The History of France from 1789 to 1914 (the long 19th century) extends from the French Revolution to World War I and includes:
- French Revolution (1789–1792)
- French First Republic (1792–1804)
- First French Empire under Napoleon (1804–1814)
- Restoration under Louis XVIII and Charles X (1814–1830)
- July Monarchy under Louis Philippe d'Orléans (1830–1848)
- Second Republic (1848–1852)
- Second Empire under Napoleon III (1852–1871)
- first decades of the Third Republic (1871–1940)
Contents
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Geography
At the time of the French Revolution, France had expanded to nearly her modern territorial limits. The History of France has been divided into a series of separate historical articles navigable through the list to the right "Ancient" redirects here For other uses see Ancient_(disambiguation. Prehistoric France is the period in the human occupation (including early hominins) of the geographical area covered by present-day France which extended through Gaul (Gallia was the Roman name for the region of Western Europe comprising present day northern Italy, France, Belgium, western For Gaul before the Roman conquest see Gaul. Roman Gaul consisted of an area of provincial rule in the Roman Empire, in modern day The Franks or Frankish people (Franci or gens Francorum) were West Germanic tribes first identified in the 3rd century as an Ethnic group The Merovingians (also Merovings) were a Salian Frankish dynasty that came to rule the Franks in a region (known as Francia in Latin France in the Middle Ages covers an area roughly corresponding to modern day France, from the death of Charlemagne in 814 to the middle of the 15th The Carolingian dynasty (known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolings, or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family with its origins in the For a full history of the Capetian family see Capetian dynasty. See also France in the Middle Ages, Early Modern France Unexpected inheritance The Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and Early Modern France is the Early modern period of French history from the end of the 15th century to the end of the 18th century (or from the French Renaissance See also France in the Middle Ages, Early Modern France Unexpected inheritance The Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and See also France in the Middle Ages, Early Modern France Unexpected inheritance The Capetian dynasty seemed secure both during and The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814 the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, saw the overthrow of King Charles X, the French The July Monarchy (1830-1848 was a period of liberal monarchy rule of France under Louis-Philippe The February 1848 Revolution in France ended the reign of King Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic (1848-1852 History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May The History of France from 1914 to the present includes the later years of the Third Republic (1871–1941 World War I (1914–18 Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944 The Provisional Government of the French Republic ( gouvernement provisoire de la République française or GPRF was an interim government which governed The founding of the Fourth Republic (1944-47 See also Three Parties, Third Force (France European Unity The creation of the See also Government of France The Fifth Republic is the fifth and current republican constitution of France, which was introduced on The Kingdom of France was organised into Provinces until March 4, 1790, when the establishment of the département This is a history of the economy of France. For more information on historical cultural demographic and sociological developments in France see the chronological As of January 1, 2008, 64473140 people live in the French Republic. The military history of France encompasses an immense panorama of conflicts and struggles extending for more than 2000 years across areas including modern France, greater France was a dominant empire in the world from the 1600s to the late 1960s possessing many colonies in various locations around the world For practical purposes the history of French art has been divided into a series of separate articles accessible through the template to the right This article is a general introduction to French literature For detailed information on French literature in specific historic periods see the separate historical articles in the The Culture of France and of the French people has been shaped by its geography, by profound historical events, and by foreign and This is a timeline of French history. To read about the background to these events see History of France. Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1914 ( MCMXIV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The long 19th century, defined by Eric Hobsbawm, a British Marxist Historian and Author, refers to the period between the years The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or Year 1804 ( MDCCCIV) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814 the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. Charles X (9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836 ruled as King of France and Navarre from 20 May 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common For the game see 1830 (board game. Year 1830 ( MDCCCXXX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display The July Monarchy (1830-1848 was a period of liberal monarchy rule of France under Louis-Philippe Louis Philippe ( 6 October 1773 &ndash 26 August 1850) was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 in what was known as the Year 1848 ( MDCCCXLVIII) was a Leap year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs Year 1852 ( MDCCCLII) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. France is a country in Western Europe bordering the Atlantic Ocean ( Bay of Biscay) and English Channel between Belgium and Spain, The nineteenth century would complete the process by the annexation of the Duchy of Savoy and the city of Nice (first during the First Empire, and then definitively in 1860) and some small papal (like Avignon) and foreign possessions. For the two French départements of the region of Savoy see Savoie and Haute-Savoie Savoy ( French Nice (nis Niçard Occitan: Niça norm or Nissa, Italian: Nizza or Nizza Marittima, Greek Year 1860 ( MDCCLX) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year starting Avignon (/aviɲɔ̃/ in French) ( Provençal: Avinhon in classical norm or Avignoun in Mistralian norm is a commune France's territorial limits were greatly extended during the Empire through Napoléon Bonaparte's military conquests and re-organization of Europe, but these were reversed by the Vienna Congress. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The Congress of Vienna was a conference of ambassadors of the major powers of Europe, chaired by the Austrian statesman Clemens Wenzel von Metternich With the French defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, France lost her provinces of Alsace and portions of Lorraine to Germany (see Alsace-Lorraine); these lost provinces would only be regained at the end of World War I. The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Alsace (Alsace alzas Alsatian and Elsass pre-1996 German: Elsaß; Alsatia is one of the 26 Regions of France, located on the eastern Lorraine (Lorraine Lothringen is a historical area in present-day northeast France. Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All
In 1830 France invaded Algeria, and in 1848 this north African country was fully integrated into France as a département. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's In the context of the political and geographic organization of France and many of its former colonies a department (département depaʁtǝmɑ̃ is an Administrative division The late nineteenth century saw France embark on a massive program of overseas imperialism — including French Indochina (modern day Cambodia, Vietnam and Laos) and Africa (the Scramble for Africa brought France most of North-West and Central Africa) — which brought it in direct competition with British interests. First French interventions See also France-Vietnam relations France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit The Kingdom of Cambodia ( formerly known as Kampuchea (, transliterated: Preăh Réachéanachâkr Kâmpŭchea) is a country in South East Vietnam (ˌviːɛtˈnɑːm Việt Nam) officially Laos (ˈlɑːoʊs or /ˈlaʊs/ officially the Lao People's Democratic Republic, is a Landlocked country in Southeast Asia, bordered by Burma The Scramble for Africa, also known as the Race for Africa, was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New
Demographics
- Further information: Demographics of France
Between 1795 and 1866, metropolitan France (that is, without overseas or colonial possessions) was the second most populous country of Europe, behind Russia, and the fourth most populous country in the world (behind China, India, and Russia); between 1866 and 1911, metropolitan France was the third most populous country of Europe, behind Russia and Germany. As of January 1, 2008, 64473140 people live in the French Republic. Year 1795 ( MDCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Year 1866 ( MDCCCLXVI) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Unlike other European countries, France did not experience a strong population growth from the middle of the 19th century to the first half of the 20th century. The French population in 1789 is estimated at roughly 28 million; by 1850, it was 36 million and in 1880 it was around 39 million.
Until 1850, population growth was mainly in the countryside, but a period of massive urbanization began under the Second Empire. Urbanizationn (also spelled urbanisation) is the physical growth of Urban areas into rural or natural land as a result of population in-migration to an existing Unlike in England, industrialization was a late phenomenon in France. is a process of social and economic change whereby a human group is transformed from a Pre-industrial society into an industrial one The Napoleonic wars had hindered early industrialization and France's economy in the 1830s (limited iron industry, under-developed coal supplies, a massive rural population) had not developed sufficiently to support an industrial expansion of any scope. The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions French rail transport only began hesitantly in the 1830s, and would not truly develop until the 1840s. The history of rail transport in France dates from the first French railway in 1832 to present-day enterprises such as the TGV. By the revolution of 1848, a growing industrial workforce began to participate actively in French politics, but their hopes were largely betrayed by the policies of the Second Empire. The loss of the important coal, steel and glass production regions of Alsace and Lorraine would cause further problems. The industrial worker population increased from 23% in 1870 to 39% in 1914. Nevertheless, France remained a rather rural country in the early 1900s with 40% of the population still farmers in 1914. While exhiting a similar urbanization rate as the U. S. (50% of the population in the U. S. was engaged in agriculture in the early 1900s), the urbanization rate of France was still well behind the one of the UK (80% urbanization rate in the early 1900s).
In the 19th century, France was a country of immigration for peoples and political refugees from Eastern Europe (Germany, Poland, Hungary, Russia, Ashkenazi Jews) and from the Mediterranean (Italy, Spanish Sephardic Jews and North-African Mizrahi Jews). Ashkenazi Jews, also known as Ashkenazic Jews or Ashkenazim ( Hebrew: אַשְׁכֲּנָזִים, ˌaʃkəˈnazim sing Sephardi Jews ( Hebrew: ספרדי, Standard Səfardi Tiberian Səp̄arədî; plural Mizrahi Jews or Mizrahim, ( also referred to as Edot HaMizrach (Communities of the East are Jews descended
France was the first country in Europe to emancipate its Jewish population during the French Revolution. In 1872, there were an estimated 86,000 Jews living in France (by 1945 this would increase to 300,000), many of whom integrated (or attempted to integrate) into French society, although the Dreyfus affair would reveal anti-semitism in certain classes of French society (see History of the Jews in France). The Dreyfus Affair a Political scandal which divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s The Jewish community in France presently numbers around 600000 according to the World Jewish Congress and 500000 according to the Appel Unifié Juif de France and is
With the loss of Alsace and Lorraine, 5000 French refugees from these regions emigrated to Algeria in the 1870s and 1880s, as did too other Europeans (Spain, Malta) seeking opportunity. Algeria ( ar [[Arabic]] الجزائر, Al Jaza'ir ælʤæˈzæːʔir Amazigh: ⴷⵥⴰⵢⴻⵔ Dzayer) officially the People's In 1889, non-French Europeans in Algeria were granted French citizenship (Arabs would however only win political rights in 1947).
