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Feminism comprises a number of movements, theories and philosophies that are concerned with issues of gender difference, that advocate equality for women, and that campaign for women's rights and interests. International Women's Day ( IWD) is marked on March 8 every year Events 1618 - Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion. The feminist movement (also known as the Women's Movement or Women's Liberation) is a series of campaigns on issues such as Reproductive rights (sometimes Feminist theory is the extension of Feminism into theoretical or philosophical, ground Feminist film theory is theoretical Film criticism derived from Feminist politics and Feminist theory. Feminist economics broadly refers to a developing branch of Economics that applies feminist lenses to economics Feminist Sexology is an offshoot of traditional studies of Sexology that focuses on the Intersectionality of sex and gender in relation to the sexual lives of women Feminist Theology is a movement generally in Christianity, Judaism and New Thought, to reconsider the traditions practices Scriptures Gender equality (also known as gender equity, gender egalitarianism, or sexual equality) is the goal of the Equality of the Genders Antifeminism is opposition to Feminism in some or all of its forms Pro-feminism refers to support of the cause of Feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the Feminist movement. Feminist history refers to the re-reading and re-interpretation of history from a female perspective. ---- The history of Feminism is the history of Feminist movements and their efforts to overturn injustices of Gender inequality. First-wave feminism refers to a period of Feminist activity during the nineteenth and early Twentieth century in the United Kingdom and Second-wave feminism refers to a period of Feminist activity which began during the 1960s and lasted through the late 1970s Third-wave feminism is a term identified with several diverse strains of feminist activity and study beginning in the early 1990s Women's suffrage has been granted at various times in various countries throughout the world Suffragette is a term originally coined by the Daily Mail newspaper as a derogatory label for the more radical and Militant members of the Beginnings Lydia Chapin (Taft (February 2 1712 – November 9 1778 was a forerunner of women's suffrage in Colonial Amazon feminism is dedicated to the image of the female hero in Fiction and in fact as expressed in the Physiques and feats of female athletes martial artists Anarcha-feminism (also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism) combines Anarchism with Feminism. Black feminism argues that Sexism, class oppression and Racism are inextricably bound together Chicana feminism, also called Xicanisma, is a group of social theories that analyze the historical social political and economic roles of Mexican American Christian feminism is an aspect of Feminist theology which seeks to advance and understand the equality of Men and Women morally socially Cultural feminism developed from radical feminism It is an ideology of a "female nature" or "female essence" that attempts to revalidate what cultural feminists consider Difference feminism is a philosophy that stresses that Men and Women are ontologically different versions of the human being Ecofeminism is a social and political movement which attempts to unite Environmentalism and Feminism, with some currents linking Deep ecology and Equity feminism and gender feminism are terms coined by conservative libertarian Christina Hoff Sommers in her book Who Stole Feminism? published in 1992 Equality feminism is a submovement of Feminism. It is fundamentally at odds with Difference feminism and expresses the crucial similarities between the male Fat feminism or fat-positive feminism is a form of Feminism that argues overweight women are economically educationally socially and physically disadvantaged due Equity feminism and gender feminism are terms coined by conservative libertarian Christina Hoff Sommers in her book Who Stole Feminism? published in 1992 Global Feminism is a feminist theory concerned with the forward movement of Women's rights on a global scale Individualist feminism (sometimes also grouped with libertarian feminism or ifeminism) is a term for feminist ideas which seek to celebrate Islamic feminism is a form of Feminism concerned with the role of women in Islam. Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious legal and social status of women within Judaism and to open up new opportunities for religious experience Lesbian feminism is a cultural movement and critical perspective most popular in the 1970s and early 1980s (primarily in North America and Western Europe that questions the position Liberal feminism, also known as "mainstream Feminism," asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform Marxist feminism is a sub-type of Feminist theory which focuses on the dismantling of Capitalism as a way to liberate women New feminism is a predominantly Catholic philosophy which emphasizes a belief in an integral complementarity of men and women rather than the superiority of men over women or Postcolonial feminism is a form of Feminist Philosophy which criticizes Western forms of Feminism, notably Radical feminism and Postmodern feminism is an approach to Feminist theory that incorporates postmodern and post-structuralist theory. Pro-life