Citizendia

This article is about the class of vehicles. For other uses, see Four by four/Four-wheel drive (disambiguation).
The Jeep Wrangler is a 4WD vehicle with a transfer case to select low range or high range 4WD.
The Jeep Wrangler is a 4WD vehicle with a transfer case to select low range or high range 4WD. The Wrangler (also known as the YJ, TJ, and JK, as explained below is an Off-road vehicle produced by American automaker

Four-wheel drive, 4WD, or 4x4 ("four by four") is a four-wheeled vehicle with a drivetrain that allows all four wheels to receive torque from the engine simultaneously. Vehicles, derived from the Latin word vehiculum, are non-living Means of transport. For the UK engine manufacturer see Powertrain Ltd. In a Motor vehicle, the term drivetrain, powertrain or powerplant A wheel is a circular device that is capable of rotating on its axis facilitating movement or transportation whilst supporting a load ( Mass) or performing labour in machines An engine is a mechanical device that produces some form of output from a given input In the United States, these cars are often, but not always, included in the broader sport utility vehicle category. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the A sport utility vehicle ( SUV) is a generic marketing description for a rugged automotive vehicle similar to a Station wagon but built on a light-truck chassis While many people associate the term with off-road vehicles, powering all four wheels provides better control in normal road cars on many surfaces, and is an important part of rally racing. An off-road vehicle is considered to be any type of Vehicle which is capable of driving on and off paved or Gravel surface Rallying is a form of motor competition that takes place on public or private roads with modified production or specially built road-legal cars In some mechanic circles the term "4 by 4" also denotes the number of drive wheels and the number of speeds the car has, so the term "5 by 4" would denote an automobile with 5 speeds and 4 drive wheels.

The term four-wheel drive describes truck-like vehicles that require the driver to manually switch between two-wheel drive mode for streets and four-wheel drive mode for low traction conditions such as ice, mud, snow, slippery surfaces, or loose gravel. This article is about the semi-truck For the North American use of the word see Pickup truck. Traction refers to the Friction between a drive member and the surface it moves upon where the friction is used to provide motion All-wheel drive (AWD) is often used to describe a "full time" 4WD that may be used on dry pavement without destroying the drivetrain (It should be noted that "Full-Time" 4WD can be disengaged and the center differential can be locked, essentially turning it into regular 4WD. On the other hand, AWD cannot be disengaged and the center differential cannot be locked. ) [1][2], although the term may be abused when marketing a vehicle. AWD can be used on dry pavement because it employs the use of a center differential, which allows each tire to rotate at a different speed. This article deals with the concept of a differential in mechanical engineering. This eliminates driveline binding, wheel hop, and other driveline issues associated with the use of 4WD on dry pavement. With vehicles with more than four wheels AWD means all wheels drive the vehicle, to varying degrees of engagement, while 4WD means only four of the wheels drive the vehicle continuously.

Identical drivetrain systems are commonly marketed under different names for upmarket and downmarket branding and, conversely, different drivetrain systems are commonly marketed under the same name for brand uniformity. Downmarket products are goods targeted at lower-income Consumers. Audi's quattro, DaimlerChrysler's 4Matic used on Mercedes-Benz products, BMW with the xDrive, and Volkswagen's 4motion, for example, can mean either an automatically-engaging system with a Haldex clutch or a continuously-operating system with a Torsen (torque-sensing) differential. AUDI AG, ( Xetra: NSU commonly known as Audi (aˈʊdi is a German Automobile manufacturer which produces Audi branded cars with headquarters quattro (meaning four in Italian) is the name used by Audi AG to indicate Daimler AG ( (formerly DaimlerChrysler AG) is a German car corporation (not to be confused with the British car-maker Daimler Motor Company) and 4Matic is the name of an AWD Four-wheel drive system developed and used by Mercedes-Benz. Mercedes-Benz is a German manufacturer of luxury Automobiles Buses coaches and Trucks It is currently a division of the ( BMW) (Bavarian Motor Works is an independent German automobile manufacturer founded in 1916 BMW xDrive is BMW 's Four-wheel drive system that powers the X3, X5 and 2006 and later xd and xi 3 Series and 4motion is a registered trademark of Volkswagen Group (Volkswagen AG, used for naming Four-wheel drive (4WD systems used exclusively on Volkswagen -branded A clutch is a mechanism for transmitting rotation which can be engaged and disengaged Torsen, (full name Torsen traction) is an Automotive part a Limited slip differential. This article deals with the concept of a differential in mechanical engineering.

There is often confusion as to the difference between 4x4s and SUVs. This leads to criticisms of 4x4 vehicles in the media that should actually be directed at SUVs (see SUV Criticism). Criticism of sport utility vehicles is the expression (made by various groups organizations or individuals of disapproval of Sport utility vehicles (SUVs

Contents

Design

Sketch of 4WD (AWD)
Sketch of 4WD (AWD)

Differentials

The Lamborghini Murciélago is a 4WD/AWD that powers the front via a viscous coupling unit if the rear slips.
The Lamborghini Murciélago is a 4WD/AWD that powers the front via a viscous coupling unit if the rear slips. The name The name Murciélago (pronounced moor-thee-EH-la-goh in traditional Castilian Spanish and moor-see-EH-la-goh in Spanish of Latin America means " A viscous coupling is made up of alternating circular plates The plates have tabs or perforations in them
The HMMWV is a 4WD/AWD that powers all wheels evenly (continuously) via a manually lockable center differential, with Torsen differentials for both front and rear.
The HMMWV is a 4WD/AWD that powers all wheels evenly (continuously) via a manually lockable center differential, with Torsen differentials for both front and rear. This article refers to the Military HMMWV not the civilian Hummer sold by General Motors The M998 High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Torsen, (full name Torsen traction) is an Automotive part a Limited slip differential.
A Subaru Impreza rally car uses AWD for traction on loose dirt.
A Subaru Impreza rally car uses AWD for traction on loose dirt. The Subaru Impreza' is a Compact car that was first introduced by Subaru in 1993 Rallying is a form of motor competition that takes place on public or private roads with modified production or specially built road-legal cars

When powering two wheels simultaneously the wheels must be allowed to rotate at different speeds as the vehicle goes around curves. The problem is even more complicated when driving all four wheels. A design that fails to account for this will cause the vehicle to handle poorly on turns, fighting the driver as the tires slip and skid from the mismatched speeds.

