Fission products are the atomic fragments left after a large nucleus fissions. Nuclear fission is the splitting of the nucleus of an atom into parts (lighter nuclei) often producing Free neutrons and other smaller nuclei which may Typically, a large nucleus like Uranium fissions by splitting into two smaller nuclei, along with a few neutrons and a large release of energy in the form of heat (kinetic energy of the nuclei), gamma rays and neutrinos. The two smaller nuclei are the "fission products".

Formation and decay

The sum of the atomic weight of the two atoms produced by the fission of one atom is always less than the atomic weight of the original atom. The atomic mass (ma is the Mass of an atom most often expressed in unified atomic mass units The atomic mass may be considered to be the total mass History See also Atomic theory, Atomism The concept that matter is composed of discrete units and cannot be divided into arbitrarily tiny The atomic mass (ma is the Mass of an atom most often expressed in unified atomic mass units The atomic mass may be considered to be the total mass This is because some of the mass is lost as free neutrons and large amounts of energy. This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός

Since the nuclei that can readily undergo fission are particularly neutron-rich (e. This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. g. 61% of the nucleons in uranium-235 are neutrons), the initial fission products are almost always more neutron-rich than stable nuclei of the same mass as the fission product (e. In Physics a nucleon is a collective name for two Baryons the Neutron and the Proton. g. stable ruthenium-100 is 56% neutrons, stable xenon-134 is 60%). Ruthenium (ruːˈθiːniəm is a Chemical element that has the symbol Ru and Atomic number 44 Xenon (ˈzɛnɒn or) is a Chemical element represented by the symbol Xe. The initial fission products therefore may be unstable and typically undergo beta decay towards stable nuclei, converting a neutron to a proton with each beta emission. In Nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of Radioactive decay in which a Beta particle (an Electron or a Positron) is emitted The proton ( Greek πρῶτον / proton "first" is a Subatomic particle with an Electric charge of one positive (Fission products do not emit alpha particles. Alpha particles (named after and denoted by the first letter in the Greek alphabet, α consist of two Protons and two Neutrons bound together into a )

A few neutron-rich and short-lived initial fission products first decay by emitting a neutron. This is the source of delayed neutrons which play an important role in control of a nuclear reactor. In Nuclear engineering, a prompt neutron is a Neutron immediately emitted by a Nuclear fission event as opposed to a Delayed neutron which is This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which Nuclear chain reactions are initiated controlled

The first beta decays are rapid, and may release high energy beta particles or gamma radiation. Gamma rays (denoted as &gamma) are a form of Electromagnetic radiation or light emission of frequencies produced by sub-atomic particle interactions However, as the fission products approach stable nuclear conditions, the last one or two decays may have a long halflife and release less energy. Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page Exceptions are:

• Sr-90 (high energy beta, halflife 30 years)
• Cs-137 (high energy gamma, halflife 30 years)
• Sn-126 (even higher energy gamma, but long halflife of 230,000 years means a slow rate of radiation release, and the yield of this nuclide per fission is very low)

Yield

Fission product yields by element at different cooling times after the fuel has been used. Strontium-90 (90Sr is a Radioactive Isotope of Strontium, with a Half life of 28 Caesium-137 (also spelled cesium is a radioactive Isotope of Caesium which is formed mainly by Nuclear fission. Tin-126 is a Radioisotope of Tin and one of only 7 long-lived Fission products While tin-126's Halflife of 230000 years translates to a See also Fission product Nuclear fission splits a heavy nucleus such as Uranium or Plutonium into two lighter nuclei which are called Fission Percentages are of total fission products (out of 100%) rather than per fission (out of 200% because two fragments for each fission)

Fission product yields by mass for thermal neutron fission of U-235, Pu-239, a combination of the two typical of current nuclear power reactors, and U-233 used in the thorium cycle

Each fission of a parent atom produces a different set of fission product atoms. However, while an individual fission is not predictable, the fission products are statistically predictable. The amount of any particular isotope produced per fission is called its yield, typically expressed as % per parent fission; therefore, yields total to 200% not 100%. See also Fission product Nuclear fission splits a heavy nucleus such as Uranium or Plutonium into two lighter nuclei which are called Fission

