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A frame in social theory consists of a schema of interpretation, that is a collection of stereotypes, that individuals rely on to understand and respond to events. Social theory is an essential tool used by scholars in the analysis of society through the use of theoretical frameworks social structures and phenomena are analyzed and placed in context A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group [1]

To clarify: When one seeks to explain an event, the understanding often depends on the frame referred to. If a friend rapidly closes and opens an eye, we will respond very differently depending on whether we attribute this to a purely "physical" frame (he blinked) or to a social frame (he winked).

Though the former might result from a speck of dust (resulting in an involuntary and not particularly meaningful reaction), the latter would imply a voluntary and meaningful action (to convey humor to an accomplice, for example). Observers will read events seen as purely physical or within a frame of "nature" differently than those seen as occurring with social frames. But we do not look at an event and then "apply" a frame to it. Rather, individuals constantly project into the world around them the interpretive frames that allow them to make sense of it; we only shift frames (or realize that we have habitually applied a frame) when incongruity calls for a frame-shift. In other words, we only become aware of the frames that we always already use when something forces us to replace one frame with another. [2][3]

Framing, a term used in media studies, sociology and psychology, refers to the social construction of a social phenomena by media sources or specific political or social movements or organizations. Media studies is a collection of academic programs regarding the content history meaning and effects of various media. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and A social construction or social construct is any phenomenon "invented" or "constructed" by participants in a particular Culture or Society "Popular press" redirects here note that the University of Wisconsin Press publishes under the imprint "The Popular Press" When done by political or social organizations, it is likely to advance their causes or views. Framing is an inevitable process of selective influence over the individual's perception of the meanings attributed to words or phrases. In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. A frame defines the packaging of an element of rhetoric in such a way as to encourage certain interpretations and to discourage others. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice

An much cited example demonstrating the power of framing is provided by Kahneman and Tversky(see below) in their research on heuristics. heuristic (hyu̇-ˈris-tik is a method to help solve a problem commonly an informal method They gave experimental subjects the following statement:

"Imagine that the U. S. is preparing for the outbreak of an unusual Asian disease, which is expected to kill 600 people. Two alternative programs to combat the disease have been proposed. Assume that the exact scientific estimates of the consequences of the programs are as, follows: If Program A is adopted, 200 people will be saved. If program B is adopted, there is a one-third probability that 600 people will be saved and a two thirds probability that no people will he saved. Which of the two programs would you favor?"[4]

The results were as follows: 78 chose Program A; 22 chose Program B. However, when the wording was altered so that the consequences remained the same but referred instead to the the number of deaths (e. g. If Program A is adopted, then 400 people will die), the results were nearly reversed. [5]

Contents

History

Word-selection has contributed to rhetoric since time immemorial. Diction, in its original primary meaning refers to the writer's or the speaker's distinctive Vocabulary choices and style of expression. Rhetoric has had many definitions no simple definition can do it justice But most commentators attribute the concept of framing to the work of Erving Goffman and point especially to his 1974 book, Frame analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Erving Goffman ( June 11, 1922 – November 19, 1982) was a Canadian and American sociologist and writer Goffman used the idea of frames to label "schemata of interpretation" that allow individuals or groups "to locate, perceive, identify, and label" events and occurrences, thus rendering meaning, organizing experiences, and guiding actions. [6] Goffman's framing concept evolved out of his 1959 work, The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life, a commentary on the management of impressions. The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life is a seminal Sociology book by Erving Goffman. Management (covering theory practice and scope of management and Manager' (covering the people who manage might help clarify and systematise These works arguably depend on Kenneth Boulding's concept of image. Kenneth Ewart Boulding ( January 18 1910 – March 18 1993) was an Economist, educator peace activist Poet, religious mystic [7]

Early work on framing effects in economics,[8] as performed by Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, contributed to Kahneman winning the 2002 Nobel Prize in Economics. In Economics, framing means the manner in which a Rational choice problem has been presented Amos Nathan Tversky, PhD (עמוס טברסקי March 16, 1937 - June 2, 1996) was a cognitive and mathematical psychologist Daniel Kahneman (דניאל כהנמן (born 5 March 1934 is an Israeli American psychologist and Nobel laureate, notable for his work on The Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Sciences, officially named The Sveriges Riksbank Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel (Sveriges riksbanks pris i ekonomisk