A differential allows one input shaft to drive two output shafts with different speeds. This article deals with the concept of a differential in mechanical engineering. The differential distributes torque (angular force) evenly, while distributing angular velocity (turning speed) such that the average for the two output shafts is equal to that of the input shaft. A torque (τ in Physics, also called a moment (of force is a pseudo- vector that measures the tendency of a force to rotate an object about Do not confuse with Angular frequency The unit for angular velocity is rad/s Each powered axle requires a differential to distribute power between the left and the right sides. When all four wheels are driven, a third differential can be used to distribute power between the front and the rear axles.

Such a design handles well. It distributes power evenly and smoothly, and makes slippage unlikely. Once it does slip, however, recovery is difficult. If the left front wheel of a 4WD vehicle slips on an icy patch of road, for instance, the slipping wheel will spin faster than the other wheels due to the lower traction at that wheel. Although the amount of torque applied to each wheel will be identical, the amount of traction at each driven wheel will be limited to that of the wheel with the least traction (all four wheels on ice in this case). This problem can happen in both 2WD and 4WD vehicles, whenever a driven wheel is placed on a surface with little traction or raised off the ground. The simplistic design works acceptably well for 2WD vehicles. It is much less acceptable for 4WD vehicles because 4WD vehicles have twice as many wheels to lose traction, increasing the likelyhood that it will happen. 4WD vehicles may also be more likely to be driven on surfaces with reduced traction.

Limiting slippage

Traction control was invented to solve this problem for 2WD vehicles. A traction control system ( TCS) also known as Anti-Slip Regulation ( ASR) on current production Vehicles are typically (but not necessarily When one wheel spins out of control the brake is automatically applied to that wheel. A brake is a device for slowing or stopping the motion of a Machine or Vehicle, or alternatively a device to restrain it from starting to move again By preventing one wheel from spinning freely power is divided between the pavement for the non-slipping wheel and the brake for the slipping wheel. This is an effective solution, although it causes additional brake wear and may cause a sudden jolt that affects handling. By extending traction control to act on all four wheels the simple three-differential 4WD design will see limited wheel spin. This design is commonly seen on luxury crossover SUVs. A Crossover &mdash variously called XUV or CUV, for crossover utility vehicle &mdash is a marketing term for a vehicle that derives from a car while borrowing

Locking differentials temporarily lock together a differential's output shafts, causing all wheels to turn at the same rate, providing torque in case of slippage. A locking differential or locker is a variation on the standard automotive differential. This is generally used for the center differential, which distributes power between the front and the rear axles. While a drivetrain that turns all wheels equally would normally fight the driver and cause handling problems, this is not a concern when wheels are slipping.

The two most common factory-installed locking differentials use either a computer-controlled multi-plate clutch or viscous coupling unit to join the shafts, while other differentials more commonly used on off-road vehicles generally use manually operated locking devices. A clutch is a mechanism for transmitting rotation which can be engaged and disengaged A viscous coupling is made up of alternating circular plates The plates have tabs or perforations in them In the multi-plate clutch the vehicle's computer senses slippage and locks the shafts, causing a small jolt when it activates, which can disturb the driver or cause additional traction loss. In the viscous coupling differentials the shear stress of high shaft speed differences causes a dilatant fluid in the differential to become solid, linking the two shafts. A shear stress, denoted \tau\ ( Tau) is defined as a stress which is applied Parallel or tangential to a face of a material A dilatant (also termed shear thickening) material is one in which Viscosity increases with the rate of shear. This design suffers from fluid degradation with age and from exponential locking behavior. Some designs use gearing to create a small rotational difference which hastens torque transfer.

A third approach to limiting slippage is the Torsen differential. A Torsen differential allows the output shafts to receive different amounts of torque. This design does not provide for traction when one wheel is spinning freely, where there is no torque. It provides excellent handling in less extreme situations. A typical Torsen II differential can deliver up to twice as much torque to the high traction side before traction is exceeded at the lower tractive side.

Finally, many lower-cost vehicles entirely eliminate the center differential. These vehicles behave as 2WD vehicles under normal conditions. When the drive wheels begin to slip, one of the locking mechanisms discussed above will join the front and rear axles. Such systems distribute power unevenly under normal conditions and thus do not help prevent the loss of traction, instead only enabling recovery once traction is lost. Most minivan 4WD/AWD systems are of this type, usually with the front wheels powered during normal driving conditions and the rear wheels served via a viscous coupling unit. Such systems may be described as having a 95/5 or 90/10 power split.

History

The 1903 Spyker 60 H.P. 4WD
The 1903 Spyker 60 H. P. 4WD
Transfer case 1986 Mitsubishi Pajero
Transfer case 1986 Mitsubishi Pajero
Selection lever
Selection lever

The true inventor of four-wheel drive is not really known; the history of such was not well recorded. In 1893, before the establishment of a modern automotive industry in Britain, English engineer Joeseph Bramah Diplock patented a four wheel drive system for a traction engine, including four-wheel steering and three differentials, which was subsequently built. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland A traction engine is a self-propelled Steam engine used to move heavy loads on roads plough ground or to provide power at a chosen location The development also incorporated Bramagh's Pedrail wheel system in what was one of the first four-wheel drive automobiles to display an intentional ability to travel on challenging road surfaces. It stemmed from Bramagh's previous idea of developing an engine that would reduce the amount of damage to public roads.

Ferdinand Porsche designed and built a four-wheel driven Electric vehicle for the k. Prof Dr Ing hc Ferdinand Porsche ( The Electric Vehicle was an American Automobile manufactured only in 1899 u. k. Hofwagenfabrik Ludwig Lohner & Co. at Vienna in 1899, presented to the public during the 1900 World Exhibition at Paris. The vehicle was powered by an electric hub motor at each wheel, a design later used by NASA in the Lunar rover. A hub motor is an electric motor built directly into the hub of a wheel The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program The Lunar Roving Vehicle (LRV or lunar rover was a type of surface exploration rover used on the Moon during the Apollo program. Although clumsily heavy, the vehicle proved a powerful sprinter and record-breaker in the hands of its owner E. W. Hart. Due to its unusual status the so-called Lohner-Porsche is not widely credited as the first four-wheel driven automobile.

