with the French losing 5,000 men and 40 cannons in a sharp fight, they withdrew toward Sedan. Having reformed in the town, the Army of Châlons was immediately isolated by the converging Prussian armies. Napoleon III ordered the army to break out of the encirclement immediately. With MacMahon wounded on the previous day, General Auguste Ducrot took command of the French troops in the field.

On 1 September 1870, the battle opened with the Army of Châlons, with 202 infantry battalions, 80 cavalry squadrons and 564 guns, attacking the surrounding Prussian Third and Meuse Armies totaling 222 infantry battalions, 186 cavalry squadrons and 774 guns. Events 462 - Possible start of first Byzantine indiction cycle. Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common General De Wimpffen, the commander of the French V Corps in reserve, hoped to launch a combined infantry and cavalry attack against the Prussian XI Corps. Emmanuel Felix de Wimpffen ( September 13, 1811 - February 26, 1884) was a French soldier But by 11:00, Prussian artillery took a toll on the French while more Prussian troops arrived on the battlefield. The French cavalry, commanded by General Marguerite, launched three desperate attacks on the nearby village of Floing where the Prussian XI Corps was concentrated. Marguerite was killed leading the very first charge and the two additional charges led to nothing but heavy losses.

By the end of the day, with no hope of breaking out, Napoleon III called off the attacks. The French lost over 17,000 men, killed or wounded, with 21,000 captured. The Prussians reported their losses at 2,320 killed, 5,980 wounded and 700 captured or missing.

By the next day, on 2 September, Napoleon III surrendered and was taken prisoner with 104,000 of his soldiers. Events 44 BC - Pharaoh Cleopatra VII of Egypt declares her son co-ruler as Ptolemy XV Caesarion. It was an overwhelming victory for the Prussians, for they not only captured an entire French army, but the leader of France as well. The defeat of the French at Sedan had decided the war in Prussia's favour. One French army was now immobilised and besieged in the city of Metz, and no other forces stood on French ground to prevent a German invasion. The war, nevertheless would drag on for five more months.

The Government of National Defence

When news hit Paris of Emperor Napoleon's III capture, the French Second Empire was overthrown in a bloodless and successful coup d'état which was launched by General Trochu, Jules Favre, and Léon Gambetta at Paris on 4 September. Louis Jules Trochu (12 March 1815 - 7 October 1896 was a French military leader and politician Jules Claude Gabriel Favre ( March 21, 1809 – January 20, 1880) was a French statesman Léon Gambetta (2 April 1838 Cahors, Lot - 31 December 1882 Paris) was a French statesman prominent after the Franco-Prussian War Events 476 - Romulus Augustus, last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, is deposed when Odoacer proclaims himself They removed the second Bonapartist monarchy and proclaimed a republic led by a Government of National Defence, leading to the Third Republic. Le Gouvernement de la Défense Nationale, or The Government of National Defence, was the first Government of the Third Republic of France from September Napoleon III was taken to Germany, and released later. He went into exile in the United Kingdom, dying in 1873.

After the German victory at Sedan, most of France's standing forces were out of combat, one army was immobilised and besieged in the city of Metz, and the army led by Emperor Napoleon III himself had surrendered to the Germans. Under these circumstances, the Germans hoped for an armistice which would put an official end to the hostilities and lead to peace. Prussia's Prime Minister von Bismarck, in particular, entertained that hope for he wanted to end the war as soon as possible. To a nation with as many neighbors as Prussia, a prolonged war meant the growing risk of intervention by another power, and von Bismarck was determined to limit that risk.