feminism is the opposition to Abortion, based on Feminism. Radical feminism is a "current" within Feminism that focuses on the theory of Patriarchy as a system of power that organizes society into a complex Separatist feminism is a form of Feminism that does not support Heterosexual relationships due to a belief that sexual disparities between Men Sex-positive feminism, also known as pro-sex feminism, sex-radical feminism, or sexually liberal feminism, is a movement that began in the early 1980s Socialist feminism is a branch of Feminism that focuses upon both the public and private spheres of a woman's life and argues that Liberation can only be achieved Thealogy is a Neologism translating to "study of the Goddess " (based on Greek θεά thea, "goddess" + -λόγία Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Transfeminism as a noun is a category of feminism most often known for the application of Transgender discourses to feminist discourses and of feminist beliefs Feminism in France has its origins in the French Revolution. A few famous figures emerged during the 1871 Paris Commune, including Louise Michel, Russian-born Gerwani (from Gerakan Wanita Indonesia, Indonesian Women's Movement was an organization of communist women active in Indonesia in the 1950s The women in Revolutionary Nicaragua essentially fought a double revolution 1 to secure national freedom and 2 to secure their equality. The Feminist movement in Nepal is primarily concerned with equity and Equality of opportunity. ---- The history of Feminism is the history of Feminist movements and their efforts to overturn injustices of Gender inequality. Feminist history in the United Kingdom covers part of the Feminism movement in the United Kingdom from 1800 to the present day For Women's suffrage see History of women's suffrage in the United States. This is a list of important participants in the development of Feminism, listed by feminist ideology This is a list of important contributions to the literature of Feminism, listed by year of first publication This is a list of topics related to the issue of Feminism, Women's liberation, the Women's movement, and Women's rights: All-female The word theory has many distinct meanings in different fields of Knowledge, depending on their methodologies and the context of discussion. Philosophies: particular schools of thought styles of philosophy or descriptions of philosophical ideas attributed to a particular group or culture - listed in alphabetical A Gender difference is a distinction of biological and/or physiological characteristics typically associated with either males or females of a species in general [1][2][3][4][5]
According to some, the history of feminism can be divided into three waves. [4][6] The first wave was in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, the second was in the 1960s and 1970s and the third extends from the 1990s to the present. [7] Feminist theory developed from the feminist movement. Feminist theory is the extension of Feminism into theoretical or philosophical, ground [8][9] It takes a number of forms in a variety of disciplines such as feminist geography, feminist history and feminist literary criticism. Feminist geography is an approach in Human geography which applies the theories methods and critiques of Feminism to the study of the human environment society and Feminist history refers to the re-reading and re-interpretation of history from a female perspective. Feminist literary criticism is Literary criticism informed by Feminist theory, or by the politics of Feminism more broadly
Feminism has altered aspects of Western society, ranging from culture to law. Feminist activists have campaigned for women's legal rights (rights of contract, property rights, voting rights); for rights to bodily integrity and autonomy, for abortion rights, and for reproductive rights (including access to contraception and quality prenatal care); for protection from domestic violence, sexual harassment and rape;[10][1] for workplace rights, including maternity leave and equal pay; and against other forms of discrimination. [11][12][13]
For much of its history most of the leaders of feminism's movements and theories were predominantly middle-class white women from western Europe and North America. However, at least since Sojourner Truth's 1851 speech to American feminists, women of other races have proposed alternative feminisms. Sojourner Truth (1797– November 26, 1883) was the self-given name from 1843 of Isabella Baumfree, an American abolitionist and Women's Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate This trend accelerated in the 1960s with the Civil Rights movement in the United States and the collapse of European colonialism in Africa, the Caribbean, parts of Latin America and Southeast Asia. Since that time, women in former European colonies and the Third World have proposed "post-colonial" and "Third World" feminisms. Third World is a name given to nations that are generally considered to be underdeveloped economically [14] Some Postcolonial feminists, such as Chandra Talpade Mohanty, are critical of Western feminism for being ethnocentric. Postcolonial feminism is a form of Feminist Philosophy which criticizes Western forms of Feminism, notably Radical feminism and Chandra Talpade Mohanty (born 1955 is a prominent postcolonial and transnational feminist theorist Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own Culture. [15] Black feminists, such as Angela Davis and Alice Walker, share this view. Black feminism argues that Sexism, class oppression and Racism are inextricably bound together Angela Yvonne Davis (born January 26, 1944 in Birmingham Alabama) is an American Political activist and University Alice Malsenior Walker (born February 9 1944 is an American Author, self-declared Feminist and Womanist - the latter a term she herself [16]