The first four-wheel drive car, as well as hill-climb racer, with internal combustion engine, the Spyker 60 H. Spyker was a Dutch car manufacturer started in 1880 by coachbuilders Jacobus and Hendrik-Jan Spijker but to be able to market the brand better in foreign countries in P. , was presented in 1903 by Dutch brothers Jacobus and Hendrik-Jan Spijker of Amsterdam. Amsterdam (pronounced) is the capital and largest city of the Netherlands, located in the province of North Holland in the west The two-seat sports car, which was also the first ever car equipped with a six-cylinder engine, is now an exhibit in the Louwman Collection (the former Nationaal Automobiel Museum) at Raamsdonksveer in The Netherlands. Geertruidenberg ( is a city and municipality in the province North Brabant in the south of the Netherlands.

Designs for four-wheel drive in the U. S. , came from the Twyford Company of Brookville, Pennsylvania in 1905, six were made there around 1906; one still exists and is displayed annually. Brookville is a Borough in Jefferson County, Pennsylvania, 100 miles (161 km northeast of Pittsburgh. [3] The second U. S. four-wheel drive vehicle was built in 1908 by (what became) the Four Wheel Drive Auto Company (FWD) of Wisconsin. This article is about the vehicle manufacturer See Four by four/Four-wheel drive (disambiguation for other uses Wisconsin ( or wɪˈskɑnsɨn (French Ouisconsin) is one of the fifty United States of America, located in the north central part of the United States FWD would later produce over 20,000 of its four-wheel drive Model B trucks for the British and American armies during World War I. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland was the formal name of the United Kingdom from 1 January 1801 until 12 April 1927 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Thousands of the Jeffery Quad (1913-1919) were similarly used. The Thomas B Jeffery Company was an American Automobile manufacturer in Kenosha Wisconsin from 1902 until 1916 The Reynolds-Alberta Museum has a four-wheel drive "Michigan" car from about 1905 in unrestored storage. The Reynolds-Alberta Museum, in Wetaskiwin, Alberta, Canada, one of 18 provincially owned and operated Historic sites and Museums This page tries to show every car ever made by continent and then manufacturer by country

Daimler-Benz also has a history in four-wheel drive. Daimler-Benz AG was a German manufacturer of automobiles motor vehicles and engines which was founded in 1926 In 1907 the Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft had built a four-wheel driven vehicle called Dernburg-Wagen, also equipped with four-wheel steering, that was used by German colonial civil servant, Bernhard Dernburg, in Namibia. Daimler-Motoren-Gesellschaft ( Daimler Motor Company, DMG was a German Engine and later Automobile manufacturer in operation from 1890 Steering is the term applied to the collection of components linkages etc Namibia, officially the Republic of Namibia, is a country in Southern Africa on the Atlantic coast Mercedes and BMW, in 1926, introduced a rather sophisticated four-wheel drive, the G1, the G4 and G4 following. The 1937 Mercedes-Benz G5 and BMW 325 4x4 featured full time four-wheel drive, four-wheel steering, three locking differentials, and fully independent suspension. They were produced because of a government demand for a four-wheel drive passenger vehicle. The modern G-series/Wolf such as the G500 and G55 AMG still feature some of the attributes, with the exception of fully independent suspension since it hinders suspension articulation. For G-class stars see Stellar classification. The Mercedes-Benz G-Class or G-Wagen, short for Geländewagen (or cross-country vehicle For G-class stars see Stellar classification. The Mercedes-Benz G-Class or G-Wagen, short for Geländewagen (or cross-country vehicle Mercedes-AMG GmbH, commonly known as AMG (initially known as Aufrecht Melcher Großaspach) is the high performance division of The Unimog is another Mercedes truck. Unimog (ˈjuːnɨmɒɡ designates a range of multi purpose Four wheel drive medium trucks produced by Mercedes-Benz, a division of Daimler AG.

It was not until "go-anywhere" vehicles were needed for the military that four-wheel drive found its place. The Jeep, originally developed by American Bantam but mass-produced by Willys and Ford, became the best-known four-wheel drive vehicle in the world during World War II. Jeep is an Automobile Marque (and registered trademark of Chrysler. The American Austin Car Company was a United States Automobile manufacturing Corporation tied to the British Austin Motor Company. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including Willys (since 1950 owner of the Jeep name) introduced the CJ-2A in 1945 as the first full-production four-wheel drive passenger vehicle. Willys was the brand name used by the United States Automobile company Willys-Overland Motors best known for its production of military and civilian The Jeep CJ (or Civilian Jeep) was a commercial version of the famous Military Jeep from World War II. Possibly beaten by the 1941 GAZ-61. GAZ-61 was a Four wheel drive car from GAZ first introduced in 1938 GAZ-61 to replace V

The Land Rover appeared at the Amsterdam Motor Show in 1948, originally conceived as a stop-gap product for the struggling Rover car company, and despite chronic under-investment succeeded far better than the passenger cars. Land Rover is an all-terrain vehicle and Multi Purpose Vehicle (MPV manufacturer based in Solihull, England, now operated as part of the Jaguar Land Rover developed a luxury 4WD with the Range Rover in the 1970s, which, unlike some offerings from other manufacturers, was capable of serious off-road use. Land Rover Range Rover Classic|Range Rover SportThe Range Rover is a Four-wheel drive luxury Sport utility vehicle (SUV produced by Land Rover in the The inspiration was a Willys MB that was frequently run off-road on the farm belonging to chief engineer Maurice Wilks, and was felt that it needed some refinement. The Willys MB US Army Jeep, along with the nearly identical Ford GPW, was manufactured from 1941 to 1945 Maurice Cary Ferdinand Wilks (1904 - 1963 was the chief designer at the British car company Rover at the end of World War II, responsible for the development of the