At first, the outlook for peace seemed fair. The Germans estimated that the new government of France could not be interested in continuing the war that had been declared by the monarch they had quickly deposed. Hoping to pave the road to peace, Prussia's Prime Minister von Bismarck invited the new French Government to negotiations held at Ferrières and submitted a list of moderate conditions, including limited territorial demands in Alsace. Alsace (Alsace alzas Alsatian and Elsass pre-1996 German: Elsaß; Alsatia is one of the 26 Regions of France, located on the eastern Further claims of a French border along the Rhine in Palatinate had been made since (Adolphe Thiers, Rhine crisis) 1840, while the Germans vowed to defend both banks of the Rhine (Die Wacht am Rhein, Deutschlandlied). Rhineland-Palatinate (Rheinland-Pfalz is one of the 16 federal states (German Bundesländer) of Germany. Louis-Adolphe fr Thiers ( Marseille, 16 April 1797&ndash3 September 1877 was a French politician and Historian. French–German hereditary enmity (Deutsch–französische Erbfeindschaft Esprit de revanche describes the three centuries of hostile relations and Revanchism For other uses of "die Wacht am Rhein" see Watch on the Rhine (disambiguation. Das Deutschlandlied ("The Song of Germany" also known as Das Lied der Deutschen, "The Song of the Germans" has been used wholly or partially as the As Prussia had recently acquired large areas populated by Catholics, further extensions were not considered desirable by Bismarck, though.

Armistice rejection and continuance of hostilities

While the republican government was amenable to reparation payments or transfer of colonial territories in Africa or in South East Asia to Prussia, Jules Favre on behalf of the Government of National Defence declared on 6 September that France would not "yield an inch of its territory nor a stone of its fortresses". The Illustrated London News was a Magazine founded by Herbert Ingram and his friend Mark Lemon, the editor of Punch Events 3114 BC - According to the Proleptic Julian calendar the current era in the Maya Long Count Calendar started ^[48] The republic then renewed the declaration of war, called for recruits in all parts of the country, and pledged to drive the enemy troops out of France.

Under these circumstances, the Germans had to continue the war, yet couldn't pin down any proper military opposition in their vicinity. As the bulk of the remaining French armies were digging-in near Paris, the German leaders decided to put pressure upon the enemy by attacking Paris. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city In October, German troops reached the outskirts of Paris, a heavily fortified city. The Germans surrounded it and erected a blockade, as already established and ongoing at Metz.

When the war broke out, European public opinion heavily favored the Germans. For example, many Italians attempted to sign up as volunteers at the Prussian embassy in Florence, and a Prussian diplomat visited Giuseppe Garibaldi in Caprera. Florence ( Italian: Firenze Florentia and Fiorenza) is the Capital City of the Italian region of Tuscany Garibaldi redirects here for other meanings see Garibaldi (disambiguation. Caprera is a small Island of 6 square miles (155 km² off the coast of Sardinia, Italy, located in the Maddalena archipelago. Bismarck's demand for the return of Alsace caused a dramatic shift in that sentiment in Italy, which was best exemplified by the reaction of Garibaldi soon after the revolution in Paris, who told the Movimento of Genoa on 7 September 1870 that "Yesterday I said to you: war to the death to Bonaparte. Events 1251 BC - A Solar eclipse on this date might mark the birth of legendary Heracles at Thebes Greece. Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Today I say to you: rescue the French Republic by every means. "^[49] Subsequently, Garibaldi went to France and assumed command of the Army of the Vosges, an army of volunteers that was never defeated by the Germans. The Army of the Vosges was a volunteer regiment in the Franco-Prussian War, famously led by Giuseppe Garibaldi.

Siege of Paris

Main article: Siege of Paris

The Siege of Paris (19 September 1870–28 January 1871) brought about the final defeat of the French Army during the Franco-Prussian War. The Siege of Paris, lasting from September 19, 1870 &ndash January 28, 1871, brought about French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War Events 335 - Dalmatius is raised to the rank of Caesar by his uncle Constantine I. Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1077 - Walk to Canossa: The Excommunication of Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor is lifted Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common On 18 January the new German Empire was proclaimed at the Palace of Versailles. Events 350 - Generallus Magnentius deposes Roman Emperor Constans and proclaims himself Emperor The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification The Palace of Versailles, or simply Versailles, is a royal Château in Versailles, in France 's Île-de-France region

Faced with the German blockade of Paris, the new French government called for the establishment of several large armies in France's provinces. These new bodies of troops were to march towards Paris and attack the Germans there from various directions at the same time. In addition, armed French civilians were to create a guerilla force —the so-called Francs-tireurs— for the purpose of attacking German support lines. The phrase francs-tireurs was used to describe Irregular military formations deployed by France during the early stages of the Franco-Prussian War (1870–1871

These developments prompted calls from the German civilian public for a bombardment of the city. General Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal, who commanded the siege, was opposed to the bombardment on civilised grounds. Leonhard Graf von Blumenthal ( July 20, 1810 &ndash December 21, 1900) was a Prussian Generalfeldmarschall. In this he was backed by other senior military figures such as the Crown Prince and Moltke. All of them had married English wives and as a result they were accused of coming under English liberal influence.