Framing in politics

Framing has become a prominent strategic issue in politics, particularly in the United States of America, where both the Democratic and Republican political parties compete to utilize it. A Strategy is a long term plan of action designed to achieve a particular goal, most often "winning Politics Politics is the process by which groups of people make decisions The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Democratic Party is one of two major Political parties in the United States, the other being the Republican Party. According to the New York Times:

Even before the election, a new political word had begun to take hold of the party, beginning on the West Coast and spreading like a virus all the way to the inner offices of the Capitol. The United States presidential election of 2004 was held on Tuesday November 2, 2004, to elect the President of the United States. The " West Coast " " Western Seaboard " or " Pacific Seaboard " are terms for the westernmost coastal states of the Western United States That word was 'framing. ' Exactly what it means to 'frame' issues seems to depend on which Democrat you are talking to, but everyone agrees that it has to do with choosing the language to define a debate and, more important, with fitting individual issues into the contexts of broader story lines. "[9]

George Lakoff, a Berkeley professor of cognitive linguistics, has been a prominent voice in discussing the effects of framing on politics. "Lakoff" and "Professor Lakoff" redirect here The University of California Berkeley (also referred to as Cal, Berkeley and UC Berkeley) is a major research university located in Berkeley In Linguistics and Cognitive science, cognitive linguistics (CL refers to the school of linguistics that understands language creation learning and usage

One particular example of Lakoff's work that attained some degree of fame, was his advice to rename [10] trial lawyers (unpopular in the United States) as "public protection attorneys". A lawyer, according to Black's Law Dictionary, is "a person learned in the law as an attorney, Counsel or Solicitor; a person Though Americans have not generally adopted this suggestion, the Association of Trial Lawyers of America did rename themselves the "American Association of Justice", in what the Chamber of Commerce called an effort to hide their identity. The American Association for Justice (AAJ, formerly the Association of Trial Lawyers of America ( ATLA) is the leading organization for Lawyers representing A chamber of commerce (also referred to in some circles as a board of trade) is a form of Business network. [11]

The New York Times depicted similar intensity among Republicans:

In one recent memo, titled 'The 14 Words Never to Use,' [Frank] Luntz urged conservatives to restrict themselves to phrases from what he calls . Frank I Luntz (born February 23, 1962) is an American corporate and political consultant and Pollster who has worked most recently with the . . the 'New American Lexicon. ' Thus, a smart Republican, in Luntz's view, never advocates 'drilling for oil'; he prefers 'exploring for energy. West Texas PumpjackJPG|thumb|right|300px|This Pumpjack located south of Midland TX is a common sight in West Texas. ' He should never criticize the 'government,' which cleans our streets and pays our firemen; he should attack 'Washington,' with its ceaseless thirst for taxes and regulations. Washington DC ( formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D 'We should never use the word outsourcing,' Luntz wrote, 'because we will then be asked to defend or end the practice of allowing companies to ship American jobs overseas. Outsourcing is Subcontracting a process such as product design or Manufacturing, to a Third-party company '[9]

From a political perspective, framing has widespread consequences. For example, the concept of framing links with that of agenda-setting: by consistently invoking a particular frame, the framing party may effectively control discussion and perception of the issue. The Agenda-setting theory is the theory that the mass - News media have a large influence on audiences by their choice of what stories to consider newsworthy and Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber in Trust Us, We're Experts illustrate how public-relations (PR) firms often use language to help frame a given issue, structuring the questions that then subsequently emerge. Sheldon Rampton (born August 4, 1957) is the editor of PR Watch, and the Author of several books that criticize the John Stauber ( 1953 -) is an American writer and political activist who has co-authored five books about Propaganda by governments private interests and Trust Us We're Experts How Industry Manipulates Science and Gambles with Your Future is a book written by Sheldon Rampton and John Stauber. Public relations (PR is the practice of managing the flow of Information between an Organization and its Publics Public relations - often referred For example, one firm advises clients to use "bridging language" that uses a strategy of answering questions with specific terms or ideas in order to shift the discourse from an uncomfortable topic to a more comfortable one. [12] Practitioners of this strategy might attempt to draw attention away from one frame in order to focus on another. As Lakoff notes, "On the day that George W. Bush took office, the words "tax relief" started coming out of the White House. George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. "[13] By refocusing the structure away from one frame ("tax burden" or "tax responsibilities"), individuals can set the agenda of the questions asked in the future.