Kaiser Jeep introduced a 4WD wagon called the Wagoneer in 1963. Kaiser Jeep was the result of the merger between the Kaiser-Frazer Corporation, an independent Automaker based in Willow Run, Michigan, and the The Jeep Wagoneer was an early Sport utility vehicle (SUV produced under varying Marques from 1963 to 1991 It was revolutionary at the time, not only because of its technical innovations such as an independent front suspension and the first automatic transmission with 4WD, but also because it was equipped and finished as a regular passenger automobile. Independent suspension is a broad term for any Automobile suspension system that allows each wheel on the same Axle to move vertically (i An automatic transmission (commonly "AT" or "Auto" is an Automobile Gearbox that can change Gear ratios automatically as the vehicle The Super Wagoneer (1966 to 1969) was powered by Rambler or Buick V8s. Rambler was an Automobile brand name used by the Thomas B Jeffery Company between 1900 and 1914 then by its successor Nash Motors from 1950 to 1954 Buick (ˈbjuːɪk is a Marque of automobile sold in the United States, Canada, China, Taiwan, Qatar, and A V8 engine is a V engine with eight cylinders mounted on the Crankcase in two banks of four cylinders in most cases set at a right angle to each other Its high level of equipment made it the first "luxury" SUV. American Motors (AMC) acquired Kaiser's Jeep Division in 1970 and quickly upgraded and expanded the entire line of serious off-road built 4WD vehicles. American Motors Corporation (AMC was an American automobile company formed on January 14 1954 by the merger of the Nash-Kelvinator Corporation The top range full-size Wagoneer Limited continued to compete with traditional luxury cars. Luxury vehicle is a marketing term for a vehicle that provides luxury &mdash that which is beyond strict necessity &mdash in exchange for increased cost to the buyer It was relatively unchanged during its production through 1991, even after Chrysler's buyout of AMC. Chrysler LLC is an American Automobile manufacturer that has been producing Automobiles since 1925

Jensen applied the Formula Ferguson full-time all-wheel drive system to 318 units of their Jensen FF built from 1966 to 1971, marking the first time 4WD was used in a production GT sports car. Jensen Motors Ltd was a British manufacturer of Sports cars and Commercial vehicles based in West Bromwich (in the West Midlands Harry Ferguson Research Limited was a British company founded by Sir Harry Ferguson and mostly known as a racing car constructor and a 4WD transmission The Jensen FF was a Four-wheel drive (4WD Grand Tourer (GT car produced by the British manufacturer Jensen Motors between 1966 and [4] Subaru introduced mass-produced the Leone in 1972 featuring a part-time four-wheel drive systems that could not be engaged on dry pavement. is the automobile manufacturing division of Japanese transportation conglomerate Fuji Heavy Industries Co The Subaru Leone was a Subcompact car produced by the Japanese car manufacturer Subaru from 1971 to 1994 The American Motors Company introduced a full time AWD vehicle the same year as the Subaru in the Jeep Cherokee and Wagoneer with Quadra Trac (1973 model year first models sold in Sept 1972)[5]. It dominated all other makes in FIA rally competition, due to the performance of the full time AWD, which did not require the driver to get out of the vehicle to lock hubs or manually select between 2WD and 4WD modes in the car like other American 4-wheel drive vehicles of the period. Locking hubs, also known as free wheeling hubs are an accessory fitted to many Four-wheel drive vehicles allowing the front wheels to be manually disconnected from Drivers Gene Henderson and Ken Pogue won the FIA championship with a quadratrac equipped Jeep in 1972 [6]

1987 AMC Eagle, the wagon was the most popular model
1987 AMC Eagle, the wagon was the most popular model
1981 AMC Eagle AWD convertible
1981 AMC Eagle AWD convertible

American Motors introduced the innovative Eagle for the 1980 model year. The AMC Eagle was an All-wheel drive passenger car produced by American Motors Corporation (AMC [7] This was the world's first complete line (sedan, coupe, and station wagon) of permanent automatic all-wheel drive passenger models. A station wagon (or simply wagon) in American, Australian, Canadian and New Zealand usage and an estate car (or just estate The new Eagles combined Jeep technology with an existing and proven AMC passenger automobile platform. An automobile platform is a shared set of common design engineering and production efforts as well as major components over a number of outwardly distinct models and even types of They ushered a whole new product category of "sport-utility" or Crossover SUV. A Crossover &mdash variously called XUV or CUV, for crossover utility vehicle &mdash is a marketing term for a vehicle that derives from a car while borrowing AMC's Eagles came with the comfort and high level appointments expected of regular passenger models and used the off-road technology for an extra margin of safety and traction. [8]

The Eagle's thick viscous fluid center differential provided quiet and smooth transfer of power that was directed proportionally to the axle with the greatest traction. Viscosity is a measure of the resistance of a Fluid which is being deformed by either Shear stress or Extensional stress. This was a true full-time system operating only in four-wheel drive without undue wear on suspension or driveline components. There was no low range in the transfer case. This became the forerunner of the designs that followed from other manufacturers. The automobile press at the time tested the traction of the Eagles and described it as far superior to the Subaru's and that it could beat many so-called off-road vehicles. Four Wheeler magazine concluded that the AMC Eagle was "The beginning of a new generation of cars. "[9]

The Eagles were popular (particularly in the snowbelt), had towing capacity, and came in several equipment levels including sport and luxury trims. The snowbelt is a North American region much of which lies downwind of the Great Lakes where heavy Snowfall is particularly common on predominately eastern and southern Two additional models were added in 1981, the sub-compact SX/4 and Kammback. A manual transmission and a front axle-disconnect feature were also made available for greater fuel economy. During 1981 and 1982 a unique convertible was added to the line. A convertible is a type of automobile in which the vehicle's roof can retract and fold away converting it from an enclosed to an open-air vehicle The Eagle's monocoque body was reinforced for the conversion and had a steel targa bar with a removable fiberglass roof section. Monocoque, from the French for single ( mono) and shell ( coque) is a construction technique that supports structural load by using an object's external Targa top, targa for short is a semi- Convertible Car body style with a removable roof section and a full width Roll bar behind the seats

The Eagle station wagon remained in production for one year after Chrysler Corporation acquired AMC in 1987.

Audi also introduced a permanently all-wheel driven road-going car, the Audi Quattro, in 1980. AUDI AG, ( Xetra: NSU commonly known as Audi (aˈʊdi is a German Automobile manufacturer which produces Audi branded cars with headquarters The Audi Quattro is a notable road and rally car, produced by the German automobile manufacturer Audi, part of the then Volkswagen Group Audi's chassis engineer, Jorg Bensinger, had noticed in winter tests in Scandinavia that a vehicle used by the German Army, the Volkswagen Iltis, could beat any high performance Audi. The Volkswagen Type 183, more commonly known as the Iltis (German for the European Polecat) is a military vehicle built by Volkswagen for use by the He proposed developing a four-wheel drive car, soon used for rallying to improve Audi's conservative image, the resulting rally bred Audi Quattro was a famous and historically significant Rally car. Rallying is a form of motor competition that takes place on public or private roads with modified production or specially built road-legal cars The Audi Quattro is a notable road and rally car, produced by the German automobile manufacturer Audi, part of the then Volkswagen Group This feature was also extended to Audi's production cars and is still available today.