Loire campaign

Dispatched from Paris as the republican government's emissary, Léon Gambetta passed over the German lines in a hot air balloon and organized the recruitment of new French armies. The hot air balloon is the oldest successful human-carrying Flight technology

News about an alleged German "extermination" plan infuriated the French and strengthened their support to their new government. Within a few weeks, five new armies totaling more than 500,000 troops were recruited.

The Germans noticed this development and dispatched some of their troops to the French provinces in order to detect, attack, and disperse the new French armies before they could become a menace, for the blockade of Paris or elsewhere. The Germans were not prepared for an occupation of the whole of France. This would stretch them out, and they would become vulnerable.

On 10 October, fighting erupted between German and French republican forces near Orléans. Events 680 - Battle of Karbala: Shia Imam Husayn bin Ali, the grandson of the Prophet Muhammad, is decapitated This article is about the French city of Orléans for other meanings see Orleans (disambiguation. At first, the Germans were victorious, but the French drew reinforcements and defeated the Germans at Coulmiers on 9 November. Coulmiers is a Village and commune in the Loiret département of northern-central France. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all But after the surrender of Metz, more than 100,000 well-trained and battle-experienced German troops joined the German 'Southern Army'. The Siege of Metz lasting from September 3 &ndash October 23 1870 was a crushing defeat for the French during the Franco-Prussian War. With these reinforcements, the French were forced to abandon Orléans on 4 December, to be finally defeated near Le Mans (between 10–12 January). "December 4th" redirects here For the song by Jay-Z, see December 4th (song. Events 475 - Basiliscus becomes Byzantine Emperor, with a coronation ceremony in the Hebdomon palace in Constantinople

A second French army which operated north of Paris was turned back near Amiens (27 November 1870), Bapaume (3 January 1871) and St. Quentin (19 January). Amiens (amjɛ̃ is a city and commune in northern France, 120 km north of Paris. Events 1095 - Pope Urban II declares the First Crusade at the Council of Clermont Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Bapaume is a commune and the chief town of a canton in the Pas-de-Calais département in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais region Events 1431 - Joan of Arc is handed over to the Bishop Pierre Cauchon. Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common This article is about the saint For places named after him see Saint-Quentin and San Quintin. Events 1419 - Hundred Years' War: Rouen surrenders to Henry V of England completing his reconquest of Normandy.

Northern campaign

Following the Army of the Loire's defeats, Gambetta turned to General Faidherbe's Army of the North. Louis Léon César Faidherbe ( June 3, 1818 &ndash September 29, 1889) was a French general and colonial administrator The Army of the North had achieved several small victories at towns such as Ham, La Hallue, and Amiens, and was well-protected by the belt of fortresses in northern France, allowing Faidherbe's men to launch quick attacks against isolated Prussian units, then retreat behind the belt of fortresses. Amiens (amjɛ̃ is a city and commune in northern France, 120 km north of Paris. Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for Despite the army's access to the armaments factories of Lille, the Army of the North suffered from severe supply difficulties which kept the soldiers' already poor morale at a permanently low level. Lille (lil Rijsel is a city in northern France. It is the principal city of the Lille Métropole, the fourth-largest Metropolitan area in the country In January 1871, Gambetta forced Faidherbe to march his army beyond the fortresses and engage the Prussians in open battle. The army was severely weakened by low morale, supply problems, the terrible winter weather, and low troop quality, whilst General Faidherbe himself was unable to direct battles effectively due to his terrible health, the result of decades of campaigning in West Africa. West Africa or Western Africa is the Westernmost Region of the African Continent. At the Battle of St. Quentin, the Army of the North suffered a crushing defeat and was scattered, releasing thousands of Prussian soldiers to be relocated to the East. The Battle of St Quentin was a battle during the Franco-Prussian War which defeated French attempts to relieve the besieged city of Paris.