While fission products include every element from zinc through the lanthanides, the majority of the fission products occurs in two peaks. Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 Terminology The Trivial name " Rare earths " is sometimes used to describe all the lanthanoids together with Scandium and Yttrium One peak occurs at about (expressed by atomic number) strontium to ruthenium while the other peak is at about tellurium to neodymium. Strontium (ˈstrɒntiəm /ˈstrɒnʃiəm/) is a Chemical element with the symbol Sr and the Atomic number 38 Ruthenium (ruːˈθiːniəm is a Chemical element that has the symbol Ru and Atomic number 44 Tellurium (tɪˈlʊəriəm/ /tɛl- is a Chemical element that has the symbol Te and Atomic number 52 Neodymium (ˌniːoʊˈdɪmiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Nd and Atomic number 60 The exact yield is somewhat dependent on the parent atom, and also on the energy of the initiating neutron. [2]

In general the higher the energy of the state that undergoes nuclear fission, the more likely that the two fission products have similar mass. Hence as the neutron energy increases and/or the energy of the fissile atom increases, the valley between the two peaks becomes more shallow. In Nuclear engineering, a fissile material is one that is capable of sustaining a Chain reaction of Nuclear fission. For instance, the curve of yield against mass for Pu-239 has a more shallow valley than that observed for U-235 when the neutrons are thermal neutrons. Plutonium-239 is an Isotope of Plutonium. Plutonium-239 is the primary Fissile isotope used for the production of Nuclear weapons although Uranium-235 is an isotope of uranium that differs from the element's other common isotope Uranium-238, by its ability to cause a rapidly expanding fission The neutron temperature, also called the neutron energy, indicates a free neutron's Kinetic energy, usually given in Electron volts The term The curves for the fission of the later actinides tend to make even more shallow valleys. History of the actinoid series From the earlier known chemical properties of actinium (89 up to uranium (92 indicating a relation to the Transition metals it was generally In extreme cases such as ²⁵⁹Fm, only one peak is seen.

The adjacent figure shows a typical fission product distribution from the fission of uranium. Note that in the calculations used to make this graph, the activation of fission products was ignored and the fission was assumed to occur in a single moment rather than a length of time. In this bar chart results are shown for different cooling times (time after fission). Because of the stability of nuclei with even numbers of protons and/or neutrons, the curve of yield against element is not a smooth curve but tends to alternate. (But note that the curve against mass number is smooth [3]. )

Data on fission product yield is found in the article Fission product yield. See also Fission product Nuclear fission splits a heavy nucleus such as Uranium or Plutonium into two lighter nuclei which are called Fission

Characteristics

The adjacent tables provides information on the half-life, yield and decay energies for some more important fission products. A more detailed description of individual products is provided in Fission products (by element) and in Long-lived fission products, and in articles on specific radionuclides. On this page a discussion of each of the main elements in the Fission product mixture from the Nuclear fission of an Actinide such as Uranium or Plutonium Evolution of radioactivity in nuclear waste Nuclear fission produces Fission products, as well as Actinides from Nuclear fuel nuclei that capture

The following chart provides information on the electronegativity of the fission products.

Fission product production

Small amounts of fission products are naturally formed as the result of either spontaneous fission of natural uranium, which occurs at a low rate, or as a result of neutrons from radioactive decay or reactions with cosmic ray particles. Occurrence Scandium yttrium and the Lanthanides (except promethium tend to occur together in the Earth's crust and are relatively abundant compared with most D-block History of the actinoid series From the earlier known chemical properties of actinium (89 up to uranium (92 indicating a relation to the Transition metals it was generally Spontaneous fission (SF is a form of Radioactive decay characteristic of very heavy Isotopes and is theoretically possible for any atomic nucleus whose mass is greater The microscopic tracks left by these fission products in some natural minerals can be used to provide a method of dating old materials.

About 1. 5 billion years ago, in a uranium ore body in Africa, a natural nuclear fission reactor operated for a few hundred thousand years and produced approximately 5 tonnes of fission products. A natural nuclear fission reactor is a Uranium deposit where analysis of Isotope Ratios has shown that self-sustaining Nuclear chain reactions These fission products were important in providing proof that the natural reactor had occurred. More details are provided in the linked article. A natural nuclear fission reactor is a Uranium deposit where analysis of Isotope Ratios has shown that self-sustaining Nuclear chain reactions

Fission products are produced in nuclear weapons, with the amount depending on the type of weapon. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion.

The largest source of fission products is from nuclear reactors. In current nuclear power reactors, a small percentage of the uranium in the fuel is converted into fission products as an unavoidable by-product of energy generation. Most of these fission products remain in the fuel unless there is fuel failure, or an accident, or the fuel is reprocessed.