Since the 1980s Standpoint feminists argued that feminism should examine how women's experience of inequality interacts with racism, homophobia, classism and colonization. Standpoint feminism argues that Feminist social science should be practiced from the standpoint of Women or particular groups of women as some claim that they List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that BenPhelpsJPG|thumb|right|Westboro Baptist Church picket signs with Ben Phelps grandson of Fred Phelps Classism is prejudice and/or discrimination on the basis of socioeconomic class Colonisation (also known as Colonization) occurs whenever any one or more species populates a new area [17][18] In the late 1980s and 1990s postmodern feminists argued that gender roles are social constructed [19][20][21] and that it is impossible to generalize about women's experience across cultures and histories. A gender role is defined as a set of perceived behavioural norms associated particularly with Males or Females in a given social group or system A social construction or social construct is any phenomenon "invented" or "constructed" by participants in a particular Culture or Society [22]
Contents |
History of feminism
Feminists and scholars have divided the movement's history into three "waves". ---- The history of Feminism is the history of Feminist movements and their efforts to overturn injustices of Gender inequality. The first wave refers mainly to women's suffrage movements of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (mainly concerned with women's right to vote). First-wave feminism refers to a period of Feminist activity during the nineteenth and early Twentieth century in the United Kingdom and The second wave refers to the ideas and actions associated with the women's liberation movement beginning in the 1960s (which campaigned for legal and social equality for women). Second-wave feminism refers to a period of Feminist activity which began during the 1960s and lasted through the late 1970s The third wave refers to a continuation of, and a reaction to the perceived failures of, second-wave feminism, beginning in the 1990s. Third-wave feminism is a term identified with several diverse strains of feminist activity and study beginning in the early 1990s [7]
First-wave feminism
First-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity during the nineteenth century and early twentieth century in the United Kingdom and the United States. First-wave feminism refers to a period of Feminist activity during the nineteenth and early Twentieth century in the United Kingdom and The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Originally it focused on the promotion of equal contract and property rights for women and the opposition to chattel marriage and ownership of married women (and their children) by their husbands. However, by the end of the nineteenth century, activism focused primarily on gaining political power, particularly the right of women's suffrage. Suffrage (from the Latin suffragium, meaning "voting tablet" and figuratively "right to vote" probably from suffrago "hough" and originally Yet, feminists such as Voltairine de Cleyre and Margaret Sanger were still active in campaigning for women's sexual, reproductive, and economic rights at this time. Voltairine de Cleyre ( November 17 1866 June 20 1912) was according to Emma Goldman, "the most gifted and brilliant Margaret Higgins Sanger ( September 14, 1879 &ndash September 6, 1966) was an American Birth control activist an advocate Reproductive rights are Rights relating to reproduction and Reproductive health. [23]
In Britain the Suffragettes campaigned for the women's vote. Suffragette is a term originally coined by the Daily Mail newspaper as a derogatory label for the more radical and Militant members of the In 1918 the Representation of the People Act 1918 was passed granting the vote to women over the age of 30 who owned houses. The Representation of the People Act 1918 was an Act of Parliament passed to reform the electoral system in the United Kingdom. In 1928 this was extended to all women over eighteen. [24] In the United States leaders of this movement included Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony, who each campaigned for the abolition of slavery prior to championing women's right to vote. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Elizabeth Cady Stanton (November 12 1815 &ndash October 26 1902 was an American social activist and leading figure of the early woman's movement. Susan Brownell Anthony ( February 15, 1820 &ndash March 13, 1906) was a prominent American Civil rights leader who played Other important leaders include Lucy Stone, Olympia Brown, and Helen Pitts. Lucy Stone ( August 13, 1818 &ndash October 19, 1893) was a prominent American Suffragist. Olympia Brown ( January 5, 1835 – October 23, 1926) was an American suffragist. Helen Pitts (1838 - 1903 was an American Suffragette and the second wife of Frederick Douglass. American first-wave feminism involved a wide range of women, some belonging to conservative Christian groups (such as Frances Willard and the Woman's Christian Temperance Union), others resembling the diversity and radicalism of much of second-wave feminism (such as Matilda Joslyn Gage and the National Woman Suffrage Association). Frances Elizabeth Caroline Willard ( September 28, 1839 &ndash February 17, 1898) was an American educator temperance Second-wave feminism refers to a period of Feminist activity which began during the 1960s and lasted through the late 1970s Matilda Electa Joslyn Gage ( Cicero New York, March 24, 1826 &ndash March 18, 1898 in Chicago) was a suffragist The National Woman Suffrage Association (NWSA was formed on May 15, 1869 in New York in response to a split in the American Equal Rights Association over In the United States first-wave feminism is considered to have ended with the passage of the Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution (1919), granting women the right to vote in all states. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The Nineteenth Amendment ( Amendment XIX) to the United States Constitution prohibits each of the states and the federal government from The term first wave, was coined retrospectively after the term second-wave feminism began to be used to describe a newer feminist movement that focused as much on fighting social and cultural inequalities as political inequalities. Second-wave feminism refers to a period of Feminist activity which began during the 1960s and lasted through the late 1970s [23][25][26][27][28]
Second-wave feminism
Second-wave feminism refers to a period of feminist activity beginning in the early 1960s and lasting through the late 1980s. Second-wave feminism refers to a period of Feminist activity which began during the 1960s and lasted through the late 1970s Betty Friedan ( February 4, 1921 – February 5, 2006) was an American feminist, activist and The Feminine Mystique is a 19 February 1963 book written by Betty Friedan which brought to light the lack of fulfillment in many women's Second-wave feminism refers to a period of Feminist activity which began during the 1960s and lasted through the late 1970s The scholar, Imelda Whelehan, suggests that the second wave was a continuation of the earlier phase of feminism involving the suffragettes in the UK and USA. [29] Second-wave feminism has continued to exist since that time and coexists with what is termed third-wave feminism. Third-wave feminism is a term identified with several diverse strains of feminist activity and study beginning in the early 1990s The scholar Estelle Freedman compares first and second-wave feminism saying that the first wave focused on rights such as suffrage, whereas the second wave was largely concerned with other issues of equality, such as ending discrimination. [23]
The feminist activist and author, Carol Hanisch coined the slogan "The Personal is Political" which became synonymous with the second wave. Carol Hanisch is a Radical feminist and was an important member of New York Radical Women and Redstockings. [10][30] Second-wave feminists saw women's cultural and political inequalities as inextricably linked and encouraged women to understand aspects of their personal lives as deeply politicized and as reflecting sexist power structures. Sexism is the belief or attitude that one Gender or Sex is inferior to or less valuable than the other and can also refer to a Hatred or distrust towards
Women's Liberation in the USA
The phrase "Women’s Liberation" was first used in the United States in 1964[31] and first appeared in print in 1966. [32] By 1968, although the term Women’s Liberation Front appeared in the magazine Ramparts, it was starting to refer to the whole women’s movement. Ramparts was an American political and literary magazine published from 1962 through 1975 [33] Bra-burning also became associated with the movement. See also Brassiere The history of the bra is inextricably intertwined with the social History of the status of Women, including the evolution of [34] One of the most vocal critics of the women's liberation movement has been the African American feminist and intellectual, Gloria Jean Watkins (who uses the pseudonym "bell hooks"), who argues that this movement glossed over race and class and thus failed to address "the issues that divided women". Gloria Jean Watkins (born September 25, 1952) better known by the Pen name bell hooks, is an American Author, She highlighted the lack of minority voices in the women's movement in her book Feminist theory from margin to center (1984). [35]
The Feminine Mystique
Betty Friedan's The Feminine Mystique (1963) criticized the idea that women could only find fulfillment through childrearing and homemaking. The Feminine Mystique is a 19 February 1963 book written by Betty Friedan which brought to light the lack of fulfillment in many women's Betty Friedan ( February 4, 1921 – February 5, 2006) was an American feminist, activist and The Feminine Mystique is a 19 February 1963 book written by Betty Friedan which brought to light the lack of fulfillment in many women's Homemaker is a mainly American term which may refer either to the person within a family who is primarily concerned with the management of the household whether According to Friedan's obituary in the The New York Times, The Feminine Mystique “ignited the contemporary women's movement in 1963 and as a result permanently transformed the social fabric of the United States and countries around the world” and “is widely regarded