Eastern campaign

Following the destruction of the French Army of the Loire, remnants of the Loire army gathered in eastern France to form the Army of the East, commanded by General Charles Bourbaki. Charles Denis Sauter Bourbaki ( April 22, 1816 &ndash September 27, 1897) was a French general In a final attempt to cut the German supply lines in northeast France, Bourbaki's army marched north to attack the Prussian siege of Belfort and relieve the beleaguered French defenders. Belfort (Beffert is a town and commune of northeastern France, Préfecture (capital of the Territoire de Belfort

In the battle of the Lisaine, Bourbaki's men failed to break through German lines commanded by General August von Werder. Karl Wilhelm Friedrich August Leopold Graf von Werder ( 12 September 1808 &ndash 12 September 1888) was a Prussian General Bringing in the German 'Southern Army', General von Manteuffel then drove Bourbaki's army into the mountains near the Swiss border. Edwin Freiherr von Manteuffel ( February 24, 1809 - June 17, 1885) Facing annihilation, this last intact French army crossed the border and was disarmed and imprisoned by the neutral Swiss near Pontarlier (1 February). Events 1327 - Teenaged Edward III is crowned King of England, but the country is ruled by his mother Queen

Armistice

On 28 January 1871 the Government of National Defence based in Paris negotiated an armistice with the Prussians. Events 1077 - Walk to Canossa: The Excommunication of Henry IV Holy Roman Emperor is lifted Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common With Paris starving, and Gambetta's provincial armies reeling from one disaster after another, French foreign minister Jules Favre went to Versailles on 24 January to discuss peace terms with Bismarck. Jules Claude Gabriel Favre ( March 21, 1809 – January 20, 1880) was a French statesman Versailles (vɛʀsaj in French) formerly de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important Events 41 - Gaius Caesar (Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel Despotism, is Assassinated by his disgruntled

Bismarck agreed to end the siege and allow food convoys to immediately enter Paris (including trains carrying millions of German army rations), on condition that the Government of National Defence surrender several key fortresses outside Paris to the Prussians. Without the forts, the French Army would no longer be able to defend Paris. Although public opinion in Paris was strongly against any form of surrender or concession to the Prussians, the Government realised that it could not hold the city for much longer, and that Gambetta's provincial armies would probably never break through to relieve Paris. President Jules Trochu resigned on 25 January and was replaced by Jules Favre, who signed the surrender two days later at Versailles, with the armistice coming into effect at midnight. Louis Jules Trochu (12 March 1815 - 7 October 1896 was a French military leader and politician Events 41 - After a night of negotiation Claudius is accepted as Roman Emperor by the Senate Jules Claude Gabriel Favre ( March 21, 1809 – January 20, 1880) was a French statesman Several sources claim that in his carriage on the way back to Paris, Favre broke into tears, and collapsed into his daughter's arms as the guns around Paris fell silent at midnight.

At Tours, Gambetta received word from Paris on 30 January that the Government had surrendered. Tours is a city in France the Préfecture (capital city of the Indre-et-Loire département, on the lower reaches of the river Events 1648 - Eighty Years' War: The Treaty of Münster is signed ending the conflict between the Netherlands and Spain Furious, he refused to surrender and launched an immediate attack on German forces at Orleans which, predictably, failed. A delegation of Parisian diplomats arrived in Tours by train on 5 February to negotiate with Gambetta, and the following day Gambetta stepped down and surrendered control of the provincial armies to the Government of National Defence, which promptly ordered a ceasefire across France. Events 1576 - Henry of Navarre converts to Roman Catholicism in order to ensure his right to the throne of France.

The Treaty of Frankfurt was signed 10 May, marking the end of the Franco-Prussian War. The Treaty of Frankfurt (Le traité de Francfort Friede von Frankfurt was a Peace treaty signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1871, at the end of Events 1291 - Scottish Nobles recognize the authority of Edward I of England.