In 1987, Toyota also developed a car built for competition in rally campaigns. (pronounced) is a Multinational corporation headquartered in Japan, and is currently the world's largest Automaker. [10] A limited number of road-going FIA Homologation Special Vehicle Celica GT-Fours (otherwise known as Toyota Celica Turbo All-Trac in some markets) were produced. Homologation is a technical term derived from the Greek homologeo (ὁμολογέω for "to agree" which is generally used in English to signify The Toyota Celica name has been applied to a series of popular Coupes made by the Japanese company Toyota. The All-Trac system was later available on serial production Toyota Camry, Toyota Corolla, and Toyota Previa models. The Toyota Camry is a Mid-size car, formerly a Compact car manufactured by Toyota since 1980 The Toyota Corolla is a line of subcompact / Compact cars produced by the Japanese Automaker Toyota, which has become very popular throughout The Toyota Previa, also known as the Toyota Estima (エスティマ in Japan and the Toyota Tarago in Australia is an MPV or Multi-purpose vehicle (known

Some of the earliest mid-engined four-wheel drive cars were the various road-legal rally cars made for Group B homologation, such as the Ford RS200 made from 1984-86. A mid-engine layout describes the placement of an Automobile engine between the rear and front axles The Group B referred to a set of regulations introduced in 1982 for competition vehicles in Sportscar racing and Rally racing regulated by the FIA. The Ford RS200 is a mid-engined Four-wheel drive Sports car produced by Ford from 1984 through 1986 In 1989, niche maker Panther Westwinds created a mid-engined four-wheel drive, the Panther Solo 2. Panther Westwinds (commonly known as Panther) was a manufacturer of niche Sports cars and Luxury cars based in Surrey, United Kingdom A mid-engine layout describes the placement of an Automobile engine between the rear and front axles The Panther Solo is a mid-engined Sports car made by the British company Panther Westwinds.

Today, sophisticated all-wheel drive systems are found in many passenger vehicles and most exotic sports cars and supercars. A sports car is a term used to describe a class of Automobile. Supercar is a term generally used for a high-end Sports car, whose performance is highly superior to that of its contemporaries

4WD in road racing

Bugatti created a total of three four-wheel drive racers, the Type 53, in 1932, but the cars were legendary for having poor handling. Bugatti was founded in Molsheim, France, as a manufacturer of high performance automobiles by Ettore Bugatti, an Italian The 50 L (4972 cc/303 in³ engine from the Bugatti Type 50 road car was fitted to the chassis of the Type 51 racer to create the 1931 Type 53

Ferguson Research Ltd. built the front-engine P99 Formula One car that actually won a non-WC race with Stirling Moss in 1961. Harry Ferguson Research Limited was a British company founded by Sir Harry Ferguson and mostly known as a racing car constructor and a 4WD transmission Sir Stirling Craufurd Moss OBE (born September 17, 1929 in London) is a retired racing driver from England. In 1969, Team Lotus raced cars in F1, and the Indy 500, that had both turbine engines and 4WD, as well as the 4WD-Lotus 63 that had the standard Cosworth engine. 1950s Colin Chapman established Lotus Engineering Ltd in 1952 at Hornsey, UK. The Indianapolis 500-Mile Race, often shortened to Indianapolis 500 or Indy 500, and historically known simply as "The 500" is an American Cosworth is an Automotive engineering company founded in London in 1958 specialising in engines for automobile racing (motorsport Matra also raced a similar MS84, and McLaren entered their M9A in the British Grand Prix, while engine manufacturers Cosworth produced their own version which was tested but never raced. Mécanique Avion TRAction or Matra was a French company covering a wide range of activities mainly related to automobile Bicycles Aeronautics McLaren, founded in 1963 by New Zealander Bruce McLaren (1937&ndash1970 is a Formula One team based in Woking, Surrey, UK Given its success in other forms of motor racing notably rallying it is perhaps surprising that Four-wheel drive (4WD has only been tried a handful of times in Formula The 1969 British Grand Prix was a Formula One race held at Silverstone on July 19, 1969 Classification All these F1 cars were considered inferior to their RWD counterparts, as the advent of aerodynamic downforce meant that adequate traction could be obtained in a lighter and more mechanically efficient manner, and the idea was discontinued, even though Lotus tried repeatedly.

Terminology

Although in the strictest sense, the term "four-wheel drive" refers to a capability that a vehicle may have, it is also used to denote the entire vehicle itself. In Australia, vehicles without significant off-road capabilities are often referred to as All-Wheel Drives (AWD) or SUVs, while those with off-road capabilities are referred to as "four-wheel drives". For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. This term is sometimes also used in North America, somewhat interchangeably for SUVs and pickup trucks and is sometimes erroneously applied to two-wheel-drive variants of these vehicles. A sport utility vehicle ( SUV) is a generic marketing description for a rugged automotive vehicle similar to a Station wagon but built on a light-truck chassis

The term 4x4 (read either four by four or four times four) was coined in the 1950s to designate a vehicle, primarily a truck, which was equipped with a transfer case to drive the front wheels in addition to the rear wheels (rear-wheel drive was the norm) and a four-speed transmission (three speeds were the norm). The 1950s Decade refers to the years of 1950 to 1959 inclusive A transfer case is a part of a Four wheel drive system found in four wheel drive and All wheel drive vehicles A manual transmission (also known as a stick shift or just 'stick' 'straight drive' or standard transmission) is a type of transmission used in Usually the shifter was mounted on the floorpan (column shifters were the norm), nicknamed "four on the floor. A gear stick (also gearstick, gear lever, selection lever, shift stick and gear shifter) is the lever used to change Gear The floorpan is a large Sheet metal stamping that often incorporates several smaller welded stampings to form the floor of a large Vehicle and A nickname is a Name of an entity or thing that is not its Proper name. A manual transmission (also known as a stick shift or just 'stick' 'straight drive' or standard transmission) is a type of transmission used in " Today, as the "norms" have shifted, the term has evolved with the times and may be used to denote the total number of wheels on a vehicle and the number of driven wheels; it is often applied to vehicles equipped with either full-time or part-time four-wheel-drive. The term 4x4 is common in North America and is generally used when marketing a new or used vehicle, and is sometimes applied as badging on a vehicle equipped with four-wheel drive. Similarly, a 4x2 would be appropriate for most two-wheel-drive vehicles, and is often used to describe them as a two-wheel drive. In Australia the term is often used to describe a ute that sits very high on its suspension. UTE ( Usinas y Terminales Eléctricas) is Uruguay 's government-owned power company This is to avoid the confusion that the vehicle might be a 4x4 because it appears to be otherwise suited to off-road applications.