Unlike other European countries, France did not experience a strong population growth in the mid and late 19th century and first half of the 20th century (see Demographics of France). As of January 1, 2008, 64473140 people live in the French Republic. This would be compounded by the massive French losses of World War I — roughly estimated at 1. 4 million French dead including civilians (see World War I casualties) (or nearly 10% of the active adult male population) and four times as many wounded (see World War I Aftermath). The number of World War I casualties, both World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All
Language
Linguistically, France was a patchwork. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people French is a Romance language (meaning that it is descended from Latin) that evolved out of the Gallo-Romance Dialects spoken in Northern In 1792, perhaps 50% of the French population did not speak or understand French. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people The southern half of the country continued to speak one of the Occitan languages (such as Provençal) and other inhabitants spoke Breton, Catalan, Basque, Dutch (West Flemish), Franco-provençal, Alsatian and Corsican. Occitan ( IPA BrE: /ˈɒksɪtn/ AmE: /ˈɑksəˌtɑn/ known also as Lenga d'òc or Langue d'oc (native name occitan Provençal ( Provençau) is one of several dialects of Occitan spoken by a minority of people mostly in Provence (in southern France The Breton language ( Brezhoneg) formerly often called Armoric or Armorican, is a Celtic language spoken by some of the inhabitants of Brittany Catalan ˈkætəˌlæn ( català kətəˈla or) is a Romance language, the national and official language of Andorra, and a co-official Basque ( native name: euskara) is the Language spoken by the Basque people who inhabit the Pyrenees in North-Central Spain Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname West Flemish (West Flemish Vlaemsch/Vlaams, Dutch: West-Vlaams, French: Flamand occidental) is a group of Dutch dialects spoken in Franco-Provençal ( Francoprovençal) or Arpitan ( Vernacular: frp francoprovençâl arpitan patouès; francoprovenzale arpitano dialetto Alsatian ( Elsässerditsch; Alsacien Elsässisch or Elsässerdeutsch) is a Low Alemannic German dialect spoken in most of Alsace, a region Corsican ( Corsu or Lingua Corsa) is a Romance language spoken and written on the islands of Corsica ( France) and northern Sardinia In the north of France, regional dialects of the various langues d'oïl continued to be spoken in rural communities. Langues d'oïl is the linguistic and historical designation of the Gallo-Romance languages originating from the northern territories of Roman Gaul, France would only become a linguistically unified country by the end of the 19th century, and in particular through the educational policies of Jules Ferry during the French Third Republic. Jules François Camille Ferry (5 April 1832 17 March 1893 was a French statesman and ardent imperialist Early life Born in Saint-Dié, The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe From an illiteracy rate of 33% among peasants in 1870, by 1914 almost all French could read and understand the national language, although 50% continued to understand or speak a regional language of France (in today's France, only an estimated 10% still understand a regional language). There are a number of languages of France. The French language is by far the most widely spoken and the only Official language of France, but several A regional language is a Language spoken in an area of a Nation state, whether it be a small area a federal State or Province, or
Identity
Through the educational, social and military policies of the Third Republic, by 1914 the French had been converted (as the historian Eugen Weber has put it) from a "country of peasants into a nation of Frenchmen". Eugen Joseph Weber ( April 24, 1925, Bucharest - May 17, 2007, Brentwood Los Angeles California) was a prominent By 1914, most French could read French and regional languages had been greatly suppressed; the role of the Catholic church in public life had been radically altered; a sense of national identity and glory was actively taught. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people There are a number of languages of France. The French language is by far the most widely spoken and the only Official language of France, but several The anti-clericalism of the Third Republic profoundly changed French religious habits: in one case study for the city of Limoges comparing the years 1899 with 1914, it was found that baptisms decreased from 98% to 60%, and civil marriages before a town official increased from 14% to 60%. Limoges ( Lemòtges / Limòtges in the Limousin dialect of Occitan language) is a city and commune in France, the préfecture Yet, the eradication of regionalisms and the anti-clerical nature of the Third Republic would create a backlash in the second half of the century.
History
French Revolution (1789–1792)
The reign of Louis XVI (1774-1792) saw a temporary revival of French fortunes, but the over-ambitious projects and military campaigns of the 18th century had produced chronic financial problems. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Louis XVI ( 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) Louis-Auguste de France, ruled as King of France and Navarre Year 1774 ( MDCCLXXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Deteriorating economic conditions, popular resentment against the complicated system of privileges granted the nobility and clerics, and a lack of alternate avenues for change were among the principal causes for convoking the Estates-General which convened in Versailles in 1789. In France under the Ancien Regime, the States-General or Estates-General (French états généraux) was a Legislative assembly Versailles (vɛʀsaj in French) formerly de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common On 28 May 1789 the Abbé Sieyès moved that the Third Estate proceed with verification of its own powers and invite the other two estates to take part, but not to wait for them. Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Estates of the realm were the broad divisions of society usually distinguishing Nobility, Clergy, and Commoners recognized in the Middle Ages They proceeded to do so, and then voted a measure far more radical, declaring themselves the National Assembly, an assembly not of the Estates but of "the People". The National Assembly of France is the lower legislative house under the French Fifth Republic.
Louis XVI shut the Salle des États where the Assembly met. The Assembly moved their deliberations to the king's tennis court, where they proceeded to swear the Tennis Court Oath (20 June 1789), under which they agreed not to separate until they had given France a constitution. The Tennis Court Oath (serment du jeu de paume was a pivotal event during the French Revolution. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun. Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity A majority of the representatives of the clergy soon joined them, as did forty-seven members of the nobility. By 27 June the royal party had overtly given in, although the military began to arrive in large numbers around Paris and Versailles. Events 1358 - Republic of Dubrovnik is founded 1709 - Peter the Great defeats Charles XII of Sweden On 9 July the Assembly reconstituted itself as the National Constituent Assembly. Events 455 - Roman military commander Avitus is proclaimed Emperor of the Western Roman Empire. The National Constituent Assembly (Assemblée nationale constituante was formed from the National Assembly on 9 July 1789, during the first stages of the
On 11 July 1789 King Louis, acting under the influence of the conservative nobles, as well as his wife, Marie Antoinette, and brother, the Comte d'Artois, banished the reformist minister Necker and completely reconstructed the ministry. Events 911 - Signing of the Treaty of Saint-Clair-sur-Epte between Charles the Simple and Rollo of Normandy. Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Maria Antonia Josepha Johanna von Habsburg-Lothringen (November 2 1755 &ndash October 16 1793 known to history as Marie Antoinette ( pronounced /maʀi ɑ̃ntwanɛt/ Charles X (9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836 ruled as King of France and Navarre from 20 May 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated Jacques Necker ( September 30, 1732 &ndash April 9, 1804) was a French statesman of Swiss origin and finance Much of Paris, presuming this to be the start of a royal coup, moved into open rebellion. Some of the military joined the mob; others remained neutral. On 14 July 1789, after four hours of combat, the insurgents seized the Bastille fortress, killing the governor and several of his guards. Events 1223 - Louis VIII becomes King of France upon the death of his father Philip II of France. Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Bastille was a Fortress - Prison in Paris, known formally as Bastille Saint-Antoine —Number 232 Rue Saint-Antoine—best known today Fortifications are Military Constructions and Buildings designed for defense in Warfare Humans have constructed defensive works for The king and his military supporters backed down, at least for the time being. After this violence, nobles started to flee the country as émigrés, some of whom began plotting civil war within the kingdom and agitating for a European coalition against France. Émigré is a French term that literally refers to a person who has "migrated out" but often carries a connotation of politico-social self- Exile. Insurrection and the spirit of popular sovereignty spread throughout France. Popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the belief that the legitimacy of the State is created by the will or consent of its people, who In rural areas, many went beyond this: some burned title-deeds and no small number of châteaux, as part of a general agrarian insurrection known as "la Grande Peur" (the Great Fear). For other senses of this word see Château (disambiguation. A château (plural châteaux) is a Manor house or residence
On 4 August 1789, the National Assembly abolished feudalism, sweeping away both the seigneurial rights of the Second Estate and the tithes gathered by the First Estate. Events 70 - The Destruction of the Second Temple in Jerusalem by the Romans. Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed A tithe (from Old English teogoþa "tenth" is a one-tenth part of something paid as a (usually voluntary contribution or as a Tax or levy In the course of a few hours, nobles, clergy, towns, provinces, companies, and cities lost their special privileges. The revolution also brought about a massive shifting of powers from the Roman Catholic Church to the State. Legislation enacted in 1790 abolished the Church's authority to levy a tax on crops known as the "dîme", cancelled special privileges for the clergy, and confiscated Church property: under the Ancien Régime, the Church had been the largest landowner in the country. Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year A tithe (from Old English teogoþa "tenth" is a one-tenth part of something paid as a (usually voluntary contribution or as a Tax or levy Further legislation abolished monastic vows. Religious vows are the public Vows made by the members of the religious life – cenobitic and eremitic – of the Roman Catholic, The Civil Constitution of the Clergy, passed on 12 July 1790, turned the remaining clergy into employees of the State and required that they take an oath of loyalty to the constitution. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy ( "Constitution civile du clergé") was a law passed on July 12, 1790 during the French Revolution Events 1191 - Saladin 's garrison surrenders ending the two-year Siege of Acre. Year 1790 ( MDCCXC) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common year The Civil Constitution of the Clergy also made the Catholic Church an arm of the secular state. The Civil Constitution of the Clergy ( "Constitution civile du clergé") was a law passed on July 12, 1790 during the French Revolution
Looking to the United States Declaration of Independence for a model, on 26 August 1789 the Assembly published the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The United States Declaration of Independence is a statement adopted by the Continental Congress on July 4 1776 announcing that the thirteen American colonies then Events 1071 - Battle of Manzikert: The Seljuk Turks defeat the Byzantine Army at Manzikert. Year 1789 ( MDCCLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen (Déclaration des droits de l'Homme et du citoyen is a fundamental document of the French Revolution, defining Like the U. S. Declaration, it comprised a statement of principles rather than a constitution with legal effect. A constitution is a system for government often Codified as a written document that establishes the rules and principles of an autonomous political entity The Assembly replaced the historic provinces with eighty-three départements, uniformly administered and approximately equal to one another in extent and population; it also abolished the symbolic paraphernalia of the Ancien Régime — armorial bearings, liveries, etc. The Kingdom of France was organised into Provinces until March 4, 1790, when the establishment of the département In the context of the political and geographic organization of France and many of its former colonies a department (département depaʁtǝmɑ̃ is an Administrative division — which further alienated the more conservative nobles, and added to the ranks of the émigrés. Émigré is a French term that literally refers to a person who has "migrated out" but often carries a connotation of politico-social self- Exile.