Applications

Supply of radioactive isotopes

Some fission products (such as Cs-137) are used in medical and industrial radioactive sources. Caesium-137 (also spelled cesium is a radioactive Isotope of Caesium which is formed mainly by Nuclear fission.

Nuclear reactor control

Some fission products decay with the release of a neutron. Since there may be a short delay in time between the original fission event (which release its own "prompt" neutrons immediately) and the release of these neutrons, the latter are termed "delayed neutrons". These delayed neutrons are important to nuclear reactor control.

Nuclear reactor poisons

Some of the fission products have a high neutron absorption capacity, such as xenon-135 and samarium-149. Xenon (ˈzɛnɒn or) is a Chemical element represented by the symbol Xe. Samarium (səˈmɛəriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Sm and Atomic number 62 Since a nuclear reactor depends on a balance in the neutron production and absorption rates, these fission product remove neutrons from the reactor and will tend to shut the reactor down or "poison" the reactor. Nuclear fuels and reactors are designed to address this phenomena through such features as burnable poisons and control rods. More details are provided in the article on nuclear reactor poisons. A nuclear poison, also called a neutron poison is a substance with a large neutron absorption cross-section in applications such as Nuclear reactors

Fission Product Decay with time

For fission of Uranium-235 the most common radioactive fission products include isotopes of iodine, caesium, strontium, xenon and barium. Iodine (ˈaɪədaɪn ˈaɪədɪn or /ˈaɪədiːn/ from ιώδης iodes "violet" is a Chemical element that has the symbol I and Atomic Caesium or cesium (ˈsiːziəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Cs and Atomic number 55 Strontium (ˈstrɒntiəm /ˈstrɒnʃiəm/) is a Chemical element with the symbol Sr and the Atomic number 38 Xenon (ˈzɛnɒn or) is a Chemical element represented by the symbol Xe. Barium (ˈbɛəriəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol Ba, and Atomic number 56 It is important to understand that the size of the threat becomes smaller with the passage of time, locations where radiation fields which posed immediate mortal threats (such as much of the Chernobyl power plant on day one of the accident and the ground zero sites of Japanese atomic bombings [6 hours after detonation]) are now safe as the radioactivity has decayed away. Please for instance see the graph below of the gamma dose rate due to Chernobyl fallout as a function of time after the accident. Many of the fission products decay through very shortlived isotopes to form stable isotopes, but also a considerable number of the radioisotopes have half lives longer than a day. Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page Please see Fission products (by element) for a discussion of the main fission products. On this page a discussion of each of the main elements in the Fission product mixture from the Nuclear fission of an Actinide such as Uranium or Plutonium

The external gamma dose for a person in the open near the Chernobyl site.

The radioactivity in the fission product mixture is mostly short lived isotopes such as I-131 and ¹⁴⁰Ba, after about four months ¹⁴¹Ce, ⁹⁵Zr/⁹⁵Nb and ⁸⁹Sr take the largest share, while after about two or three years the largest share is taken by ¹⁴⁴Ce/144Pr, ¹⁰⁶Ru/¹⁰⁶Rh and ¹⁴⁷Pm. Iodine-131 (131I, also called radioiodine, is a Radioisotope of Iodine which has medical and pharmaceutical uses Later ⁹⁰Sr and ¹³⁷Cs are the main radioisotopes, being succeeded by ⁹⁹Tc. Note that in the case a release of radioactivity from a power reactor or used fuel that only some elements are released, as a result the isotopic signature of the radioactivity is very different from an open air nuclear detonation where all the fission products are dispersed.

The portion of the total radiation dose (in air) contributed by each isotope versus time after the Chernobyl disaster, at the site thereof. The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear reactor accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Union. Note that this image was drawn using data from the OECD report, [1] and the second edition of 'The radiochemical manual'.

Fission products in power reactors

In a nuclear power reactor, the main types of radioactivity are fission products, actinides and activation products. Fission products are the largest amount of radioactivity for the first several hundred years, while actinides are dominant roughly 10³ to 10⁵ years after fuel use.