Large American trucks with dual tires on the rear axles and two driven axles are officially designated as 4x4s, despite having six driven wheels, because the "dual" wheels behave as a single wheel for traction purposes and are not individually powered. True 6x6 vehicles with three powered axles such as the famous "deuce and a half" truck used by the U.S. Army has three axles (two rear, one front), all of them driven. Six-wheel drive, 6WD, and 6x6 are terms used to describe a Drivetrain which allows all six wheels to receive power from the vehicle's engine simultaneously The M35 family of trucks is a long-lived vehicle initially deployed by the United States Army, and subsequently utilized by many nations around the world The United States Army is a military organization whose primary mission is to "provide necessary forces and capabilities. This vehicle is a true 6x6, as is the Pinzgauer, which is popular with defense forces around the globe. The Pinzgauer is a family of high mobility all-terrain 4x4 and 6x6 military utility vehicles

Another related term is 4-wheeler (or four-wheeler). An all-terrain vehicle (ATV is defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI as a vehicle that travels on low pressure tires with a seat that is straddled by This generally refers to all-terrain vehicles with four wheels and does not indicate the number of driven wheels; a "four wheeler" may have two or four-wheel drive. An all-terrain vehicle (ATV is defined by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI as a vehicle that travels on low pressure tires with a seat that is straddled by (In CB slang, truckers refer to any two-axled vehicle as a "four-wheeler," sometimes in a derogatory sense, as distinguished from an "eighteen-wheeler" or tractor/trailer. CB slang (commonly called "CB Talk" are terms that those operating CB radio used mainly during the CB craze of the 1970s and 1980s truckcartransporterarp750pixjpg|thumb|right|A tractor with an auto-transport Semi-trailer. )

Unusual four-wheel drive systems

Prompted by a perceived need for a simple, inexpensive all-terrain vehicle for oil exploration in North Africa, the French motor manufacturer Citroën developed the 2CV Sahara. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Citroën (pronounced See-Troh-Enn is a French Automobile manufacturer, founded in 1919 by André Citroën. The Citroën 2CV ( French: deux chevaux vapeur, literally "two steam Horses quot from the Tax horsepower rating was an Economy car Unlike other 4x4 vehicles which use a conventional transfer case to drive the front and rear axle, the Sahara had two engines, each independently driving a separate axle, with the rear engine facing backwards. A transfer case is a part of a Four wheel drive system found in four wheel drive and All wheel drive vehicles The two throttles, clutches and gear change mechanisms could be linked, so both 12 hp (9 kW) 425 cc (26 cu in) engines could run together, or they could be split and the car driven solely by either engine. Combined with twin fuel tanks and twin batteries (which could be set up to run either or both engines), the redundancy of two separate drive trains meant that they could make it back to civilization even after major mechanical failures. Only around 700 of these cars were built, and only 27 are known to exist today. [11] Enthusiasts have built their own "new" Saharas, by rebuilding a 2CV and fitting the modified engine, gearbox and axle onto a new, strengthened chassis.

BMC experimented with a twin-engine Mini Moke (dubbed the "Twini Moke") in the mid-1960s, but never put it into production. The British Motor Corporation (BMC was a UK vehicle company formed by the merger of the Austin Motor Company and the Nuffield Organisation (parent The Mini Moke is a vehicle based on the Mini and designed for the British Motor Corporation (BMC by Sir Alec Issigonis. This made advantage of the Mini's 'power pack' layout, with a transverse engine and the gearbox in the engine sump. The Mini is a small car that was produced by the British Motor Corporation (BMC and its successors from 1959 until 2000 A sump is a low space that collects any often-undesirable liquids such as water or chemicals Simply by fitting a second engine/gearbox unit across the rear, a rudimentary 4x4 system could be produced. Early prototypes had separate gear levers and clutch systems for each engine. Later versions sent for evaluation by the British Army had more user-friendly linked systems. The British Army is the land armed forces branch of the British Armed Forces.

Suzuki Motors introduced the Suzuki Escudo Pikes Peak Edition in 1996. is a Multinational corporation headquartered in Hamamatsu Japan that specializes in manufacturing compact automobiles a full range of Motorcycles All-Terrain The Suzuki Escudo (known as Sidekick in North America and Vitara in Europe, the Philippines and Australia, as well as North America The engine is a twin-turbocharged 2. 0 L V6, mated to a sequential 6-speed manual transmission.

Nissan Motors has developed a system called E4WD, wherein the rear wheels, in a car that is normally front-wheel drive, are driven by electric motors. This system was introduced in some variants of the Nissan Cube and Tiida. The Nissan Cube is a Mini MPV produced by Nissan and sold only in Japan. The Nissan Tiida is a Compact car with a US EPA midsize car rating because of its large interior space manufactured by Japanese automaker Nissan, replacing

Chrysler's Jeep Division debuted the twin engine, 670 hp (500 kW) Jeep Hurricane concept at the 2005 North American International Auto Show in Detroit. Jeep is an Automobile Marque (and registered trademark of Chrysler. The Jeep Hurricane is a Concept vehicle that was unveiled at the 2005 North American International Auto Show in Detroit by Jeep, a subsidiary The North American International Auto Show (previously called the Detroit Auto Show and often abbreviated NAIAS) is an annual Auto show held in This vehicle has a unique "crab crawl" capability, which allows it to rotate 360° in place. It also has dual Hemi V8s. A Chrysler Hemi engine, known by the trademark Hemi, is an Internal combustion engine built by Chrysler that utilizes a hemispherical

Some hybrid vehicles such as the Lexus RX400h provide power to an AWD system through a pair of electric motors, one to the front wheels and one to the rear. A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV is a Hybrid vehicle which combines a conventional propulsion system with a Rechargeable energy storage system (RESS is the Luxury vehicle division of Japanese automaker Toyota Motor Corporation. In the case of the AWD model version of the Lexus RX400h (and its Toyota-branded counterpart, the Highlander hybrid), the front wheels can also receive drive power directly from the vehicle's gasoline engine as well as via the electric motors, whereas the rear wheels derive power only from the second electric motor. The Toyota Kluger, known as the Toyota Highlander in North America, is a Crossover SUV assembled by Toyota under the Toyota Brand name Transfer of power is managed automatically by internal electronics based on traction conditions and need, making this an all-wheel drive system.