Louis XVI opposed the course of the revolution and on the night of 20 June 1791 the royal family fled the Tuileries. Events 451 - Battle of Chalons: Flavius Aetius ' defeats Attila the Hun. Year 1791 ( MDCCXCI) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common However, the king was recognised at Varennes in the Meuse late on 21 June and he and his family were brought back to Paris under guard. For other uses of the term Varennes see Varennes (disambiguation. Meuse (møːz is a department in northeast France, named after the Meuse River. Events 524 - Godomar, King of the Burgundians defeats the Franks at the Battle of Vézeronce. With most of the Assembly still favouring a constitutional monarchy rather than a republic, the various groupings reached a compromise which left Louis XVI little more than a figurehead: he had perforce to swear an oath to the constitution, and a decree declared that retracting the oath, heading an army for the purpose of making war upon the nation, or permitting anyone to do so in his name would amount to de facto abdication. A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is A republic is a State or Country that is not led by a hereditary Monarch, but in which the people (or at least a part of its people have impact on its
Meanwhile, a renewed threat from abroad arose: Leopold II, Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick William II of Prussia, and the king's brother Charles-Phillipe, comte d'Artois issued the Declaration of Pilnitz which considered the cause of Louis XVI as their own, demanded his total liberty and the dissolution of the Assembly, and promised an invasion of France on his behalf if the revolutionary authorities refused its conditions. Leopold II (May 5 1747 March 1 1792 born Peter Leopold Joseph Anton Joachim Pius Gotthard, was Holy Roman Emperor from 1790 to 1792 and Grand Duke Frederick William II (Friedrich Wilhelm II September 25 1744 &ndash November 16 1797) was the fourth King of Prussia, reigning from Charles X (9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836 ruled as King of France and Navarre from 20 May 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated The Declaration of Pillnitz on August 27, 1791, was a statement issued at the Castle of Pillnitz in Saxony (south of Dresden) by the The politics of the period inevitably drove France towards war with Austria and its allies. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich France declared war on Austria (20 April 1792) and Prussia joined on the Austrian side a few weeks later. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Events 1303 - The University of Rome La Sapienza is instituted by Pope Boniface VIII. Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The French Revolutionary Wars had begun. The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1792 until 1802 fought between the French Revolutionary government and several European states
First Republic (1792–1799)
In the Brunswick Manifesto, the Imperial and Prussian armies threatened retaliation on the French population should it resist their advance or the reinstatement of the monarchy. The Brunswick Manifesto was a proclamation issued by Charles William Ferdinand Duke of Brunswick, commander of the Allied Army (principally Austrian and Prussian on 25 As a consequence, King Louis was seen as conspiring with the enemies of France.
On 10 August 1792 in France the King Louis XVI was arrested. Louis XVI ( 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) Louis-Auguste de France, ruled as King of France and Navarre After the first great victory of the French revolutionary troops at the battle of Valmy on 20 September 1792 the First Republic was proclaimed the day after on 21 September 1792. The Battle of Valmy, also known as the Cannonade of Valmy, was a tactically indecisive artillery engagement but strategically it ensured the survival of the French Events 451 - The Battle of Chalons takes place in North Eastern France. Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The First Republic in France, officially the French Republic (République française was proclaimed on 21 September 1792 during the French Revolution. Events 1217 - The Estonian tribal leader Lembitu of Lehola was killed in a battle against Teutonic Knights. Year 1792 ( MDCCXCII) was a Leap year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year
17 January 1793 saw King Louis condemned to death for "conspiracy against the public liberty and the general safety" by a weak majority in Convention. Events 38 BC - Octavian marries Livia Drusilla. 1287 - King Alfonso III of Aragon invades Minorca Year 1793 ( MDCCXCIII) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The 21 January execution led to more wars with other European countries. Events 1189 - Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade. Louis' Austrian-born queen, Marie Antoinette, would follow him to the guillotine on 16 October. Events 456 - Magister militum Ricimer defeats the Emperor Avitus at Piacenza and becomes master of the western
When war went badly, prices rose and the sans-culottes (poor labourers and radical Jacobins) rioted; counter-revolutionary activities began in some regions. Sans-culottes ( French for "without Knee-breeches " was a term created around 1790 - 1792 by the French Aristocracy to describe the This encouraged the Jacobins to seize power through a parliamentary coup, backed up by force effected by mobilising public support against the Girondist faction, and by utilising the mob power of the Parisian sans-culottes. An alliance of Jacobin and sans-culottes elements thus became the effective centre of the new government. Policy became considerably more radical.
The Committee of Public Safety came under the control of Maximilien Robespierre, and the Jacobins unleashed the Reign of Terror (1793–1794). The Committee of Public Safety (Comité de salut public le Haut Comité de la santé publique which is an entirely unrelated present-day institution--> set up by the Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (maksimiljɛ̃ fʁɑ̃swa maʁi izidɔʁ də ʁɔbɛspjɛʁ ( 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) Saint justjpg|thumbnail|200px| Louis Antoine Léon de Saint-Just]] The Reign of Terror' (5 September 1793 &ndash 28 July 1794 or simply The Terror (la Terreur was Year 1794 ( MDCCXCIV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a At least 1200 people met their deaths under the guillotine — or otherwise — after accusations of counter-revolutionary activities. The guillotine ( pronounced /ˈgijətin/ or /ˈgɪlətin/ in English in French was a device used for carrying out executions by Decapitation. In 1794 Robespierre had ultra-radicals and moderate Jacobins executed; in consequence, however, his own popular support eroded markedly. Maximilien François Marie Isidore de Robespierre (maksimiljɛ̃ fʁɑ̃swa maʁi izidɔʁ də ʁɔbɛspjɛʁ ( 6 May 1758 – 28 July 1794) On 27 July 1794 the French people revolted against the excesses of the Reign of Terror in what became known as the Thermidorian Reaction. Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Year 1794 ( MDCCXCIV) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a The Thermidorian Reaction was a revolt in the French Revolution against the excesses of the Reign of Terror. It resulted in moderate Convention members deposing and executing Robespierre and several other leading members of the Committee of Public Safety. The Convention approved the new "Constitution of the Year III" on 17 August 1795; a plebiscite ratified it in September; and it took effect on 26 September 1795. Events 986 - A Byzantine army was destroyed in the pass of Trajan's Gate by the Bulgarians under the Comitopuli Year 1795 ( MDCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a A referendum (plural referendums or referenda) ballot question, or plebiscite (from Latin plebiscita Events 46 BC - Julius Caesar dedicates a Year 1795 ( MDCCXCV) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a
The new constitution installed the Directoire and created the first bicameral legislature in French history. The Executive Directory ( Directoire exécutif) was a body of 5 single-male Directors that held executive power in France following In Government, bicameralism (bi + Latin la ''camera'' chamber is the practice of having two legislative or Parliamentary chambers Thus a bicameral On 9 November 1799 (18 Brumaire of the Year VIII) Napoléon Bonaparte staged the coup which installed the Consulate; this effectively led to his dictatorship. Events 694 - Egica, a king of the Visigoths of Hispania, accuses Jews of aiding Muslims sentencing all Year 1799 ( MDCCXCIX) was a Common year starting on Tuesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a 18 Brumaire, the coup of 18 Brumaire or sometimes simply Brumaire refers to the Coup d'état by which General Napoleon Bonaparte overthrew Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the
First Empire (1804–1814)
In 1799, Napoléon Bonaparte, a brilliant military general who had participated in the French Revolutionary Wars of 1796, 1797 and 1798, seized power as First Consul, and in 1802 he was made First Consul for life. The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The French Revolutionary Wars were a series of major conflicts from 1792 until 1802 fought between the French Revolutionary government and several European states The French Revolutionary Wars continued from 1795, with the French in an increasingly strong position as members of the First Coalition made separate peaces The French Revolutionary Wars continued from 1796, with France fighting the First Coalition. 1798 was a relatively quiet period in the French Revolutionary Wars. The Consulate was the government of France between the fall of the Directory in the coup of 18 Brumaire in 1799 until the start of the Bonaparte attracted more power and gravitated towards imperial status, gathering support on the way for his internal rebuilding of France and its institutions. He gradually dampened opposition using exile, systematic bureaucratic oppression, and constitutional means, and in 1804, the Senate granted him the title of emperor. The French Empire (or the Napoleonic Empire) (1804–1814) was marked by the French domination and reorganization of continental Europe (the Napoleonic Wars) and by the final codification of the republican legal system (the Napoleonic Code). The Empire of the French (1804-1814 also known as the Empire of France, Greater French Empire, First French Empire, French Empire, or The Napoleonic Wars (1803-1815 involved Napoleon's French Empire and a shifting set of European allies and opposing coalitions The Napoleonic Code, or Code Napoléon (originally called the Code civil des Français) is the French Civil code, established under