Cognitive linguists point to an example of framing in the phrase "tax relief". In Linguistics and Cognitive science, cognitive linguistics (CL refers to the school of linguistics that understands language creation learning and usage A tax cut is a reduction in taxes. Economic stimulus via tax cuts along with interest rate intervention and deficit spending are one of the central tenets of Keynesian economics In this frame, use of the concept "relief" entails a concept of taxes putting strain on the citizen:

Alternative frames may emphasize the concept of taxes as a source of infrastructural support to the citizen:

Frames perform the necessary function of limiting debate by setting the vocabulary and metaphors through which participants can comprehend and discuss an issue. Metaphor (from the Greek: μεταφορά - metaphora, meaning "transfer" is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects They form an inherent part not just of political discourse, but of cognition. Cognition is a concept used in different ways by different disciplines but is generally accepted to mean the process of awareness or thought In addition to generating new frames, politically-oriented framing research aims to increase public awareness of the indispensable connection between framing and reasoning.

Political examples

Frame analysis

Framing theory and frame analysis provide a broad theoretical approach that analysts have used in communication studies, news (Johnson-Cartee, 1995), politics, and social movements (among other applications). Communication studies is an Academic field that deals with processes of communication commonly defined as the sharing of Symbols over distances in space and time Journalism is the profession of writing or communicating formally employed by publications and broadcasters for the benefit of a particular Community of people Social movements are a type of group action. They are large informal groupings of Individuals and/or Organizations focused on specific

According to some sociologists, the "social construction of collective action frames" involves "public discourse, that is, the interface of media discourse and interpersonal interaction; persuasive communication during mobilization campaigns by movement organizations, their opponents and countermovement organizations; and consciousness raising during episodes of collective action. "[20]

Frame-analysis for social movements

Sociologists have utilized framing to explain the process of social movements. Social movements are a type of group action. They are large informal groupings of Individuals and/or Organizations focused on specific [21] Movements act as carriers of beliefs and ideologies (compare memes). A meme (miːm consists of any idea or behavior that can pass from one person to another by learning or imitation In addition, they operate as part of the process of constructing meaning for participants and opposers (Snow & Benford, 1988). Sociologists deem mass-movements "successful" when the frames projected align with the frames of participants to produce resonance between the two parties. Researchers of framing speak of this process as frame re-alignment.

Frame-alignment — a process to explain social movement theory

Snow and Benford (1988) regard frame-alignment as an important element in social mobilization or movement. They argue that when individual frames become linked in congruency and complementariness, "frame alignment" occurs,[22] producing "frame resonance", a catalyst in the process of a group making the transition from one frame to another (although not all framing efforts prove successful). The conditions that affect or constrain framing efforts include:

Snow and Benford (1988) propose that once someone has constructed proper frames as described above, large-scale changes in society such as those necessary for social movement can be achieved through frame-alignment.

Four types of frame-alignment

Frame-alignment comes in four forms,: frame bridging, frame amplification, frame extension and frame transformation.

  1. Frame bridging involves the "linkage of two or more ideologically congruent but structurally unconnected frames regarding a particular issue or problem" (Snow et al. , 1986, p. 467). It involves the linkage of a movement to "unmobilized [sic] sentiment pools or public opinion preference clusters" (p. Sic is a Latin word meaning "thus" "so" "as such" or "just as that" 467) of people who share similar views or grievances but who lack an organizational base.
  2. Frame amplification refers to "the clarification and invigoration of an interpretive frame that bears on a particular issue, problem, or set of events" (Snow et al. , 1986, p. 469). This interpretive frame usually involves the invigorating of values or beliefs.
  3. Frame extensions represent a movement's effort to incorporate participants by extending the boundaries of the proposed frame to include or encompass the views, interests, or sentiments of targeted groups.
  4. Frame transformation becomes necessary when the proposed frames "may not resonate with, and on occasion may even appear antithetical to, conventional lifestyles or rituals and extant interpretive frames" (Snow et al. , 1986, p. 473).