4WD and AWD systems by design type

The Mercedes-Benz M-Class is a 4WD that powers all wheels evenly (continuously) via an open differential, and uses traction control to recover from wheel spin
The Mercedes-Benz M-Class is a 4WD that powers all wheels evenly (continuously) via an open differential, and uses traction control to recover from wheel spin
Honda CR-V uses a dual pump differential and lockup torque converter
Honda CR-V uses a dual pump differential and lockup torque converter

Center differential with mechanical lock, or other torque transfer features

Torsen center differential

Non-locking center differential

The above systems function by selectively using the traction control system (via ABS) to brake a slipping wheel. The Toyota Land Cruiser is a series of Four-wheel drive vehicles produced by the Japanese car maker Toyota Motor Corporation. Alfa Romeo Automobiles SpA is an Italian Automaker founded in 1910 The Alfa Romeo 156 (known internally as the type 932 is a Compact executive car introduced by Italian automaker Alfa Romeo at the 1997 Frankfurt Motor The Alfa Romeo 159 is a Compact executive car produced by the Italian manufacturer Alfa The Alfa Romeo Brera is a Grand tourer produced by the Italian automaker Alfa Romeo since 2005 The Alfa Romeo Brera is a Grand tourer produced by the Italian automaker Alfa Romeo since 2005 Torsen, (full name Torsen traction) is an Automotive part a Limited slip differential. AUDI AG, ( Xetra: NSU commonly known as Audi (aˈʊdi is a German Automobile manufacturer which produces Audi branded cars with headquarters quattro (meaning four in Italian) is the name used by Audi AG to indicate The Audi 80 is a Compact executive car produced by the German car manufacturer Audi, from 1966 to 1996 The Audi 100 is a Mid-sized Automobile from Audi (part of the Volkswagen Group) made between 1968 and 1994 The Audi A4 is a Compact executive car produced by the German automaker Audi since 1994 The Audi S4 is a high performance sport version of the Audi A4 range of cars. The Audi RS4 quattro is the top Tier and fastest performing version of the Audi A4 range (above the Audi S4) of cars. The Audi A5 is a luxury Coupé produced by the German automobile manufacturer Audi. The Audi A6 is an Executive car produced by the German Automaker Audi. The Audi S6 is a high-performance version of the Audi A6, an Executive car produced by German automaker Audi. The Audi RS6 quattro, commonly referred to as the RS6, is the highest performing version and top-of-the-line specification of the Audi A6 (positioned above the The Audi A8 is a Full-size luxury Executive car built by the German automaker Audi, to replace the Audi V8 The Audi S8 quattro is a high-performance version of the German automaker Audi 's flagship vehicle, the Audi A8. The Audi R8 is a mid-engined Sports car introduced by the German automaker Audi in 2007 priced at 113150 The Audi Q7 is a Full-size luxury sport utility vehicle (SUV produced by German automaker Audi The Bentley Continental GT is a Grand tourer Coupé with two Doors and a 2+2 seating arrangement released in 2003 replacing the previous See also Bentley Continental Flying Spur for other models using this name The Bentley Continental Flying Spur is a four-door variant of the The Chevrolet TrailBlazer is a mid-size SUV produced by the Chevrolet division of American automaker General Motors. The Lexus GX 470 is a mid-size luxury -type Sport utility vehicle (SUV sold in North American markets by Toyota 's luxury division Lexus The Toyota Land Cruiser is a series of Four-wheel drive vehicles produced by the Japanese car maker Toyota Motor Corporation. The Toyota FJ Cruiser (FJC is a retro-style Compact SUV produced by Toyota introduced as a concept at the 2003 Chicago Auto Show and in production This article is about the pickup sold in North America until 1994 and other markets as of today The Toyota Land Cruiser is a series of Four-wheel drive vehicles produced by the Japanese car maker Toyota Motor Corporation. The Volkswagen Passat is a Family car built by Volkswagen through six design generations since 1973 The Volkswagen Phaeton (pronounced "fay-ton" is a large luxury sedan manufactured by German car manufacturer Volkswagen. 4Matic is the name of an AWD Four-wheel drive system developed and used by Mercedes-Benz.

Multiple-clutch systems

Clutch pack coupling

Note the above all function like 2WD when clutch pack not engaged, and like 4WD highrange in a part time 4WD system when the clutch is engaged (usually by computer although some allow manual control). ( is a Japanese automotive manufacturer based in Hiroshima, Japan. Control Trac is the brand name of a four wheel drive system marketed by Ford Motor Company for their sport-utility vehicles Mercury is an Automobile Marque of the Ford Motor Company founded in 1939 by Edsel Ford, son of Henry Ford, to market entry-level-luxury The Mitsubishi Outlander is a compact Crossover SUV manufactured by Japanese automaker Mitsubishi Motors. The Nissan Murano is a Mid-size Crossover SUV first manufactured by Nissan in December 2002 and sold as a 2003 model The Porsche 911 (pronounced as Nine Eleven, Neunelfer is a Sports car made by Porsche AG of Stuttgart, Germany The Pontiac Torrent is the latest Sport utility vehicle (SUV offered by the Pontiac division of General Motors, being the successor of the discontinued is a Multinational corporation headquartered in Hamamatsu Japan that specializes in manufacturing compact automobiles a full range of Motorcycles All-Terrain The Toyota RAV4 (pronounced "rav-four" is a compact Crossover SUV built and marketed by the Toyota Motor Corporation. This article is about Volvo Group - AB Volvo Volvo Cars is the passenger vehicle maker owned by Ford Motor Company, using the Volvo Trademark 4motion is a registered trademark of Volkswagen Group (Volkswagen AG, used for naming Four-wheel drive (4WD systems used exclusively on Volkswagen -branded The Volkswagen Golf or VW Golf ( Mk1 and Mk5 badged as Volkswagen Rabbit in the United States and Canada, Mk1 badged as Volkswagen Some in this category have varying degrees of control in the torque distribution between front and rear via allowing some of the clutches in a clutch pack to engage and slip varying amounts. An example of a system like this is the BorgWarner i-Trac(TM) system. Four-wheel drive, 4WD, or 4x4 ("four by four" is a four-wheeled Vehicle with a drivetrain that allows all four Wheels to Note: the Haldex based car list was created from the list on Haldex corporate web site: | Haldex Cars. Interestingly, a version of the BorgWarner ITM3e system is used on 2006 and up Porsche 911TT's. These Borg Warner systems were the forerunner of the popular Volkswagen Group Direct-Shift Gearbox (DSG) gearbox. Volkswagen Group, or Volkswagen Aktiengesellschaft (German (listed as Volkswagen AG) is a German automobile manufacturing group currently The Direct-Shift Gearbox (German DirektSchaltGetriebe) or DSG, is an electronically controlled twin-shaft dual-clutch Manual gearbox, without