By 1804, Britain alone stood outside French control and was an important force in encouraging and financing resistance to France. Napoleon lacked the resources to attempt an invasion of Britain or to defeat the Royal Navy at sea, and his one attempt to do so ended with defeat at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805. The Battle of Trafalgar ( 21 October 1805) was a historic sea battle fought between the British Royal Navy and the combined fleets of the Napoleon resorted instead to economic warfare and instituted an embargo (the Continental System), forbidding his allies and conquests from trading with the British. In international Commerce and politics, an embargo is the prohibition of commerce The Continental System was the Foreign policy of Napoleon I of France in his struggle against the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland during the
Portugal was the only European country that openly refused to join the Continental system. Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic (República Portuguesa is a country on the Iberian Peninsula. After the Treaties of Tilsit of July 1807, Napoleon attempted to capture the Portuguese Fleet and the House of Braganza, occupy the Portuguese ports and expel the British from Portuguese soil, and failed. The Treaties of Tilsit were two agreements signed by Napoleon I of France in the aftermath of his victory at Friedland in the town of Tilsit King John VI of Portugal took his fleet and fled to Brazil with a Royal Navy escort. John VI (13 May 1767 &ndash 10 March 1826 ( Portuguese João, ʒʊˈɐ̃ũ the Clement ( Port |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld The Portuguese population rose in revolt against the French invaders, the Duke of Wellington's British Army intervened and the Peninsular War began in 1808. Field Marshal Arthur Wellesley 1st Duke of Wellington, KG, KP, GCB, GCH, PC, FRS ( c The Peninsular War or Spanish War of Independence pitted an alliance of Spain, the United Kingdom, and Portugal against France
Ultimately the embargo failed. Its effect on Great Britain and on British trade is uncertain, but the embargo is thought to have been more harmful on the continental European states. Russia in particular chafed under the embargo, and in 1812, that country reopened trade with Britain, provoking Napoleon's invasion of Russia. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Year 1812 ( MDCCCXII) a leap year started on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year The French invasion of Russia in 1812 was a turning point in the Napoleonic Wars. The disaster of the march on Moscow would lead to Napoleon's defeat at the Battle of Nations in 1813 and his abdication in 1814. The Battle of the Nations (or Battle of Leipzig or Völkerschlacht bei Leipzig) on 16–19 October 1813 was one of the most decisive defeats suffered by Napoleon Year 1813 ( MDCCCXIII) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common
After an initial forced exile on the island of Elba, Napoleon briefly returned to power (the Hundred Days of 1815), but the imperial dream was finally crushed by the defeat of Waterloo and Napoleon was definitively exiled to the island of Saint Helena in the south Atlantic. Elba (Ilva is an island in Tuscany, Italy, from the coastal town of Piombino. The Hundred Days was the period between Napoleon Bonaparte 's return from exile on Elba to Paris on 20 March 1815 and the restoration In the Battle of Waterloo (Sunday 18 June 1815 near Waterloo Belgium Saint Helena (pronounced saint he-LEE-na) named after St Helena of Constantinople, is an island of volcanic origin and a British overseas territory
Restoration (1814–1830)
Following the ouster of Napoléon Bonaparte in 1814, the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne. Following the ousting of Napoleon I of France in 1814 the Allies restored the Bourbon Dynasty to the French throne Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. The ensuing period is called in French "The Restoration" and is characterized by a sharp conservative reaction and the re-establishment of the Roman Catholic Church as a power in French politics. Louis XVIII, brother of the deposed Louis XVI, ruled from 1814–1824 and was succeeded by his brother Charles X in 1824. Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. Louis XVI ( 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) Louis-Auguste de France, ruled as King of France and Navarre Year 1814 ( MDCCCXIV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Year 1824 ( MDCCCXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year Charles X (9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836 ruled as King of France and Navarre from 20 May 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated Year 1824 ( MDCCCXXIV) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian Calendar (or a Leap year
Despite the return of the House of Bourbon to power, France was much changed from the era of the Ancien Régime. Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in The egalitarianism and liberalism of the revolutionaries remained an important force and the autocracy and hierarchy of the earlier era could not be fully restored. The economic changes, which had been underway long before the revolution, had been further enhanced during the years of turmoil and were firmly entrenched by 1815. These changes had seen power shift from the noble landowners to the urban merchants. The administrative reforms of Napoleon, such as the Napoleonic Code and efficient bureaucracy, also remained in place. The Napoleonic Code, or Code Napoléon (originally called the Code civil des Français) is the French Civil code, established under These changes produced a unified central government that was fiscally sound and had much control over all areas of French life, a sharp difference from the situation the Bourbons had faced before the Revolution.
Louis XVIII, for the most part, accepted that much had changed. Louis XVIII (17 November 1755 – 16 September 1824 Louis Stanislas Xavier de France, was a King of France and Navarre. However, he was pushed on his right by the Ultra-royalists, led by the comte de Villèle, who condemned the Doctrinaires' attempt to reconcile the Revolution with the monarchy through a constitutional monarchy. In Politics, right-wing, the political right, and the Right are positions that uphold traditional values and/or authorities The term Ultra-Royalists or simply Ultras refers to a Reactionary faction which sat in the French parliament from 1815 Jean-Baptiste Guillaume Joseph Marie Anne Séraphin comte de Villèle (14 April 1773 - 13 March 1854 was a French statesman Doctrinaires was the name given during the Bourbon Restoration (1814-1830 to the little group of French Royalists who hoped to reconcile the A constitutional monarchy, or a limited monarchy, is a form of Constitutional Government, wherein either an elected or hereditary Monarch is Instead, the Chambre introuvable elected in 1815 banished all Conventionnels who had voted Louis XVI's death and passed similar reactionary laws. La Chambre introuvable ( French for "Unobtainable Chamber" was the first Chamber of Deputies after the Second Bourbon Restoration (1815-1830 During the French Revolution, the National Convention or Convention, in France, comprised the Constitutional and legislative assembly Reactionary (also reactionist) is a derogatory term usually used by the Left wing in regards to movements which oppose radical change in society and seeks a return Louis XVIII was forced to dissolve this Chamber, dominated by the Ultras, in 1816, fearing a popular uprising. The liberals thus governed until the 1820 assassination of the duc de Berry, brother of the king and known supporter of the Ultras, which brought Villèle's ultras back to power (vote of the Anti-Sacrilege Act in 1825, and of the loi sur le milliard des émigrés, Act on the émigrés' billions). Charles Ferdinand duc de Berry ( Charles Ferdinand d'Artois; January 24, 1778 – February 14, 1820) was the younger son of Charles The Anti-Sacrilege Act (1825&ndash1830 was a French law against Blasphemy and Sacrilege passed in January 1825 under King Charles Charles X of France, however, took a far more conservative line. Charles X (9 October 1757 – 6 November 1836 ruled as King of France and Navarre from 20 May 1824 until the French Revolution of 1830, when he abdicated He attempted to compensate the aristocrats for what they had lost in the revolution, curbed the freedom of the press, and reasserted the power of the Church. In 1830 the discontent caused by these changes and Charles X' authoritarian nomination of the Ultra prince de Polignac as minister culminated in an uprising in the streets of Paris, known as the 1830 July Revolution (or, in French, "Les trois Glorieuses" - The three Glorious days - of 27, 28 and 29 July). For the game see 1830 (board game. Year 1830 ( MDCCCXXX) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display Jules Auguste Armand Marie Prince de Polignac ( Versailles, 14 May 1780 Paris, 2 March 1847 was a French Statesman. The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, saw the overthrow of King Charles X, the French Events 1214 - Battle of Bouvines: In France, Philip II of France defeats John of England. Events 1540 - Thomas Cromwell is executed at the order of Henry VIII of England on charges of Treason. Events 1014 - Byzantine-Bulgarian Wars: Battle of Kleidion: Byzantine emperor Basil II inflicts a decisive defeat Charles was forced to flee and Louis-Philippe d'Orléans, a member of the Orléans branch of the family, and son of Philippe Égalité who had voted the death of his cousin Louis XVI, ascended the throne. Louis Philippe ( 6 October 1773 &ndash 26 August 1850) was King of the French from 1830 to 1848 in what was known as the Orléans is the name used by several branches of the Royal House of France all descended in the legitimate male line from the dynasty's royal founder Hugh Capet Louis-Philippe ruled, not as "King of France" but as "King of the French" (an evocative difference for contemporaries).