Fission occurs in the nuclear fuel, and the fission products are primarily retained within the fuel close to where they are produced. These fission products are important to the operation of the reactor because (as noted above) some fission products contribute delayed neutrons that are useful for reactor control while others are neutron poisons that tend to inhibit the nuclear reaction. The buildup of the fission product poisons is a key factor in determining the maximum duration a given fuel element can be kept within the reactor. The decay of short-lived fission products also provide a source of heat within the fuel that continues even after the reactor has been shutdown and the fission reactions stopped. It is this decay heat that sets the requirements for cooling of a reactor after shutdown. More details on these topics are provided in the articles on nuclear power plants and used nuclear fuel. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions Spent nuclear fuel, occasionally called used nuclear fuel, is Nuclear fuel that has been irradiated in a Nuclear reactor (usually at a Nuclear power

If the fuel cladding around the fuel develops holes, then fission products can leak into the primary coolant. A coolant is a fluid which flows through a device in order to prevent its overheating transferring the heat produced by the device to other devices that utilize or dissipate it Depending on the fission product chemistry, it may settle within the reactor core or travel through the coolant system. Coolant systems include chemistry control systems that among other purposes, will tend to remove such fission products. In a well-designed power reactor running under normal conditions, the radioactivity of the coolant is very low.

Fission products in nuclear weapons

Nuclear weapons use fission as either the partial or the main energy source. Depending on the weapon design and where it is exploded, the relative importance of the fission product radioactivity will vary compared to the activation product radioactivity in the total fallout radioactivity.

The immediate fission products from nuclear weapon fission are essentially the same as those from any other fission source, depending slightly on the particular nuclide that is fissioning. However, the very short time scale for the reaction makes a difference in the particular mix of isotopes produced from an atomic bomb.

For example, the ¹³⁴Cs/¹³⁷Cs ratio provides an easy method of distinguishing between fallout from a bomb and the fission products from a power reactor. Almost no Cs-134 is formed by nuclear fission (because xenon-134 is stable). Caesium -134 has a Half-life of 20652 years It is produced both directly (at a very small yield as a Fission product, but not via Beta decay of other Xenon (ˈzɛnɒn or) is a Chemical element represented by the symbol Xe. The ¹³⁴Cs is formed by the neutron activation of the stable ¹³³Cs which is formed by the decay of isotopes in the isobar (A = 133). Neutron activation is the process in which Neutron radiation induces Radioactivity in materials and occurs when atomic nuclei capture Free neutrons so in a momentary criticality by the time that the neutron flux becomes zero too little time will have passed for any ¹³³Cs to be present. This article is a discussion of neutrons in general For the specific case of a neutron found outside the nucleus see Free neutron. While in a power reactor plenty of time exists for the decay of the isotopes in the isobar to form ¹³³Cs, the ¹³³Cs thus formed can then be activated to form ¹³⁴Cs only if the time between the start and the end of the criticality is long.

According to Jiri Hala's textbook the radioactivity in the fission product mixture (due to an atom bomb) is mostly caused by short-lived isotopes such as I-131 and Ba-140. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Iodine-131 (131I, also called radioiodine, is a Radioisotope of Iodine which has medical and pharmaceutical uses Barium (ˈbɛəriəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol Ba, and Atomic number 56 After about four months Ce-141, Zr-95/Nb-95, and Sr-89 represent the largest share of radioactive material. Cerium (ˈsɪəriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Ce and Atomic number 58 Zirconium (zɚˈkoʊniəm /ˌzɝˈkoʊniəm/ is a Chemical element with the symbol Zr and Atomic number 40 Niobium (naɪˈoʊbiəm or columbium (/kəˈlʌmbiəm/ is a Chemical element that has the symbol Nb and Atomic number 41 Strontium (ˈstrɒntiəm /ˈstrɒnʃiəm/) is a Chemical element with the symbol Sr and the Atomic number 38 After two to three years, Ce-144/Pr-144, Ru-106/Rh-106, and Promethium-147 are the bulk of the radioactivity. Cerium (ˈsɪəriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Ce and Atomic number 58 Praseodymium (ˌpreɪzioʊˈdɪmiəm or /ˌpreɪsioʊˈdɪmiəm/ is a Chemical element that has the symbol Pr and Atomic number 59 Ruthenium (ruːˈθiːniəm is a Chemical element that has the symbol Ru and Atomic number 44 Rh redirects here For other uses see Rh (disambiguation Rhodium (ˈroʊdiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Promethium-147 is an Isotope of Promethium with a Half-life of 2 After a few years, the radiation is dominated by Strontium-90 and Caesium-137, whereas in the period between 10,000 and a million years it is Technetium-99 that dominates. Strontium-90 (90Sr is a Radioactive Isotope of Strontium, with a Half life of 28 Caesium-137 (also spelled cesium is a radioactive Isotope of Caesium which is formed mainly by Nuclear fission. Technetium (tɛkˈniːʃɪəm is the lightest Chemical element with no Stable isotope.