as one of the most influential nonfiction books of the 20th century. ”[36] In the book Friedan hypothesizes that women are victims of a false belief system that requires them to find identity and meaning in their lives through their husbands and children. Such a system causes women to completely lose their identity in that of their family. Friedan specifically locates this system among post-World War II middle-class suburban communities. World War II, or the Second World War, (often abbreviated WWII) was a global military conflict which involved a majority of the world's nations, including The middle class, in colloquial usage consists of those who have some economic independence but not a great deal of social Influence or power. South San Jose (cropjpg||thumb|A suburban development in San Jose California. At the same time, America's post-war economic boom had led to the development of new technologies that were supposed to make household work less difficult, but that often had the result of making women's work less meaningful and valuable. [37]
Third-wave feminism
Third-wave feminism began in the early 1990s, arising as a response to perceived failures of the second wave and also as a response to the backlash against initiatives and movements created by the second wave. Third-wave feminism is a term identified with several diverse strains of feminist activity and study beginning in the early 1990s Third-wave feminism is a term identified with several diverse strains of feminist activity and study beginning in the early 1990s Third-wave feminism seeks to challenge or avoid what it deems the second wave's essentialist definitions of femininity, which (according to them) over-emphasize the experiences of upper middle-class white women. In Philosophy, essentialism is the view that for any specific kind of Entity, there is a set of Characteristics or Properties all of which
A post-structuralist interpretation of gender and sexuality is central to much of the third wave's ideology. Post-structuralism encompasses the intellectual developments of continental philosophers and critical theorists who wrote with tendencies of twentieth-century Third-wave feminists often focus on "micro-politics" and challenge the second wave's paradigm as to what is, or is not, good for females. [23][38][39][40] The third wave has its origins in the mid-1980s. Feminist leaders rooted in the second wave like Gloria Anzaldua, bell hooks, Chela Sandoval, Cherrie Moraga, Audre Lorde, Maxine Hong Kingston, and many other black feminists, sought to negotiate a space within feminist thought for consideration of race-related subjectivities. Gloria Evangelina Anzaldúa ( September 26, 1942 - May 15, 2004) was a Mexican American Lesbian Feminist writer Gloria Jean Watkins (born September 25, 1952) better known by the Pen name bell hooks, is an American Author, Cherríe L Moraga (born 25 September 1952 is a Chicana writer Feminist Activist, Poet, Essayist, and Playwright. Maxine Hong Kingston (湯婷婷 born October 27 1940) is an American Professor Emeritus at the University of California Berkeley [39][16][41]
Third-wave feminism also contains internal debates between difference feminists such as the psychologist Carol Gilligan (who believes that there are important differences between the sexes) and those who believe that there are no inherent differences between the sexes and contend that gender roles are due to social conditioning. Difference feminism is a philosophy that stresses that Men and Women are ontologically different versions of the human being Carol Gilligan (b November 28, 1936) is an American feminist, Ethicist, and Psychologist best known for her work Social conditioning refers to the sociological phenomenological process of inheriting tradition and gradual cultural transmutation passed down through previous generations [42]
Post-feminism
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For more details on this topic, see Third-wave_feminism#Post-feminism. Third-wave feminism is a term identified with several diverse strains of feminist activity and study beginning in the early 1990s
Post-feminism describes a range of viewpoints reacting to feminism. The term was first used in the 1980s to describe a backlash against second-wave feminism. Second-wave feminism refers to a period of Feminist activity which began during the 1960s and lasted through the late 1970s It is now a label for a wide range of theories that take critical approaches to previous feminist discourses and includes challenges to the second wave's ideas. [43] Other post-feminists say that feminism is no longer relevant to today's society. [44] Amelia Jones has written that the post-feminist texts which emerged in the 1980s and 1990s portrayed second-wave feminism as a monolithic entity and criticized it using generalizations. [45]
One of the earliest uses of the term was in Susan Bolotin's 1982 article "Voices of the Post-Feminist Generation," published in New York Times Magazine. The New York Times Magazine is a supplement to the Sunday The New York Times newspaper This article was based on a number of interviews with women who largely agreed with the goals of feminism, but did not identify as feminists. [46]
Some contemporary feminists, such as Katha Pollitt or Nadine Strossen, consider feminism to hold simply that "women are people". Katha Pollitt (born October 14, 1949 in New York City) is an American Feminist poet essayist and critic Nadine Strossen (born August 18, 1950) is the current president of the American Civil Liberties Union. Views that separate the sexes rather than unite them are considered by these writers to be sexist rather than feminist. [47][48]