Off-road drive

These are vehicles with no center differential, also known as selectable 4WD. Off-road drive systems may not be driven in 4WD mode on dry pavement, as damage to the transfer case will occur.

Common 4WD clearance dimensions

Vehicle Name Ground Clearance (in) Approach Angle Departure Angle Ramp Over Angle
Land Rover Defender 110 12 49° 35° 150
Hummer H1 16 72° 37. The Land Rover Series I, II, and III are Off-road vehicles produced by the British manufacturer Land Rover that were inspired by the U The Rover V8 engine is a compact V8 Internal combustion engine with Aluminium Cylinder heads and Cylinder block, originally The Subaru Leone was a Subcompact car produced by the Japanese car manufacturer Subaru from 1971 to 1994 Since 1984 Subaru has marketed the Justy, a Subcompact Hatchback, either manufacturing the vehicle itself or marketing a rebadged version by others 5 29
Hummer H2 10. 8 40. 8° 40° 27. 5°
Hummer H3 8. 8 39. 4° 35. 5° 25. 0°
Mitsubishi Pajero 8. 9 36. 6° 25° 22. 5°
Mitsubishi Pajero R 8. 8 36. 7° 34. 8° 25. 2°
Jeep Wrangler Rubicon 10. 2 44. 3° 40. 4° 25. 3°
Jeep Wrangler Rubicon UL 10. 1 44. 4° 40. 5° 20. 8°
Jeep Liberty 9. 4 37. 2° 31. 5° 21. 8°
Jeep Grand Cherokee 9. 1 34. 1° 27° 20°
Jeep Commander 8. 5 34. 6° 27. 2° 21. 2°
Nissan Xterra 9. 5 33. 2° 29. 4° 24. 6°
Nissan Pathfinder 9. 2 32. 6° 24° 22. 3°
Nissan Frontier 10. 1 32. 6° 23. 3° 22. 3°
Lada Niva 8. 8 40° 35° 40°
Toyota FJ Cruiser 9. 6 34° 30° 27. 4°
Toyota HiLux Surf or 4Runner 9. 1 30° 26° ??
Toyota Tacoma (TRD4x4) 9. 4 35° 26° 21°
Range Rover 11. 3 35° 29° 150°
Land Rover Discover series3 9. 5 37° 29° ?°
VW Touareg 9. 3 to 11. 8 33° 33° 27°
Mercedes GL class 7. 9 to 10. 9 33° 27° °
Ford Expedition EL 8. 7 24. 1° 20. 9° 18. 7°
Subaru Outback 2. 5xt 8. 7 19° 23° 21°
Mercedes Unimog 132in 17 27° (bumper dependent) 47° 38°

(Table information was derived from the maximum values as reported by manufacturer. Unimog (ˈjuːnɨmɒɡ designates a range of multi purpose Four wheel drive medium trucks produced by Mercedes-Benz, a division of Daimler AG. Trim options and age may change actual values per vehicle)

See also

References

  1. ^ How Four-Wheel Drive Works. A limited slip differential ( LSD) is a modified or derived type of differential gear arrangement that allows for some difference in rotational Velocity An off-road vehicle is considered to be any type of Vehicle which is capable of driving on and off paved or Gravel surface A sport utility vehicle ( SUV) is a generic marketing description for a rugged automotive vehicle similar to a Station wagon but built on a light-truck chassis Dune bashing, also known as desert safari, is a form of Off-roading, using an Off-road vehicle to explore Sand dunes Whilst in some parts of Rock crawling is an extreme form of Off road driving using vehicles anywhere from stock to highly modified to overcome obstacles quattro (meaning four in Italian) is the name used by Audi AG to indicate Jeep uses a variety of Four-wheel drive and All-wheel drive systems on their various vehicles. SH-AWD, an acronym for Super Handling All Wheel Drive, is an All-wheel drive platform designed and engineered by Honda Motor Company. BMW xDrive is BMW 's Four-wheel drive system that powers the X3, X5 and 2006 and later xd and xi 3 Series and
  2. ^ part time 4WD can not be used on pavement.
  3. ^ Novak Conversions — The Dana Spicer Model 18 Transfer Case
  4. ^ "1966-1971 Jensen FF" by the Auto Editors of Consumer Guide, not dated. Retrieved on March 16, 2008. Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
  5. ^ Howstuffworks "1967-1977 Jeep Wagoneer"
  6. ^ [1]
  7. ^ Sherman, Don. "All-Wheel-Drive Revisited: AMC's 1980 Eagle pioneered the cross-over SUV." Automotive Industries, February 2001, retrieved on March 16, 2008. Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
  8. ^ Sass, Rob, "A Breed of 4-by-4 Hatched on the Fly" The New York Times, March 9, 2008, retrieved on March 16, 2008. Events 597 BC - Babylonians capture Jerusalem, replace Jehoiachin with Zedekiah as king 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common
  9. ^ 1980-88 AMC Eagle 4wd (Autoweek)
  10. ^ Celica All Trac and Gt-Four FAQ
  11. ^ Citroën 2CV Sahara - Ultimatecarpage.com - Images, Specifications and Information
  12. ^ according to Car and Driver Vol52No8 Feb 07 page 110

External links

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