When this happens, the securing of participants and support requires new values, new meanings and understandings. Goffman (1974, p. 43–44) calls this "keying", where "activities, events, and biographies that are already meaningful from the standpoint of some primary framework, in terms of another framework" (Snow et al. , 1986, p. 474) such that they are seen differently. Two types of frame transformation exist:

  1. Domain-specific transformations, such as the attempt to alter the status of groups of people, and
  2. Global interpretive frame-transformation, where the scope of change seems quite radical — as in a change of world-views, total conversions of thought, or uprooting of everything familiar (for example: moving from communism to market capitalism; religious conversion, etc. Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based A market economy is a realized Social system based on the Division of labour in which the prices of Goods and Services are determined in a ).

Framing effect

The context or framing of problems adopted by decision-makers results in part from extrinsic manipulation of the decision-options offered, as well as from forces intrinsic to decision-makers, e. g. , their norms, habits, and unique temperament. In psychology temperament is the innate aspect of an individual's personality such as Introversion or Extroversion.

Absolute and relative influences

Framing effects arise because one can frequently frame a decision using multiple scenarios, wherein one may express benefits either as a relative risk reduction (RRR), or as absolute risk reduction (ARR). A scenario (from Italian, that which is pinned to the scenery) is a synthetic description of an event or series of actions and events Extrinsic control over the cognitive distinctions (between risk tolerance and reward anticipation) adopted by decision makers can occur through altering the presentation of relative risks and absolute benefits. Risk aversion is a concept in Economics, Finance, and Psychology related to the behaviour of consumers and investors under uncertainty In Economics, an incentive is any factor (financial or non-financial that provides a motive for a particular course of action or counts as a reason for preferring one choice In Statistics and mathematical Epidemiology, relative risk (RR is the risk of an event (or of developing a disease relative to exposure In English grammar the degree of comparison of an Adjective or Adverb describes the relational value of one thing with something in another clause of a sentence

People generally prefer the absolute certainty inherent in a positive framing-effect, which offers an assurance of gains. When decision-options appear framed as a likely gain, risk-averse choices predominate.

A shift toward risk-seeking behavior occurs when a decision-maker frames decisions in negative terms, or adopts a negative framing effect.

Frame-manipulation research

Researchers have found[23] that framing decision-problems in a positive light generally results in less-risky choices; with negative framing of problems, riskier choices tend to result. According to behavioral economists:

Researchers have found that framing-manipulation invariably affects subjects, but to varying degrees. Behavioral economics and behavioral finance are closely related fields which apply scientific research on human and social cognitive and emotional factors to better Risk aversion is a concept in Economics, Finance, and Psychology related to the behaviour of consumers and investors under uncertainty Individuals proved risk averse when presented with value-increasing options; but when faced with value decreasing contingencies, they tended towards increased risk-taking. Researchers found that variations in decision-framing achieved by manipulating the options to represent either a gain or as a loss altered the risk-aversion preferences of decision-makers.

In one study, 57% of the subjects chose a medication when presented with benefits in relative terms, whereas only 14. 7% chose a medication whose benefit appeared in absolute terms. Further questioning of the patients suggested that, because the subjects ignored the underlying risk of disease, they perceived benefits as greater when expressed in relative terms. [24]-

Theoretical models

Researchers have proposed various models explaining the framing effect:

Neuroimaging

Cognitive neuroscientists have linked the framing-effect to neural activity in the amygdala, and have identifed another brain-region, the orbital and medial prefrontal cortex (OMPFC), that appears to moderate the role of emotion on decisions. A neuroscientist is an individual who studies the scientific field of Neuroscience or any of its related sub-fields The la amygdalae ( Latin, also la corpus amygdaloideum, singular la amygdala, from Greek el αμυγδαλή grc-Latn amygdalē, 'almond' An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings thoughts and behaviours Using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to monitor brain-activity during a financial decision-making task, they observed greater activity in the OMPFC of those research subjects less susceptible to framing-effects. Functional MRI or functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI is a type of specialized MRI scan [25]