In her 1994 book Who Stole Feminism? How Women Have Betrayed Women, Christina Hoff Sommers considers much of modern academic feminist theory and the feminist movement to be gynocentric and misandrist. Christina Hoff Feminist theory is the extension of Feminism into theoretical or philosophical, ground Misandry ( IPA) is hatred (or contempt of Men or Boys. Misandry is parallel to Misogyny —the hatred of women She labels this "Gender feminism" and proposes "Equity feminism"—an ideology that aims for full civil and legal equality. Equity feminism and gender feminism are terms coined by conservative libertarian Christina Hoff Sommers in her book Who Stole Feminism? published in 1992 Equity feminism and gender feminism are terms coined by conservative libertarian Christina Hoff Sommers in her book Who Stole Feminism? published in 1992 She argues that while the feminists she designates as gender feminists advocate preferential treatment and portray women as victims, equity feminism provides a viable alternative form of feminism. [49] These descriptions and her other work have caused Hoff Sommers to be described as an antifeminist by other feminists. [50][51]
Susan Faludi in her book Backlash: The Undeclared War Against American Women, argues that a backlash against second wave feminism in the 1980s has successfully re-defined feminism through its terms. Susan C Faludi (born) is an American Pulitzer Prize -winning journalist and Author of two well-known Books She won a Pulitzer Prize for Backlash The Undeclared War Against American Women is the title of a 1991 nonfiction book by Pulitzer Prize winner Susan Faludi, which argues She argues that it constructed the women's liberation movement as the source of many of the problems alleged to be plaguing women in the late 1980s. She also argues that many of these problems are illusory, constructed by the media without reliable evidence. According to her, this type of backlash is an historical trend, recurring when it appears that women have made substantial gains in their efforts to obtain equal rights. [52]
French feminism
French feminism refers to a branch of feminist thinking from a group of feminists in France from the 1970s to the 1990s. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Feminism in France has its origins in the French Revolution. A few famous figures emerged during the 1871 Paris Commune, including Louise Michel, Russian-born French feminism, compared to Anglophone feminism, is distinguished by an approach which is more philosophical and literary. Its writings tend to be effusive and metaphorical being less concerned with political doctrine and generally focused on theories of "the body". [53] The term includes writers who are not French,[54] such as Julia Kristeva and Bracha Ettinger. Julia Kristeva (Юлия Кръстева (born 24 June 1941) is a Bulgarian - French Philosopher, Literary critic, Bracha L Ettinger (born 1951 also known as Bracha Ettinger, Bracha Lichtenberg Ettinger, Hebrew ברכה אטינגר, ברכה ליכטנברג-אטינגר
Simone de Beauvoir
The French author and philosopher Simone de Beauvoir wrote novels; monographs on philosophy, politics, and social issues; essays, biographies, and an autobiography. "La Beauvoir" redirects here also see Beauvoir (disambiguation "La Beauvoir" redirects here also see Beauvoir (disambiguation She is now best known for her metaphysical novels, including She Came to Stay and The Mandarins, and for her 1949 treatise The Second Sex, a detailed analysis of women's oppression and a foundational tract of contemporary feminism. The Mandarins (Les Mandarins is a 1954 Roman-à-clef by Simone de Beauvoir. The Second Sex ( French: Le Deuxième Sexe, June 1949 is one of the best known works of the French existentialist Simone de Beauvoir It sets out a feminist existentialism which prescribes a moral revolution. The beginning of feminist existentialism is usually attributed to the publication of the Translation of Simone de Beauvoir 's The Second Sex in
As an existentialist, de Beauvoir accepted Jean-Paul Sartre's precept that existence precedes essence; hence "one is not born a woman, but becomes one". Existentialism is a philosophical doctrine which posits that individuals create the meaning and essence of their lives and that this essence follows from their existence Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 &ndash 15 April 1980 commonly known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre (ʒɑ̃ pol saʁtʁə was a French The proposition that existence precedes essence is a central claim of Existentialism, which reverses the traditional philosophical view that the Essence or nature Her analysis focuses on the social construction of Woman as the Other, this de Beauvoir identifies as fundamental to women's oppression. The Other or constitutive other (also referred to as othering) is a key concept in Continental philosophy, opposed to the Same [19] She argues that women have historically been considered deviant and abnormal, and contends that even Mary Wollstonecraft considered men to be the ideal toward which women should aspire. Mary Wollstonecraft (ˈwʊlstənkrɑːft 27 April 1759 – 10 September De Beauvoir argues that for feminism to move forward, this attitude must be set aside. [19]
1970s–present