July Monarchy (1830–1848)
The July Monarchy (1830-1848) is generally seen as a period during which the haute bourgeoisie was dominant, and marked the shift from the counter-revolutionaries Legitimists to the Orleanists, who were willing to make some compromises with the changes brought by the 1789 Revolution. The July Monarchy (1830-1848 was a period of liberal monarchy rule of France under Louis-Philippe The July Monarchy (1830-1848 was a period of liberal monarchy rule of France under Louis-Philippe A counter-revolutionary is anyone who opposes a Revolution, particularly those who act after a revolution to try to overturn or reverse it in full or in part Legitimists are Royalists in France who believe that the King of France and Navarre must be chosen according to the simple application of the The Orléanists were a French Right-wing / Center-right Political faction or party which arose out of the French Revolution The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an Louis-Philippe was crowned “King of the French,” instead of "King of France": this marked his acceptance of popular sovereignty, which replaced the Ancien Régime 's divine right. Popular Monarchy is a system of monarchical governance in which the monarch's title is linked with the people rather than a unitary state Popular sovereignty or the sovereignty of the people is the belief that the legitimacy of the State is created by the will or consent of its people, who Ancien Régime ( pronounced: /ɑ̃sjɛ̃ ʁeʒim/ refers primarily to the aristocratic social and political system established in The Divine Right of Kings is a general term that refers to the philosophy and ideas used to justify the authority and legitimacy of Monarchs in Medieval and Louis-Philippe clearly understood his base of power: the wealthy bourgeoisie had carried him aloft during the July Revolution through their work in the Parliament, and throughout his reign, he kept their interests in mind. The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution, saw the overthrow of King Charles X, the French This article is for the post-Revolutionary and present-day institution
Louis-Philippe, who had flirted with liberalism in his youth, rejected much of the pomp and circumstance of the Bourbons and surrounded himself with merchants and bankers. Liberalism and radicalism in France do not form the same type of ideology The House of Bourbon is an important European Royal house, a branch of the Capetian dynasty. The July Monarchy, however, remained a time of turmoil. A large group of Legitimists on the right demanded the restoration of the Bourbons to the throne. Legitimists are Royalists in France who believe that the King of France and Navarre must be chosen according to the simple application of the In Politics, right-wing, the political right, and the Right are positions that uphold traditional values and/or authorities On the left, Republicanism and, later Socialism, remained a powerful force. Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Late in his reign Louis-Philippe became increasingly rigid and dogmatic and his President of the Council, François Guizot, had become deeply unpopular, but Louis-Philippe refused to remove him. The Prime Minister of France ( Premier ministre français) in Fifth Republic is the functional Head of the government and Council of Ministers François Pierre Guillaume Guizot (4 October 1787 -12 September 1874 was a French Historian, Orator, and Statesman. The situation gradually escalated until the Revolutions of 1848 saw the fall of the monarchy and the creation of the Second Republic. The February 1848 Revolution in France ended the reign of King Louis-Philippe, and led to the creation of the French Second Republic (1848-1852 History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs
However, during the first several years of his regime, Louis-Philippe appeared to move his government toward legitimate, broad-based reform. The government found its source of legitimacy within the Charter of 1830, written by reform-minded members of Chamber of Deputies upon a platform of religious equality, the empowerment of the citizenry through the reestablishment of the National Guard, electoral reform, the reformation of the peerage system, and the lessening of royal authority. The Charter of 1830 (Charte de 1830 instigated the July Monarchy in France. Chamber of Deputies (la Chambre des députés was the name given to several parliamentary bodies in France in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries 1814–1848 The National Guard ( la Garde nationale) was the name given at the time of the French Revolution to the Militias formed in each city in imitation of Peerage of France (Pairie de France was a distinction within the French nobility which appeared in the Middle Ages. And indeed, Louis-Phillipe and his ministers adhered to policies that seemed to promote the central tenets of the constitution. However, the majority of these policies were veiled attempts to shore up the power and influence of the government and the bourgeoisie, rather than legitimate attempts to promote equality and empowerment for a broad constituency of the French population. Thus, though the July Monarchy seemed to move toward reform, this movement was largely illusory.
During the years of the July Monarchy, enfranchisement roughly doubled, from 94,000 under Charles X to more than 200,000 by 1848. Suffrage (from the Latin suffragium, meaning "voting tablet" and figuratively "right to vote" probably from suffrago "hough" and originally However, this represented only roughly one percent of population, and as the requirements for voting were tax-based, only the wealthiest gained the privilege. Suffrage (from the Latin suffragium, meaning "voting tablet" and figuratively "right to vote" probably from suffrago "hough" and originally By implication, the enlarged enfranchisement tended to favor the wealthy merchant bourgeoisie more than any other group. Beyond simply increasing their presence within the Chamber of Deputies, this electoral enlargement provided the bourgeoisie the means by which to challenge the nobility in legislative matters. Chamber of Deputies (la Chambre des députés was the name given to several parliamentary bodies in France in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries 1814–1848 Thus, while appearing to honor his pledge to increase suffrage, Louis-Philippe acted primarily to empower his supporters and increase his hold over the French Parliament. The inclusion of only the wealthiest also tended to undermine any possibility of the growth of a radical faction in Parliament, effectively serving socially conservative ends.
The reformed Charter of 1830 limited the power of the King – stripping him of his ability to propose and decree legislation, as well as limiting his executive authority. However, the King of the French still believed in a version of monarchy that held the king as much more than a figurehead for an elected Parliament, and as such, he was deeply involved in legislative affairs. One of the first acts of Louis-Philippe in constructing his cabinet was to appoint the rather conservative Casimir Perier as the premier of that body. Perier, a banker, was instrumental in shutting down many of the Republican secret societies and labor unions that had formed during the early years of the regime. A trade union or labour union is an organization of workers who have banded together to achieve common goals in key areas such as wages hours and working conditions forming In addition, he oversaw the dismemberment of the National Guard after it proved too supportive of radical ideologies. He performed all of these actions, of course, with royal approval. He was once quoted as saying that the source of French misery was the belief that there had been a revolution. “No Monsieur,” he said to another minister, “there has not been a revolution: there is simply a change at the head of state. ”
Further expressions of this conservative trend came under the supervision of Perier and the then Minister of the Interior, Francois Guizot. François Pierre Guillaume Guizot (4 October 1787 -12 September 1874 was a French Historian, Orator, and Statesman. The regime acknowledged early on that radicalism and republicanism threatened it, undermining its laissez-faire policies. For opposition to all forms of government social hierarchy or authority see Anarchism. Thus, the Monarchy declared the very term republican illegal in 1834. Guizot shut down republican clubs and disbanded republican publications. Republicans within the cabinet, like the banker Dupont, were all but excluded by Perier and his conservative clique. Distrusting the sole National Guard, Louis-Philippe increased the size of the army and reformed it in order to ensure its loyalty to the government. The French Army, officially the Armée de Terre (Land Army is the land-based component of the French Armed Forces and its largest
Though two factions always persisted in the cabinet, split between liberal conservatives like Guizot (le parti de la Résistance, the Party of Resistance) and liberal reformers like the aforementioned journalist Adolphe Thiers (le parti du Mouvement, the Party of Movement), the latter never gained prominence. Louis-Adolphe fr Thiers ( Marseille, 16 April 1797&ndash3 September 1877 was a French politician and Historian. After Perier came count Molé, another conservative. Louis Mathieu comte Molé (24 January 1781 - 23 November 1855 was a French Statesman Biography Molé was born in Paris. After Molé came Thiers, a reformer later sacked by Louis-Philippe after attempting to pursue an aggressive foreign policy. After Thiers came the conservative Guizot. In particular, the Guizot administration was marked by increasingly authoritarian crackdowns on republicanism and dissent, and an increasingly pro-business laissez-faire policy. Authoritarianism describes a Form of government characterized by an emphasis on the Authority of the State in a republic or union This policy included protective tariffs that defended the status quo and enriched French businessmen. For other uses of this word see Tariff (disambiguation. A tariff is a tax imposed on goods when they are moved across a political boundary Guizot’s government granted railway and mining contracts to the bourgeois supporters of the government, and even contributing some of the start-up costs. "Railroad" and "Railway" both redirect here For other uses see Railroad (disambiguation. As workers under these policies had no legal right to assemble, unionize, or petition the government for increased pay or decreased hours, the July Monarchy under Perier, Molé, and Guizot generally proved detrimental to the lower classes. In fact, Guizot’s advice to those who were disenfranchised by the tax-based electoral requirements was a simple “enrichissez-vous” – enrich yourself.
Revolution of 1848
The Revolution of 1848 had major consequences for all of Europe: popular democratic revolts against authoritarian regimes broke out in Austria and Hungary, in the German Confederation and Prussia, and in the Italian States of Milan, Venice, Turin and Rome. The European Revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the Spring of Nations or the Year of Revolution, were a series of political upheavals throughout the European Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic The German Confederation (Deutscher Bund was the association of Central European states created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 to serve as the successor to Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state Milan (Milano Milan (listen) is one of the largest cities in Italy, located in the plains of Lombardy. Venice ( Italian: Venezia, Venetian: Venesia or Venexia) is a city in Northern Italy, the capital of the Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2
The revolution in France had brought together classes of wildly different interests: the bourgeoisie desired electoral reforms (a democratic republic), socialist leaders (like Louis Blanc, Pierre Joseph Proudhon and the radical Auguste Blanqui) asked for a "right to work" and the creation of national workshops (a social welfare republic) and for France to liberate the oppressed peoples of Europe (Poles and Italians), while moderates (like the aristocrat Alphonse de Lamartine) sought a middle ground. Louis Jean Joseph Charles Blanc ( October 29, 1811 &ndash December 6, 1882) was a French Politician and Historian Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (ˈpruːd ɒn in British English, dɔ̃ in French) ( 15 January 1809 – 19 January 1865) was Louis Auguste Blanqui (born February 8, 1805 in Puget-Théniers, France, died January 1, 1881) was a French Alphonse Marie Louis de Prat de Lamartine (Alphonse-Marie-Louis de Prat de Lamartine ( October 21, 1790 - February 28, 1869) was a French Tensions between groups escalated, and in June 1848, a working class insurrection in Paris cost the lives of 1500 workers and eliminated once and for all the dream of a social welfare constitution.