Countermeasures against the worst fission products found in accident fallout

The purpose of radiological emergency preparedness is to protect people from the effects of radiation exposure after an accident at a nuclear power plant. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions Evacuation is the most effective protective measure in the event of a radiological emergency because it protects the whole body (including the thyroid gland and other organs) from all radionuclides and all exposure pathways. However, in situations where evacuation is impossible, calling for in-place sheltering, there are measures which lend some degree of protection against harmful radioisotopes

The mixture of radioactive fission products found in the fallout from a nuclear bomb are very different in nature to those found in spent power reactor fuel. Radioactive decay is the process in which an unstable Atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting ionizing particles and Radiation. Fallout is the residual radiation hazard from a Nuclear explosion, so named because it "falls out" of the atmosphere into which it is spread during the explosion A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. This is because the reactor fuel will have had more time for the short lived isotopes to decay, and because for many accident types that the volatile elements are liberated while the involitiles are retained at the accident site. As a result the contribution of many shortlived (eg ⁹⁷Zr) and/or involtiles to the off site gamma dose is less for accident fallout than it is for local fallout from a bomb detonation.

Iodine

At least three isotopes of iodine are important. There are 37 Isotopes of Iodine ( I) and only one 127I is stable ¹²⁹I, ¹³¹I (Radioiodine) and ¹³²I. Iodine-129 (129I is a Radioisotope of Iodine. Formation and decay 129I is primarily formed from the Fission Iodine-131 (131I, also called radioiodine, is a Radioisotope of Iodine which has medical and pharmaceutical uses An overview of iodine exposure in the USA (resulting from bomb tests) can be seen at [4]. Iodine (ˈaɪədaɪn ˈaɪədɪn or /ˈaɪədiːn/ from ιώδης iodes "violet" is a Chemical element that has the symbol I and Atomic The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Open air nuclear testing and the Chernobyl disaster both released iodine-131. The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear reactor accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Union.

Per capita thyroid doses in the continental United States of iodine-131 resulting from all exposure routes from all atmospheric nuclear tests conducted at the Nevada Test Site. Iodine-131 (131I, also called radioiodine, is a Radioisotope of Iodine which has medical and pharmaceutical uses The Nevada Test Site is a United States Department of Energy reservation located in Nye County, Nevada, about 65 miles (105 km northwest of the City of See also Downwinders. Downwinders refers to individuals and communities who are exposed to Radioactive contamination and/or Nuclear fallout from atmospheric and/or underground Nuclear

The shortlived isotopes of iodine are particularly harmful because the thyroid collects and concentrates iodide -- radioactive as well as non-radioactive -- for use in the production of metabolic hormones. The thyroid is one of the largest Endocrine glands in the body Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus" are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body Absorption of radioiodine can lead to acute, chronic, and delayed effects. Acute effects from high doses include thyroiditis, while chronic and delayed effects include hypothyroidism, thyroid nodules, and thyroid cancer. Thyroiditis is the inflammation of the thyroid gland The thyroid gland is located on the front of the neck below the Laryngeal prominence, and makes hormones that Hypothyroidism is the disease state in humans and animals caused by insufficient production of Thyroid hormone by the Thyroid gland. Thyroid cancer refers to any of four kinds of malignant Tumors of the Thyroid gland papillary, follicular, medullary or It has been shown that the active iodine released from Chernobyl and Mayak^[1] has resulted in an increase in the incidence of thyroid cancer in the former Soviet Union. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991

One measure which may protect against this risk is taking large doses of potassium iodide before exposure to radioiodine -- the non-radioactive iodide 'saturates' the thyroid, causing less of the radioiodine to be stored in the body. Potassium iodide is an Inorganic compound with formula K[[iodide I]] Because this countermeasure simply takes advantage of the pharmacokinetics regarding iodide uptake, it affords no protection against other causes of radiation poisoning. Pharmacokinetics (in Greek: “pharmacon” meaning drug and “kinetikos” meaning putting in motion the study of time dependency sometimes abbreviated as “PK” is a Radiation poisoning, also called " radiation sickness " or a " creeping dose " is a form of damage to organ tissue due to excessive exposure to

Administering potassium iodide reduces the effects of radio iodine by 99%, and is a prudent, inexpensive supplement to sheltering. The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has approved potassium iodide as an over-the-counter medication. Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease As with any medication, individuals should check with their doctor or pharmacist before using it.