In the 1870s french feminists approached feminism with the concept of écriture féminine (which translates as female, or feminine writing). Écriture féminine, literally "gendered women's writing" is a strain of feminist literary theory that originated in France in the 1970s [43] Helene Cixous argues that writing and philosophy are phallocentric and along with other French feminists such as Luce Irigaray emphasize "writing from the body" as a subversive exercise. Hélène Cixous (born June 5 1937) is a Professor, French feminist Writer, Poet, Playwright, philosopher Luce Irigaray (born 1932 Belgium) is a French feminist, Philosopher, Linguist, psychoanalytic and cultural theorist [43] The work of the feminist psychoanalyst and philosopher, Julia Kristeva, has influenced feminist theory in general and feminist literary criticism in particular. Julia Kristeva (Юлия Кръстева (born 24 June 1941) is a Bulgarian - French Philosopher, Literary critic, Feminist literary criticism is Literary criticism informed by Feminist theory, or by the politics of Feminism more broadly However, as the scholar Elizabeth Wright points out, "none of these French feminists align themselves with the feminist movement as it appeared in the Anglophone world". An Anglophone (or anglophone) is someone who speaks the English language. [43][55] Recently Bracha Ettinger, an artist, theorist and psychoanalyst, has put forward ideas about the female body and what she terms "matrixial trans-subjectivity". [56][57]
Feminist theory
Feminist theory is an extension of feminism into theoretical or philosophical fields. Feminist theory is the extension of Feminism into theoretical or philosophical, ground Feminist theory is the extension of Feminism into theoretical or philosophical, ground It encompasses work in a variety of disciplines, including anthropology, sociology, economics, women's studies, literary criticism,[58][59] art history,[60] psychoanalysis[61] and philosophy. Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Literary criticism is the study discussion evaluation and interpretation of Literature. Art history is the Academic study of objects of Art in their Historical development and stylistic contexts i Psychoanalysis is a body of ideas developed by Austrian physician Sigmund Freud and his followers which is devoted to the study of human psychological functioning and behavior Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language [62][63] Feminist theory aims to understand gender inequality and focuses on gender politics, power relations, and sexuality. While providing a critique of these social and political relations, much of feminist theory also focuses on the promotion of women's rights and interests. Themes explored in feminist theory include discrimination, stereotyping, objectification (especially sexual objectification), oppression, and patriarchy. Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is A stereotype (from Greek: stereo + týpos = "solid impression" is a generalized perception of first impressions behaviors presumed by a group Objectification is the process by which Abstract concepts are treated as if they were concrete things or physical objects "Sex object" redirects here For the song by Kraftwerk see Electric Café Sexual objectification is Objectification of Oppression is the act of using power to empower and/or privilege a group at the expense of disempowering marginalizing silencing and subordinating another group Patriarchy is the structuring of Society on the basis of Family units where fathers have primary responsibility for the welfare of hence authority over [9][8]
The American literary critic and feminist Elaine Showalter describes the phased development of feminist theory. Elaine Showalter (born January 21, 1941) is an American literary critic, Feminist, and writer on cultural and social issues The first she calls "feminist critique", in which the feminist reader examines the ideologies behind literary phenomena. The second Showalter calls "gynocriticism", in which the "woman is producer of textual meaning" including "the psychodynamics of female creativity; linguistics and the problem of a female language; the trajectory of the individual or collective female literary career [and] literary history". Gynocriticism is the historical study of Women writers as a distinct literary tradition The last phase she calls "gender theory", in which the "ideological inscription and the literary effects of the sex/gender system" are explored". [64] This model has been criticized by the scholar Toril Moi who sees it as an essentialist and deterministic model for female subjectivity and for failing to account for the situation of women outside the West. Toril Moi (born 1953 in Norway is James B Duke Professor of Literature and Romance Studies at Duke University. In Philosophy, essentialism is the view that for any specific kind of Entity, there is a set of Characteristics or Properties all of which Determinism is the philosophical Proposition that every event including human cognition and behaviour decision and action is causally determined [53]
Feminism's many forms
Several subtypes of feminist ideology have developed over the years; some of the major subtypes are listed below. Betty Friedan ( February 4, 1921 – February 5, 2006) was an American feminist, activist and An ideology is a set of beliefs aims and Ideas especially in politics These subtypes often overlap, and some feminists identify themselves with several types of feminist thought.