Second Republic (1848–1852)
The constitution of the Second Republic which was ratified in September 1848 was extremely flawed and permitted no effective resolution between the President and the Assembly in case of dispute. History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs In December 1848, a nephew of Napoléon Bonaparte, Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte, was elected as President of the Republic, and pretexting legislative gridlock, in 1851, he staged a coup d'état. Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President Finally, in 1852 he had himself declared Emperor Napoléon III of the Second Empire. Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second
Second Empire (1852–1870)
France was ruled by Emperor Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870. The Second French Empire or Second Empire was the Imperial Bonapartist regime of Napoleon III from 1852 to 1870 between the Second Napoléon III, also known as Louis-Napoléon Bonaparte (full name Charles Louis Napoléon Bonaparte) (20 April 1808 9 January 1873 was the first President The regime appeared to be excessively authoritarian at first, but soon emerged as a period of dynamism and prosperity. The era saw great industrialization, urbanization (including the massive rebuilding of Paris by Baron Haussmann) and economic growth, but Napoleon III's foreign policies would be catastrophic. Georges-Eugène Haussmann ( March 27, 1809 &ndash January 11, 1891) who called himself Baron Haussmann, was a French
In 1852, Napoleon declared that "L'Empire, c'est la paix" (The empire is peace). In spite of this, the Second Empire was very militaristic, while the emperor attempted to hide this behind a pacifistic oratory. The overseas empire expanded, and France made gains in Indo-China, West and central Africa, and the South Seas. This was helped by the opening of large central banks in Paris to finance overseas expeditions. The Suez Canal was opened by the Empress Eugénie in 1869 and was the achievement of a Frenchman. The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation Eugenie redirects here For other people called Eugenie see Eugenie (disambiguation Empress The last Empress of the French was born Yet still, Napoleon III's France lagged behind Britain in colonial affairs, and his determination to upstage British control of India and American influence in Mexico resulted in a fiasco.
After participation in the Crimean War, Napoleon intervened in the questions of Italian independence. The Crimean War, also known in Russia as the Eastern War (Восточная война Vostochnaya Vojna) (March 1854–February 1856 was fought He declared his intention of making Italy "free from the Alps to the Adriatic", and with the victories of Montebello, Magenta and Solferino France and Austria signed the Peace of Villafranca in 1859. The Battle of Magenta was fought on June 4, 1859 during the Second Italian War of Independence, resulting in a French-Sardinian victory under The Battle of Solferino was fought on June 24, 1859 and resulted in the victory of the allied French Army under Napoleon III and Sardinian Villafranca is a town and Municipality located in the province and the autonomous community of Navarre, northern Spain. Year 1859 ( MDCCCLIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Austria ceded Lombardy to Napoleon III, who in turn ceded it to Victor Emmanuel; Modena and Tuscany were restored to their respective dukes, and the Romagna to the pope, now president of an Italian federation. Lombardy (Lombardia Latin: Langobardia, Western Lombard: Lumbardìa, Eastern Lombard: Lombardia) is one of the Modena (ˈmɔːdena Mòdna in Modenese dialect is a city and a Comune ( Municipality) on the south side of the Po valley, in the Tuscany (Toscana is a region in Italy. It has an area of 22990 km² and a population of about 3 Romagna is an Italian historical region that approximately corresponds to the south-eastern portion of present-day Emilia-Romagna. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and France received Savoy from Piedmont. For the two French départements of the region of Savoy see Savoie and Haute-Savoie Savoy ( French Napoleon also tried to establish the emperor Maximilian in Mexico, but in 1867 French troops were forced on a humiliating withdrawal before an ultimatum of the United States (see French intervention in Mexico). Maximilian I Emperor of Mexico (Emperador Maximiliano I de México (6 July 1832 – 19 June 1867 (born Ferdinand Maximilian Joseph was a member of Austria The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. The French intervention in Mexico, also known as the Maximilian Affair and The Franco-Mexican War, was an invasion of Mexico by the army of the
Public opinion was becoming a major force as people began to tire of oppressive authoritarianism in the 1860s. Napoleon III, who had expressed some rather woolly liberal ideas prior to his coronation, began to relax censorship, laws on public meetings, and the right to strike. As a result, radicalism grew among industrial workers. Discontent with the Second Empire spread rapidly, as the economy began to experience a downturn. The golden days of the 1850s were over. Napoleon's reckless foreign policy was inciting criticism. To placate the Liberals, in 1870 Napoleon proposed the establishment of a fully parliamentary legislative regime, which won massive support. The French emperor never had the chance to implement this, however - by the end of the year, the Second Empire had ignominiously collapsed.
A protracted conflict with Prussia led to the Franco-Prussian War of 1870. Prussia ( Latin: Borussia, Prutenia; Prūsija Prūsija Prusy Old Prussian: Prūsa) was most recently a historic state The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 By the capitulation of Sedan the Empire lost its major source of support (the army), Paris was left unprotected and emptied of troops, and on 4 September 1870 the republican deputies of Paris at the hôtel de ville constituted a provisional government. The Battle of Sedan was fought during the Franco-Prussian War on 1 September 1870 Events 476 - Romulus Augustus, last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, is deposed when Odoacer proclaims himself Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Empire had fallen, the emperor was a prisoner in Germany, and France now embarked on the era of the Third Republic. The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe
Third Republic (1870–1940), till 1920
The French legislature established the Third Republic which was to last until the military defeat of 1940 (longer than any government in France since the Revolution). The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe Year 1940 ( MCMXL) was a Leap year starting on Monday (link will display the full 1940 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. The birth of the republic saw France occupied by foreign troops, the capital in a popular socialist insurrection — the Paris Commune (which was violently repressed by Adolphe Thiers) — and two provinces (Alsace-Lorraine) annexed to Germany. The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May Alsace-Lorraine (Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen generally Elsass - Lothringen) was a territorial entity created by the German Empire in 1871 Feelings of national guilt and a desire for vengeance ("revanchism") would be major preoccupations of the French throughout the next half century. Revanchism (from French revanche " Revenge " is a term used since the 1870s to describe a political manifestation of the will to reverse territorial
Paris Commune (1871)
The Third Republic was established on 4 September 1870, following the defeat of Napoleon III during the 1870 war against Prussia. Louis-Adolphe fr Thiers ( Marseille, 16 April 1797&ndash3 September 1877 was a French politician and Historian. The Communards were members and supporters of the short-lived 1871 Paris Commune formed in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War and France's defeat Le Père Duchesne ( Old Man Duchesne or Father Duchesne) was an extreme radical newspaper during the French Revolution, edited by Jacques The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May The French Third Republic (in French, La Troisième République, sometimes written as La IIIe Events 476 - Romulus Augustus, last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, is deposed when Odoacer proclaims himself Year 1870 ( MDCCCLXX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the 1870 War ( 19 July, 1870 — 10 May, 1871 However, the constitutional laws of the new republic were established only in February 1875, after the crushing of the revolutionary Paris Commune by Adolphe Thiers. The Paris Commune (La Commune de Paris was a Government that briefly ruled Paris from 18 March (more formally from 26 March) to 28 May Louis-Adolphe fr Thiers ( Marseille, 16 April 1797&ndash3 September 1877 was a French politician and Historian.