A low-cost alternative to commercially available iodine pills is a saturated solution of potassium iodide. In Chemistry, saturation has five different meanings In Physical chemistry, saturation is the point at which a Solution of a substance It usually possible to obtain several thousand doses for prices near US$ 0. 01/dose. Long term storage of KI is normally in the form of reagent grade crystals, which are convenient and available commercially. The purity is superior to "pharmacologic grade". Its concentration depends only on temperature, which is easy to determine, and the required dose is easily administered by measuring the required volume of the liquid. At room temperature, the U. S. standard adult radiological protective dose of 130mg is four drops of a saturated solution. A baby's dose is 65mg, or two drops. It should be noted that these doses are sufficient to cause nausea and sometimes emesis in most individuals. Nausea ( Latin: Nausea, Greek:, " Sea-sickness " also called wamble) is the sensation of unease and discomfort Vomiting (also called throwing up, emesis) is the forceful expulsion of the contents of one's Stomach through the Mouth and sometimes the It's normally administered in a ball of bread, because it tastes incredibly bad. Use is contraindicated in individual known to be allergic to iodine; for such persons sodium perchlorate is one alternative (see chap 13, Kearney). Sodium perchlorate is a Perchlorate of Sodium and has the Formula NaClO4

1. Cresson Kearny, Nuclear War Survival Skills, available on line at Oregon Institute of Science and Medicine, created with the permission of the author. The information on KI is near the end of chapter 13. This manual has proven technical info on expedient fallout shelters, and assorted shelter system needs that can be created from common household items. OISM also offers free downloads of other civil defense and shelter information as well.

Caesium

The Chernobyl accident released a large amount of caesium isotopes, these were dispersed over a wide area. Chernobyl (as transliterated from the Чернобыль) or Chornobyl (as transliterated from Чорнобиль tʃɔrˈnɔbɪlʲ was a city in northern For instance they can be found in the soil of France at low levels while in some areas of the former Soviet Union the concentration in soil is sometimes much higher. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 For a review of the methods used to decontaminate an urban environment please see the scope report Behaviour and Decontamination of Artificial Radionuclides in the Urban Environment. Also see chapter four of the NEA reports Chernobyl ten years on and Chernobyl twenty years on for details of how farming methods can be changed to reduce the impact of accident fallout. The Nuclear Energy Agency is an intergovernmental Multinational agency that is organized under the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development.

Prussian blue

In livestock farming an important countermeasure against ¹³⁷Cs is to feed to animals a little prussian blue. Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food Prussian blue is a very dark blue colorfast non-toxic Pigment – one of the first synthetic Dyes – which was discovered accidentally in Berlin in 1704 This iron potassium cyanide compound acts as a ion-exchanger. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 A cyanide is any Chemical compound that contains the cyano group (C≡N which consists of a Carbon Atom triple-bonded to a Ion exchange is an exchange of Ions between two Electrolytes or between an electrolyte Solution and a complex. The cyanide is so tightly bonded to the iron that it is safe for a human to eat several grams of prussian blue per day. The prussian blue reduces the biological half life (different from the nuclear half life) of the caesium. The biological half-life of a substance is the time it takes for a substance (drug radioactive nuclide or other to lose half of its pharmacologic physiologic or radiologic activity Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page The physical or nuclear half life of ¹³⁷Cs is about 30 years. This is a constant which can not be changed but the biological half life is not a constant. It will change according to the nature and habits of the organism it is expressed for. Caesium in humans normally has a biological half life of between one and four months. Caesium or cesium (ˈsiːziəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Cs and Atomic number 55 An added advantage of the prussian blue is that the caesium which is stripped from the animal in the droppings is in a form which is not available to plants. Hence it prevents the caesium from being recycled. The form of prussian blue required for the treatment of humans or animals is a special grade. Attempts to use the pigment grade used in paints have not been successful. For the drug referred to as "pigment" see Black tar heroin. Paint is any Liquid, liquifiable or mastic composition which after application to a substrate in a thin layer is converted to an opaque Solid For further details of the use of prussian blue please see the IAEA report on the Goiânia accident. The International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA) is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its The Goiânia accident was an incident of Radioactive contamination in central Brazil that killed several people and injured many others [5]