Dutch part in the war

The Dutch provided both camps with hospitals and other medical aid.

Result of the war

For detailed information on the Commune and civil war, see Paris Commune

Prussian reaction and withdrawal

The Prussian Army held a brief victory parade in Paris on 17 February, and Bismarck honoured the armistice by sending trainloads of food into Paris and withdrawing Prussian forces to the east of the city, which would be withdrawn as soon as France agreed to pay five-billion francs in war indemnity. The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori ^[50] At the same time, Prussian forces were withdrawn from France and concentrated in the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine. Alsace (Alsace alzas Alsatian and Elsass pre-1996 German: Elsaß; Alsatia is one of the 26 Regions of France, located on the eastern Moselle is a ''département'' in the east of France named after the Moselle River. An exodus occurred from Paris as some 200,000 people, predominantly middle-class, left the city for the countryside. Paris was quickly re-supplied with free food and fuel by the United Kingdom and several accounts recall life in the city settling back to normal. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927

French reaction to the defeat

National elections returned an overwhelmingly conservative government, which, under President Adolphe Thiers, established itself in Versailles, fearing that the political climate of Paris was too dangerous to set up the capital in the city. Louis-Adolphe fr Thiers ( Marseille, 16 April 1797&ndash3 September 1877 was a French politician and Historian. Versailles (vɛʀsaj in French) formerly de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important The new government, formed mainly of conservative, middle-class rural politicians, passed a variety of laws which greatly angered the population of Paris, such as the controversial Law of Maturities, which decreed that all rents in Paris, which had been postponed since September 1870, and all public debts across France, which had been given a moratorium in November 1870, were to be paid in full, with interest, within 48 hours. Paris shouldered an unfairly high proportion of the indemnity payments made to the Prussians, and the population of the city quickly grew resentful of the Versailles government. With Paris under the protection of the revolutionary National Guard and few regular soldiers in the city, left-wing leaders established themselves in the Hôtel de Ville and established the Paris Commune which was savagely repressed by Versailles with the loss of c. The National Guard ( la Garde nationale) was the name given at the time of the French Revolution to the Militias formed in each city in imitation of The Hôtel de Ville ( French for " City Hall " in Paris, France, is the building housing the City of Paris's administration The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May 20,000 lives.

In the 1890s, the Dreyfus Affair developed out of the aftermath of the war, when secret messages to Germany were discovered in a wastebasket in the French intelligence department, and Alsace-born Alfred Dreyfus was wrongfully sentenced for treason. The Dreyfus Affair a Political scandal which divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s Alfred Dreyfus (9 October 1859 &ndash 12 July 1935 was a French artillery officer of Jewish background whose trial and conviction in 1894 on charges of treason

The Treaty of Frankfurt, in addition to giving Germany the city of Strasbourg and the fortification at Metz, it more importantly gave them possession of Alsace and the northern portion of Lorraine (Moselle), both (especially Alsace) of which were home to a majority of ethnic Germans. The Treaty of Frankfurt (Le traité de Francfort Friede von Frankfurt was a Peace treaty signed in Frankfurt on May 10, 1871, at the end of Strasbourg (Strasbourg stʁazbuʁ Alsatian: Strossburi,; Straßburg) is the capital and principal City of the Alsace région Metz (mɛs in French) is a city in the northeast of France, capital of the Lorraine région and Préfecture Alsace (Alsace alzas Alsatian and Elsass pre-1996 German: Elsaß; Alsatia is one of the 26 Regions of France, located on the eastern Moselle is a ''département'' in the east of France named after the Moselle River. The loss of this territory was a source of resentment in France for years to come, and contributed to public support for World War I, in which France vowed to take back control of Alsace-Lorraine. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All This revanchism created a permanent state of crisis between Germany and France (French-German enmity), which would be one of the contributing factors leading to World War I. Revanchism (from French revanche " Revenge " is a term used since the 1870s to describe a political manifestation of the will to reverse territorial French–German hereditary enmity (Deutsch–französische Erbfeindschaft Esprit de revanche describes the three centuries of hostile relations and Revanchism