Further reading

See also

External links

Progressive framework institutes

Conservative framework institutes

References

  1. ^ Goffman, Erving. Frame Analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1986. ISBN 093035091X
  2. ^ This example borrowed from Clifford Geertz: Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology (1983), Basic Books 2000 paperback: ISBN 0-465-04162-0
  3. ^ Goffman offers the example of the woman bidding on a mirror at an auction who first examines the frame and surface for imperfections, and then "checks" herself in the mirror and adjusts her hat. See Goffman, Erving. Frame Analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Boston: Northeastern University Press, 1986. ISBN 093035091X, page 39. In each case the mirror represents more than simply a physical object.
  4. ^ See Entman, page 53-54
  5. ^ Entman, R. M. (1993), "Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Paradigm", Journal of Communication 43(4), Autumn. 0021-9916/93/$5. 00 43 (4): 51-58 , pages 53-54.
  6. ^ Erving Goffman (1974). Frame Analysis: An essay on the organization of experience. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1974, page 21.
  7. ^ Kenneth Boulding: The Image: Knowledge in Life and Society, University of Michigan Press, 1956)
  8. ^ Such as: Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman, 1981. "The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice. " Science 211: 453-458.
  9. ^ a b The Framing Wars. New York Times 17 July 2005
  10. ^ Walter Olson, Overlawyered weblog, 2005-07-18
  11. ^ Al Kamen, "Forget Cash -- Lobbyists Should Set Support for Lawmakers in Stone", Washington Post, 2007-01-17
  12. ^ Rampton, Sheldon and Stauber, John. Events 180 - Twelve inhabitants of Scillium in North Africa are executed for being Christians Walter K Olson is an author and blogger who writes mostly about Tort reform. The Washington Post is the largest and most circulated Newspaper in Washington D Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 38 BC - Octavian marries Livia Drusilla. 1287 - King Alfonso III of Aragon invades Minorca Trust Us, We're Experts! Putnam Publishing, New York, NY, 2002. Page 64.
  13. ^ George Lakoff: Don't think of an elephant!: know your values and frame the debate. White River Junction (Vermont): Chelsea Green, 2004. Page 3.
  14. ^ The President's Agenda for Tax Relief retrieved 3 July 2007.
  15. ^ Rockridge Institute: Simple Framing
  16. ^ George Lakoff: "Five Years after 9/11: Drop the War Metaphor"
  17. ^ "It's Escalation, Stupid." Alternet retrieved 3 July 2007
  18. ^ "The Rumsfeld Dilemma: Demand an Exit Strategy, Not a Facelift" by Bruce Budner, in The Huffington Post 15 September 2006
  19. ^ "Is It All in a Word? The Effect of Issue Framing on Public Support for U.S. Spending on HIV/AIDS in Developing Countries." by Sara Bleich. Events 324 - Battle of Adrianople Constantine I defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium. Events 668 - Eastern Roman Emperor Constans II is assassinated in his bath at Syracuse Italy. Retrieved 2007-07-03
  20. ^ Bert Klandermans. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 324 - Battle of Adrianople Constantine I defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium. 1997. The Social Psychology of Protest. Oxford: Blackwell, page 45
  21. ^ Snow, D. A. , and Benford, R. D. (1988). "Ideology, frame resonance, and participant mobilization". International Social Movement Research, 1, 197–217
  22. ^ Snow, D. A. , Rochford, E. B. , Worden, S. K. , & Benford, R. D. (1986). Frame alignment processes, micromobilization, and movement participation. American Sociological Review, 51, page 464
  23. ^ Tversky, A. and Khaneman, D. (1981). The Framing of Decisions and the Psychology of Choice. Science. Vol 211(4481) pp. 453-458
  24. ^ The framing effect of relative and absolute risk. [J Gen Intern Med. 1993] - PubMed Result
  25. ^ De Martino, B. , Kumaran, D. , Seymour, B. , and Dolan, R. J. (2006). Frames, biases, and rational decision-making in the human brain. Science 313, 684-687.
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