The Commune started with the uprising of the Parisian population following the siege of Paris in September 1870, and was in place from 18 March 1871 to 28 May 1871. In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 585 BC - A Solar eclipse occurs as predicted by Greek philosopher and scientist Thales, while Alyattes is battling Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Adolphe Thiers angered the people of Paris by allowing the Prussians a parade in Paris on 17 February 1871, and on 18 March in an attempt to strengthen his government's position and decrease the power of the National Guard, he ordered the French regular troops to remove the cannon which had been moved to Montmartre, a move opposed by the leadership of the National Guard. Events 1500 - Battle of Hemmingstedt. 1600 - Philosopher Giordano Bruno is burned alive at Campo de' Fiori Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 37 - The Roman Senate annuls Tiberius ' will and proclaims Caligula emperor The National Guard ( la Garde nationale) was the name given at the time of the French Revolution to the Militias formed in each city in imitation of Montmartre is a hill (the butte Montmartre) which is 130 metres high giving its name to the surrounding district in the north of Paris in the 18th The National Guard ( la Garde nationale) was the name given at the time of the French Revolution to the Militias formed in each city in imitation of Many French soldiers agreed with the National Guard, refused to obey the order, and fell in with the Guard in the uprising. Seeing that he had lost control, Thiers ordered the regular forces, police, administrators and specialists to go to Versailles and fled the city followed by all those that obeyed. Versailles (vɛʀsaj in French) formerly de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important
The Commune used the socialist red flag rather than the moderate republican tricolore (during the Second Republic in 1848, radicals supporting a socialist alternative government to the moderate republican Second Republic already raised a red flag). Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution Red flags can signify a warning Martial law, defiance or Left-wing politics Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty History Revolution of 1848 See also Mid-nineteenth century France The industrial population of the Faubourgs In only three months, the Commune voted many social measures, including:
- the remission of rents for the entire period of the siege (during which they had been raised considerably by many landlords)
- the abolition of night work in the hundreds of Paris bakeries
- the abolition of the guillotine
- the granting of pensions to the unmarried companions of National Guards killed on active service, as well as to the children if any; the free return, by the state pawnshops, of all workmen's tools of their trade, pledged during the siege as they were concerned that skilled workers had been forced to pawn their tools during the war
- the postponement of debt obligations, and abolition of interest on the debts
- and, in an important departure from strictly "reformist" principles, the right of employees to take over and run an enterprise if it were deserted by its owner. A bakery (also called baker's or bakehouse) is an establishment which produces or/and sells Bread, pies pastries Cakes Biscuits The guillotine ( pronounced /ˈgijətin/ or /ˈgɪlətin/ in English in French was a device used for carrying out executions by Decapitation. A pension is a steady income given to a person upon Retirement, typically in the form of a guaranteed annuity. A pawnbroker is an individual or business entity that offers monetary loans in exchange for an item of value to the given pawn broker Debt is that which is owed usually referencing Assets owed but the term can cover other obligations Socialist Reformism is the belief that gradual democratic changes in a Society can ultimately change a society's fundamental economic relations and political structures Worker self-management (or autogestion) is a form of workplace decision-making in which the workers themselves agree on choices (for issues like customer care general production
Projected legislation also separated the Church from the state, made all Church property state property, and excluded religion from schools. Separation of church and state is a Political and Legal Doctrine that Government and religious institutions are to be kept separate During the uprising, the churches were only allowed to continue their religious activity if they kept their doors open to public political meetings during the evenings. This made the churches, along with the streets and the cafés, the chief participatory political centres of the Commune. Other projected legislation dealt with educational reforms which would make further education and technical training freely available to all. The Vendôme Column, seen as a symbol of Napoleon's imperialism and of chauvinism, was taken down. Place Vendôme is a square in the 1st arrondissement of Paris located to the north of the Tuileries Gardens and east of the Église de la Madeleine Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Imperialism has two meanings one describing an action and the other describing an attitude Chauvinism (ˈʃoʊvɨnɪzəm is extreme and unreasoning Partisanship on behalf of a group to which one belongs especially when the partisanship includes malice and hatred Some women organized the first traces of a feminist movement. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Thus, Nathanie Le Mel, a religious workwoman, and Elisabeth Dmitrieff, a young Russian aristocrat, created the Union des femmes pour la défense de Paris et les soins aux blessés ("Women Union for the Defense of Paris and Care to the Injured") on 11 April 1871. Events 491 - Flavius Anastasius becomes Byzantine Emperor, with the name of Anastasius I. Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Considering that their struggle against patriarchy could only be followed in the frame of a global struggle against capitalism, the association revendicated gender equality, wages' equality, right of divorce for women, right to laïque instruction (non-clerical) and for professional formation for girls. Patriarchy is the structuring of Society on the basis of Family units where fathers have primary responsibility for the welfare of hence authority over Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Gender equality (also known as gender equity, gender egalitarianism, or sexual equality) is the goal of the Equality of the Genders Divorce or dissolution of marriage is the termination of a Marriage. Laïcité (laisiˈte is the French concept of a Secular society, connoting the absence of religious involvement in government affairs They also demanded suppression of the distinction between married women and concubins, between legitimate and natural children, the abolition of prostitution — they obtained the closing of the maisons de tolérance (legal unofficial brothels). Concubinage is the state of a woman or youth in an ongoing quasi-matrimonial relationship with a man of higher social status Prostitution is the act of performing Sexual activity in exchange for Money. For the 2008 film of this name see The Brothel. For the television series of this name see Cathouse The Series. The Women Union also participated in several municipal commissions and organized cooperative workshops. [1]
Taking advantage of his retreat from Paris and of Baron Haussmann's urban modeling of the capital during the Second Empire — construction of wide boulevards linking the train stations and therefore the soldiers coming from the countryside to the capital — Adolphe Thiers led the harsh repression of the Communards. Georges-Eugène Haussmann ( March 27, 1809 &ndash January 11, 1891) who called himself Baron Haussmann, was a French The Haussmann Renovations, or Haussmannisation of Paris, was a work commissioned by Napoléon III and led by the Seine prefect, Baron For the type of road see Boulevard. Boulevards is a network of city guides on the Internet established in 1994 by Boulevards New Media Inc The Communards were members and supporters of the short-lived 1871 Paris Commune formed in the wake of the Franco-Prussian War and France's defeat On 27 May 1871, when the last barricade, in the rue Ramponeau in Belleville, fell, Marshal MacMahon issued a proclamation: "To the inhabitants of Paris. Events 927 - Simeon the Great, Tsar of Bulgaria, dies 1120 - Richard III of Capua is anointed Year 1871 ( MDCCCLXXI) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common A barricade is any object or structure that creates a barrier or obstacle to control block passage or force the flow of Traffic in the desired direction Marie Edme Patrice Maurice de Mac-Mahon, 1st Duc de Magenta, Marshal of France (13 June 1808 - 17 October 1893 was a French The French army has come to save you. Paris is freed! At 4 o'clock our soldiers took the last insurgent position. Today the fight is over. Order, work and security will be reborn. "
Royalist domination (1871–1879)
Thus, the Republic was born of a double defeat: before the Prussians, and of the revolutionary Commune. The repression of the commune was bloody. Hundreds were executed in front of the Communards' Wall in the Père Lachaise cemetery, while thousands of others were marched to Versailles for trials. The Communards’ Wall ( F: Mur des Fédérés) at the Père Lachaise Cemetery is where on May 28 1871, one-hundred Père Lachaise Cemetery (Cimetière du Père-Lachaise officially cimetière de l'Est, "East Cemetery" is the largest Cemetery in the city of Paris Versailles (vɛʀsaj in French) formerly de facto capital of the kingdom of France, is now a wealthy suburb of Paris and is still an important The number killed during La Semaine Sanglante (The Bloody Week) can never be established for certain but the best estimates are 30,000 dead, many more wounded, and perhaps as many as 50,000 later executed or imprisoned; 7,000 were exiled to New Caledonia. For the former North American fur-trading district see New Caledonia (Canada, and for the Scottish colony in Panama see Darien scheme. Thousands of them fled to Belgium, England, Italy, Spain and the United States. In 1872, "stringent laws were passed that ruled out all possibilities of organizing on the left. "[2] For the imprisoned there was a general amnesty in 1880. [3] Paris remained under martial law for five years.
Beside this defeat, the Republican movement also had to confront the counterrevolutionaries who rejected the legacy of the 1789 Revolution. Republicanism is the Ideology of governing a nation as a Republic, with an emphasis on Liberty, Rule of law, Popular sovereignty A counter-revolutionary is anyone who opposes a Revolution, particularly those who act after a revolution to try to overturn or reverse it in full or in part Both the Legitimist and the Orleanist royalists rejected republicanism, which they saw as an extension of modernity and atheism, breaking with France's traditions. Legitimists are Royalists in France who believe that the King of France and Navarre must be chosen according to the simple application of the The Orléanists were a French Right-wing / Center-right Political faction or party which arose out of the French Revolution Monarchism is the advocacy of the establishment preservation or restoration of a Monarchy as a Form of government in a nation Modernity is a term that refers to the Modern era. It is distinct from Modernism, and in different contexts refers to cultural and intellectual movements of the Atheism This lasted until at least the 16 May 1877 crisis, which finally led to the resignation of royalist Marshal MacMahon in January 1879. Marie Edme Patrice Maurice de Mac-Mahon, 1st Duc de Magenta, Marshal of France (13 June 1808 - 17 October 1893 was a French The death of Henri, comte de Chambord in 1883, who, as the grandson of Charles X, had refused to abandon the fleur-de-lys and the white flag, thus jeopardizing the alliance between Legitimists and Orleanists, convinced many of the remaining Orleanists to rally themselves to the Republic, as Adolphe Thiers had already done. Henri V of France and Navarre ( Henri Charles Ferdinand Marie Dieudonné d'Artois de France – September 29, 1820 – August 24, 1883 The fleur-de-lys (or fleur-de-lis, plural fleurs-de-lis ˌfləː(rdəˈliː (ˌfləː(rdəˈlɪs in Quebec) translated from French as "lily White flags have had different meanings throughout history and depending on the locale Louis-Adolphe fr Thiers ( Marseille, 16 April 1797&ndash3 September 1877 was a French politician and Historian. The vast majority of the Legitimists abandoned the political arena or became marginalised, at least until Pétain's Vichy regime. Henri Philippe Benoni Omer Joseph Pétain (24 April 1856 – 23 July 1951 generally known as Philippe Pétain or Marshal Pétain ( Maréchal Pétain) Vichy France, or the Vichy regime are the common terms used to describe the government of France from July 1940 to August 1944 Some of them founded Action Française in 1898, during the Dreyfus Affair, which became an influent movement through-out the 1930s, in particular among the intellectuals of Paris' Quartier Latin. The Action Française is a French Monarchist ( Orléanist) Counter-revolutionary movement and periodical founded by Maurice Pujo and Year 1898 ( MDCCCXCVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Dreyfus Affair a Political scandal which divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s In 1891, Pope Leo XIII's encyclical Rerum Novarum was incorrectly seen to have legitimised the Social Catholic movement, which in France could be traced back to Hughes Felicité Robert de Lamennais' efforts under the July Monarchy. Year 1891 ( MDCCCXCI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Pope Leo XIII ( March 2, 1810 – July 20, 1903) born Count Vincenzo Gioacchino Raffaele Luigi Pecci, was the 256th Pope Rerum Novarum (Translation Of New Things) is an Encyclical issued by Pope Leo XIII on May 16 1891. Christian socialism generally refers to those on the Christian left whose politics are both Christian and Socialist and who see these two philosophies as Hughes Felicité Robert de Lamennais, also known as Frédéric de La Mennais ( June 19, 1782 - February 27, 1854) was Pope St Pius X later condemned these movements of Catholics for democracy and Socialism in Nostre Charge Apostolique against the Le Síllon movement. Saint Pius X ( Latin: Pius PP X) ( June 2, 1835 &mdash August 20, 1914) born Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto, was the [4]