Ploughing or the removal of the top layer

¹³⁷Cs is an isotope which is of long term concern as it remains in the top layers of soil. Plants with shallow root systems tend to absorb it for many years. Hence grass and mushrooms can carry a considerable amount of ¹³⁷Cs which can be transferred to humans through the food chain. Grass is the common word that generally describes Monocotyledonous green Plants The family Gramineae ( Poaceae) are the "true grasses" and include A mushroom is the fleshy Spore -bearing Fruiting body of a Fungus, typically produced above ground on soil or on its food source Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. One of the best countermeasures in dairy farming against ¹³⁷Cs is to mix up the soil by deeply ploughing the soil. The plough ( American spelling plow; both plaʊ is a Tool used in Farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed This has the effect of putting the ¹³⁷Cs out of reach of the shallow roots of the grass, hence the level of radioactivity in the grass will be lowered. ROOT is an object-oriented program and library developed by CERN. Also after a nuclear war or serious accident the removal of top few cm of soil and its burial in a shallow trench will reduce the long term gamma dose to humans due to ¹³⁷Cs as the gamma photons will be attenuated by their passage through the soil. Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel In Physics, the photon is the Elementary particle responsible for electromagnetic phenomena Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel The deeper and more remote the trench is, the better the degree of protection which will be afforded to the human population.

Release from the Chernobyl fire

More details about the caesium release from the Chernobyl accident can be found at [6] . The Chernobyl disaster was a nuclear reactor accident in the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant in the Soviet Union. A definitive report on Chernobyl is at [7] - table 1 in chapter two lists the radioisotopes released in the fire. The percentage of the inventory which was released was controlled largely by how volatile the fission product is. Hence a greater proportion of the xenon and iodine than the cerium and plutonium were released. Xenon (ˈzɛnɒn or) is a Chemical element represented by the symbol Xe. Iodine (ˈaɪədaɪn ˈaɪədɪn or /ˈaɪədiːn/ from ιώδης iodes "violet" is a Chemical element that has the symbol I and Atomic Cerium (ˈsɪəriəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Ce and Atomic number 58

Strontium

Also by the addition of lime to soils which are poor in calcium the uptake of strontium by plants can be reduced, likewise in areas where the soil is low in potassium, the addition of a potassium fertiliser can discourage the uptake of caesium into plants. Agricultural lime, also called garden lime, is a Soil additive made from pulverized Limestone or Chalk. Calcium (ˈkælsiəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Ca and Atomic number 20 Strontium (ˈstrɒntiəm /ˈstrɒnʃiəm/) is a Chemical element with the symbol Sr and the Atomic number 38 Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant However such treatments with either lime or potash should not be undertaken lightly as they can alter the soil chemistry greatly so resulting in a change in the plant ecology of the land. Agricultural lime, also called garden lime, is a Soil additive made from pulverized Limestone or Chalk. Potash (or carbonate of potash) is an impure form of Potassium carbonate ( K 2 CO3) Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of

Fission products within the back end of the nuclear fuel cycle

Caesium

It is known that the isotope responsible for the majority of the external gamma exposure in fuel reprocessing plants (and the Chernobyl site in 2005) is Cs-137. In Economics, an externality is an impact on any party not directly involved in an economic decision Nuclear reprocessing separates components of Spent nuclear fuel such as Reprocessed uranium Plutonium Minor Caesium-137 (also spelled cesium is a radioactive Isotope of Caesium which is formed mainly by Nuclear fission. ¹³⁷Cs does appear to be an indicator of nuclear fission, as it is only formed by nuclear fission of an actinide.

¹³⁷Cs is often removed from waste waters in the nuclear industry by means of solid ion exchangers. Ion exchange is an exchange of Ions between two Electrolytes or between an electrolyte Solution and a complex. A range of zeolites can be used for this task. Zeolites (Greek zein, "to boil" lithos, "a stone" are hydrated Aluminosilicate Minerals and have a micro-porous structure In nuclear reactors both ¹³⁷Cs and ⁹⁰Sr are found in locations remote from the fuel, this is because these isotopes are formed by the beta decay of noble gases (xenon-137 {halflife of 3. Fuel is any material that is burned or altered in order to obtain energy 8 minutes}and krypton-90 {halflife 32 seconds}) which enable these isotopes to be deposited in locations remote from the fuel (eg on control rods and in the space inside a fuel pin between the fuel and the cladding)