German unification and power

The creation of a unified German Empire ended the "balance of power" that had been created with the Congress of Vienna after the end of the Napoleonic Wars. The German Empire is the name commonly used in English to describe Germany from 1871 to 1918 when it was a semi- Constitutional monarchy: beginning with the Unification The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of the major powers of Europe, chaired by the Austrian statesman Clemens Wenzel von Metternich The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions Countries previously without a General Staff or a system of universal conscription soon adopted both, along with developments in logistics, military use of railways,^[8] and the telegraph system, all proven by the German victory to be indispensable. A military staff is a group of officers and enlisted personnel that provides a bi-directional flow of information between a commander and subordinate units Conscription (also known as the draft, the call-up or national service) is a general term for involuntary labor demanded by some established authority Logistics is the management of the flow of Goods, Information and other resources including Energy and people between the point of origin and the point "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. Germany quickly established itself as the main power in Europe with one of the most powerful and professional armies in the world. Although the United Kingdom remained the dominant world power, British involvement in European affairs during the late 19th century was very limited, allowing Germany to exercise great influence over the European mainland. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Besides, the Crown Prince's marriage with the daughter of Queen Victoria was only the most prominent of several German-British relationships. Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901 was from 20 June 1837 the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland

Notes

External links

• La guerre de 1870-1871 en images
• Postcards from the Franco-German War 1870/71
• Texts and documents about German-French relations and an essay on the Franco-German war
• Monuments of the Franco-German war (English)
• Information and maps on the battles of Wissembourg, Woerth and Gravelotte

References

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• Bresler, Fenton. Napoleon III: A Life. New York: Carroll & Graf, 1999. ISBN 0-7867-0660-0
• Craig, Gordon A. Gordon Alexander Craig ( November 13, 1913 &ndash October 30, 2005) was a Scottish-American historian of German, Swiss Germany: 1866-1945. Oxford University Press, 1980.
• De Cesare, Raffaele. The Last Days of Papal Rome. Archibald Constable & Co, 1909.
• Howard, Michael. Sir Michael Eliot Howard, OM, CH, CBE, MC (born 29 November 1922) is a retired British military historian The Franco-Prussian War: The German Invasion of France 1870–1871. New York: Routledge, 2001. ISBN 0-415-26671-8.
• Jelavich, Barbara. Russia and the Formation of the Romanian National State, 1821-1878. Cambridge University Press, 2004.
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• Kleinschmidt, Arthur. Drei Jahrhunderte russischer Geschichte. J. Räde, 1898.
• Lowe, William Joseph The Nest in the Altar or Reminiscences of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870 reprinted by Chapter Two, London in 1999, ISBN 1-85307-123-4.
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• Martin, Henri; Abby Langdon Alger. Henri Martin ( February 20, 1810 - December 14, 1883) was a celebrated French Historian, born at Saint-Quentin A Popular History of France from the First Revolution to the Present Time. D. Estes and C. E. Lauriat, 1882.
• Maurice, John Frederick; Wilfred James Long. Major-General Sir John Frederick Maurice (1841񮕈 was an English soldier born in London. The Franco-German War, 1870-71. S. Sonnenschein and Co. , 1900.
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• Radzinsky, Edvard. Edvard Radzinsky (Эдвард Станиславович Радзинский (b Alexander II: The Last Great Tsar. Simon and Schuster, 2005.
• Ridley, Jasper. Jasper Godwin Ridley (1920 – 2004 was a British writer known for historical biographies Garibaldi. Viking Press, 1976.
• Robertson, Charles Grant. Bismarck. H. Holt and Co, 1919.
• Rüstow, Wilhelm; John Layland Needham. Friedrich Wilhelm Rüstow ( 25 May 1821 &ndash 14 August 1878) was a Prussian -born Swiss Soldier and military The War for the Rhine Frontier, 1870: Its Political and Military History. Blackwood, 1872.
• Taithe, Bertrand. Citizenship and Wars: France in Turmoil 1870-1871. Routledge, 2001.
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