"Radicals" (1879–1914)
The initial republic was in effect led by pro-royalists, but republicans (the "Radicals") and bonapartists scrambled for power. Political radicalism or simply radicalism is adherence to radical views and principles in Politics. In French political history Bonapartism has two meanings In a strict sense this term refers to people who The period from 1879–1899 saw power come into the hands of moderate republicans and former "radicals" (around Léon Gambetta); these were called the "Opportunists" (Républicains opportunistes). Léon Gambetta (2 April 1838 Cahors, Lot - 31 December 1882 Paris) was a French statesman prominent after the Franco-Prussian War The Opportunist Republicans (Républicains opportunistes was a term given to a fraction of the French Republicans who considered after the proclamation of the Third The newly found Republican control on the Republic allowed the vote of the 1881 and 1882 Jules Ferry laws on a free, mandatory and laic public education. The Jules Ferry laws are a set of French laws which established first Free education ( 1881) then mandatory and laic education ( 1882 Laïcité (laisiˈte is the French concept of a Secular society, connoting the absence of religious involvement in government affairs Public education is education mandated for or offered to the children of the general public by the Government, whether national regional or local provided by an institution
The moderates however became deeply divided over the Dreyfus Affair, and this allowed the Radicals to eventually gain power from 1899 until the Great War. The Dreyfus Affair a Political scandal which divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s The Radical Party ( Parti Radical, Rad also known as Parti radical valoisien) is a liberal and centrist political party in France During this period, crises like the potential "Boulangist" coup d'état (see Georges Boulanger) in 1889, showed the fragility of the republic. The Radicals' policies on education (suppression of local languages, compulsory education), mandatory military service, and control of the working classes eliminated internal dissent and regionalisms, while their participation in the Scramble for Africa and in the acquiring of overseas possessions (such as French Indochina) created myths of French greatness. The Scramble for Africa, also known as the Race for Africa, was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New First French interventions See also France-Vietnam relations France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit Both of these processes transformed a country of regionalisms into a modern nation state. For the online game see Jennifer Government NationStates. The nation-state is a certain form of State that derives its legitimacy
In 1880, Jules Guesde and Paul Lafargue, Marx's son-in-law, created the French Workers' Party (Parti ouvrier français, or POF), the first Marxist party in France. Year 1880 ( MDCCCLXXX) was a Leap year starting on Thursday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Leap year Jules Basile Guesde ( November 11, 1845 - July 28, 1922) was a French Socialist journalist and politician Paul Lafargue ( June 16, 1842 – November 26, 1911) was a French revolutionary Marxist socialist journalist The Parti Ouvrier Français ( POF, or French Workers' Party) was the first Marxist party in France, created in 1880 by Two years later, Paul Brousse's possibilistes split. Paul Brousse ( Montpellier, January 23, 1844 - April 1, 1912) was a French Socialist, leader of the possibilistes A controversy arose in the French socialist movement and in the Second International concerning "socialist participation in a bourgeois government", a theme which was triggered by independent socialist Alexandre Millerand's participation to Radical-Socialist Waldeck-Rousseau's cabinet at the turn of the century, which also included the marquis de Galliffet, best known for his role as repressor of the 1871 Commune. The Second International (1889-1916 was an organization of socialist and labour parties formed in Paris on July 14, 1889. Alexandre Millerand (10 February 1859 - 7 April 1943 was a French socialist Politician. The Radical Party ( Parti Radical, Rad also known as Parti radical valoisien) is a liberal and centrist political party in France Gaston Alexandre Auguste Marquis de Galliffet, Prince de Martignes ( Paris, January 23 1830 -1909 was a French General, best known While Jules Guesde was opposed to this participation, which he saw as a trick, Jean Jaurès defended it, making him one of the first social-democrat. Jean Léon Jaurès (full name Auguste Marie Joseph Jean Léon Jaurès; 3 September 1859 31 July 1914) was a French Social democracy is a Political ideology of the left and centre-left Guesde's POF united itself in 1902 with the Parti socialiste de France, and finally in 1905 all socialist tendencies, including Jaurès' Parti socialiste français, unified into the Section française de l'Internationale ouvrière (SFIO), the "French section of the Second International", itself formed in 1889 after the split between anarcho-syndicalists and Marxist socialists which led to the dissolving of the First International (founded in London in 1864). The Second International (1889-1916 was an organization of socialist and labour parties formed in Paris on July 14, 1889. Anarcho-syndicalism is a branch of Anarchism which focuses on the labour movement.
In an effort to isolate Germany, France went to great pains to woo Russia and the United Kingdom to its side, first by means of the Franco-Russian Alliance of 1894, then the 1904 Entente Cordiale with the U. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Franco-Russian Alliance was a Military alliance between the French Third Republic and the Russian Empire that ran from 1892 to 1917 Flag of the United Kingdomsvg|right|70px]] The Entente cordiale is a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between the United Kingdom K, and finally, with the signing of the Anglo-Russian Entente in 1907 this became the Triple Entente, which eventually led Russia and the UK to enter World War I as Allies. The Anglo-Russian Entente or the Anglo-Russian Convention of 1907 was an accord signed on 31 August 1907 in St The Triple Entente (" entente " — French for "agreement" was the name given to the loose alignment of the United Kingdom, the In general allies are people groups or nations that have joined together in an association for mutual benefit or to achieve some common purpose
Distrust of Germany, faith in the army and native French anti-semitism combined to make the Dreyfus Affair (the unjust trial and condemnation of a Jewish military officer for treason) a political scandal of the utmost gravity. Antisemitism (alternatively spelled anti-semitism or anti-Semitism; also rarely known as judeophobia) is the Prejudice against or hostility The Dreyfus Affair a Political scandal which divided France from the 1890s to the early 1900s The nation was divided between "dreyfusards" and "anti-dreyfusards" and far-right Catholic agitators inflamed the situation even when proofs of Dreyfus' innocence came to light. The writer Emile Zola published an impassioned editorial on the injustice, and was himself condemned by the government for libel. Émile François Zola ( (2 April 1840 &ndash 29 September 1902 was an influential French Writer, the most important exemplar of the literary school of Once Dreyfus was finally pardoned, the progressive legislature enacted the 1905 laws on laïcité which created a complete separation of church and state and stripped churches of most of their property rights. Laïcité (laisiˈte is the French concept of a Secular society, connoting the absence of religious involvement in government affairs The 1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and State ( French: Loi du 9 décembre 1905 concernant la séparation des Églises et de l'État) was passed by
The period and the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century is often termed the belle époque. The Belle Époque (bɛːl e'pɔk French for "Beautiful Era" was a period in European history that began during the late 19th century and lasted until Although associated with cultural innovations and popular amusements (cabaret, cancan, the cinema, new art forms such as Impressionism and Art Nouveau), France was nevertheless a nation divided internally on notions of religion, class, regionalisms and money, and on the international front France came repeatedly to the brink of war with the other imperial powers, including Great Britain (the Fashoda Incident). Impressionism was a 19th-century Art movement that began as a loose association of Paris -based Artists exhibiting their art publicly in the 1860s Art Nouveau ( nu vo anglicised /ˈɑːt nuːvəu/ ( French for 'new art' also known as Jugendstil ( German for 'youth style' is an international The Fashoda Incident (1898 was the climax of imperial territorial disputes between the United Kingdom and France in Eastern Africa. World War I was inevitable, but its human and financial costs would be catastrophic for the French. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All
Colonialism
- French colonial empires
- French rule in Algeria
- Scramble for Africa
- French Indochina
- French West Africa
- French Guiana
- Djibouti
- Madagascar
Economy
Literature
Art
References
Books
- Weber, Eugene (1979): Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernisation of Rural France, 1870-1914. France was a dominant empire in the world from the 1600s to the late 1960s possessing many colonies in various locations around the world French rule of Algeria lasted from 1830 to 1962 under a variety of governmental systems The Scramble for Africa, also known as the Race for Africa, was the proliferation of conflicting European claims to African territory during the New First French interventions See also France-Vietnam relations France-Vietnam relations started as early as the 17th century with the mission of the Jesuit French West Africa ( Afrique occidentale française, AOF) was a Federation of eight French colonial territories in Africa: French Guiana (Guyane française officially fr ''Guyane'' is an Overseas department (French département d'outre-mer, or DOM) of France Djibouti ( جيبوتي Jībūtī, Somali: Jabuuti) officially the Republic of Djibouti, is a country in the Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern This is a history of the economy of France. For more information on historical cultural demographic and sociological developments in France see the chronological French literature of the nineteenth century is for the purpose of this article literature written in French from (roughly 1799 to 1900 French art of the nineteenth century, part of the French art history series covers the visual and plastic works of art made in France or by French citizens during the following London: Chatto and Windus.
- Wright, Gordon. France in Modern Times. New York: Norton, 1987. ISBN 0-393-95582-6
Notes
- ^ Women and the Commune, in L'Humanité, 19 March 2005 (French)
- ^ In Benedict Anderson. L'Humanité ("Humanity" formerly the daily newspaper of the French Communist Party (PCF was founded in 1904 by Jean Jaurès, a leader of the Events 1279 - A Mongolian victory in the Battle of Yamen ends the Song Dynasty in China. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Benedict Richard O'Gorman Anderson (born August 26, 1936) is Aaron L "In the World-Shadow of Bismarck and Nobel", New Left Review, July-August 2004. The New Left Review is a political Journal, founded in 1960 in the UK after the editors of the New Reasoner and the
- ^ Estimates come from Cobban, Alfred. A History of Modern France. Vol 3: 1871–1962. Penguin books, London: 1965, p. 23.
- ^ Our Apostolic Mandate
See also
- 1825 Anti-Sacrilege Act
- Franco-Trarzan War of 1825
- Dreyfus Affair
- 16 May 1877 crisis
- France in the 20th century
- History of France
- 1789 French Revolution
- Economy of France
- Liberalism and radicalism in France
- Roman Catholicism in France