Iodine

¹³³I decays by beta particle decay (with a half life of 20. Nuclear fuel is any material that can be consumed to derive Nuclear energy, by analogy to chemical Fuel that is burned to derive energy Beta particles are high-energy high-speed Electrons or Positrons emitted by certain types of Radioactive nuclei such as Potassium -40 Half-Life (computer-game page here It's already listed in the disambiguation page 8 hours) to ¹³³Xe which in turn decays by beta decay (with a half life of 5. In Nuclear physics, beta decay is a type of Radioactive decay in which a Beta particle (an Electron or a Positron) is emitted 2 days) to ¹³³Cs. The isotopes which decay to ¹³³I are very short lived. ¹²⁹I is very long lived and this is one of the major radioactive elements which enter the sea from reprocessing plants. Iodine-129 (129I is a Radioisotope of Iodine. Formation and decay 129I is primarily formed from the Fission

Fission products which form anions

Some fission products are very long lived, examples of these include iodine-129 and technetium-99. Iodine (ˈaɪədaɪn ˈaɪədɪn or /ˈaɪədiːn/ from ιώδης iodes "violet" is a Chemical element that has the symbol I and Atomic Technetium (tɛkˈniːʃɪəm is the lightest Chemical element with no Stable isotope. Both of these are very mobile in solid/water as they form anionic species (Iodide and ⁹⁹TcO₄-). An ion is an Atom or Molecule which has lost or gained one or more Valence electrons giving it a positive or negative electrical charge

Absorption of fission products on metal surfaces

Tc

It is interesting to note that in common with chromate and molybdate that ⁹⁹TcO₄- ion can react with steel surfaces to form a corrosion resistant layer. Chromates and dichromates are Salts of Chromic acid and dichromic acid respectively In chemistry a molybdate is a compound containing an Oxoanion with Molybdenum in its highest Oxidation state of 6 Corrosion means the breaking down of essential properties in a material due to Chemical reactions with its surroundings In this way these metaloxo anions act as anodic corrosion inhibitors. An anode is an Electrode through which Electric current flows into a polarized electrical device A corrosion inhibitor is a chemical compound that when added to a fluid or gas decreases the corrosion rate of a Metal or an Alloy. The formation of ⁹⁹TcO₂ on steel surfaces is one effect which will retard the release of ⁹⁹Tc from nuclear waste drums and nuclear equipment which has become lost prior to decontamination (eg submarine reactors which have been lost at sea). A submarine is a Watercraft that can operate independently below water as distinct from a Submersible that has only limited underwater capability This ⁹⁹TcO₂ layer renders the steel surface passive, it inhibits the anodic corrosion reaction. An anode is an Electrode through which Electric current flows into a polarized electrical device Corrosion means the breaking down of essential properties in a material due to Chemical reactions with its surroundings

I

In a similar way the release of iodine-131 in a serious power reactor accident could be retarded by absorption on metal surfaces within the nuclear plant. A PhD thesis[8] was written on this subject at The Nuclear chemistry department[9] at Chalmers University of Technology in Sweden. "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation. A dissertation (also called thesis or disquisition) is a document that presents the author's Research and findings and is submitted in support of candidature Nuclear chemistry is a subfield of Chemistry dealing with Radioactivity, nuclear processes and nuclear properties Chalmers University of Technology or Chalmers tekniska Högskola ( CTH) often Chalmers, is a University in Gothenburg, "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation.

• H. Glänneskog. Interactions of I₂ and CH₃I with reactive metals under BWR severe-accident conditions, Nucl. Iodine (ˈaɪədaɪn ˈaɪədɪn or /ˈaɪədiːn/ from ιώδης iodes "violet" is a Chemical element that has the symbol I and Atomic Iodomethane, commonly called Methyl iodide and commonly abbreviated "MeI" is the Chemical compound with the formula CH3I Engineering and Design, 2004, 227, pages 323-329.

• H. Glänneskog. Iodine chemistry under severe accident conditions in a nuclear power reactor, Ph. D. Thesis, Chalmers University of Technology, October, 2005.

A lot of other work on the iodine chemistry which would occur during a bad accident has been done. [10][11][12]

References

Radioactivity, Ionizing Radiation and Nuclear Energy, by J. Hala and J. D. Navratil

DOE: Key Radionuclides and Generation Processes