Liberal feminism
Liberal feminism asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform. Liberal feminism, also known as "mainstream Feminism," asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform Liberal feminism, also known as "mainstream Feminism," asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform It is an individualistic form of feminism, which focuses on women’s ability to show and maintain their equality through their own actions and choices. Liberal feminism uses the personal interactions between men and women as the place from which to transform society. According to liberal feminists, all women are capable of asserting their ability to achieve equality, therefore it is possible for change to happen without altering the structure of society. Issues important to liberal feminists include reproductive and abortion rights, sexual harassment, voting, education, "equal pay for equal work", affordable childcare, affordable health care, and bringing to light the frequency of sexual and domestic violence against women. [65]
Radical feminism
Radical feminism considers the capitalist hierarchy, which it describes as sexist, as the defining feature of women’s oppression. Radical feminism is a "current" within Feminism that focuses on the theory of Patriarchy as a system of power that organizes society into a complex The term anti-pornography movement is used to describe those who argue that Pornography has a variety of harmful effects such as encouragement of Human trafficking Cultural feminism developed from radical feminism It is an ideology of a "female nature" or "female essence" that attempts to revalidate what cultural feminists consider Lesbian feminism is a cultural movement and critical perspective most popular in the 1970s and early 1980s (primarily in North America and Western Europe that questions the position Separatist feminism is a form of Feminism that does not support Heterosexual relationships due to a belief that sexual disparities between Men Sex-positive feminism, also known as pro-sex feminism, sex-radical feminism, or sexually liberal feminism, is a movement that began in the early 1980s Radical feminism is a "current" within Feminism that focuses on the theory of Patriarchy as a system of power that organizes society into a complex Capitalism is the Economic system in which the Means of production are owned by private Persons and operated for Profit and where Radical feminists believe that women can free themselves only when they have done away with what they consider an inherently oppressive and dominating system. Radical feminists feel that there is a male-based authority and power structure and that it is responsible for oppression and inequality, and that as long as the system and its values are in place, society will not be able to be reformed in any significant way. Radical feminists see capitalism as one of the most important barriers to ending oppression. Most radical feminists see no alternatives other than the total uprooting and reconstruction of society in order to achieve their goals. [10]
Over time a number of sub-types of Radical feminism have emerged, such as Cultural feminism, Separatist feminism and Anti-pornography feminism. Cultural feminism developed from radical feminism It is an ideology of a "female nature" or "female essence" that attempts to revalidate what cultural feminists consider Separatist feminism is a form of Feminism that does not support Heterosexual relationships due to a belief that sexual disparities between Men The term anti-pornography movement is used to describe those who argue that Pornography has a variety of harmful effects such as encouragement of Human trafficking Cultural feminism is the ideology of a "female nature" or "female essence" that attempts to revalidate what they consider undervalued female attributes. [66] It is also a theory that commends the difference of women from men. [67] Its critics assert that because it is based on an essentialist view of the differences between women and men and advocates independence and institution building, it has led feminists to retreat from politics to “life-style”[68] Once such critic, Alice Echols (a feminist historian and cultural theorist), credits Redstockings member Brooke Williams with introducing the term cultural feminism in 1975 to describe the depoliticisation of radical feminism[69]. In Philosophy, essentialism is the view that for any specific kind of Entity, there is a set of Characteristics or Properties all of which Alice Echols is a cultural critic and a historian of the 1960's Redstockings, also known as Redstockings of the Women's Liberation Movement, is a Radical feminist group that was most active during the 1970s Radical feminism is a "current" within Feminism that focuses on the theory of Patriarchy as a system of power that organizes society into a complex
Separatist feminism is a form of radical feminism that does not support heterosexual relationships. Heterosexuality refers to sexual behavior with or attraction to people of the opposite sex or to a heterosexual orientation Its proponents argue that the sexual disparities between men and women are unresolvable. Sexism is the belief or attitude that one Gender or Sex is inferior to or less valuable than the other and can also refer to a Hatred or distrust towards Separatist feminists generally do not feel that men can make positive contributions to the feminist movement and that even well-intentioned men replicate patriarchal dynamics. Patriarchy is the structuring of Society on the basis of Family units where fathers have primary responsibility for the welfare of hence authority over [70] Author Marilyn Frye describes separatist feminism as "separation of various sorts or modes from men and from institutions, relationships, roles and activities that are male-defined, male-dominated, and operating for the benefit of males and the maintenance of male privilege — this separation being initiated or maintained, at will, by women". Marilyn Frye (born 1941 in Tulsa, Oklahoma) is a philosophy professor and feminist theorist. [71]
Black feminism
Black feminism argues that sexism, class oppression, and racism are inextricably bound together. Angela Yvonne Davis (born January 26, 1944 in Birmingham Alabama) is an American Political activist and University Events 37 - Roman Emperor Caligula accepts the titles of the Principate, entitled to him by the Senate. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Black feminism argues that Sexism, class oppression and Racism are inextricably bound together Sexism is the belief or attitude that one Gender or Sex is inferior to or less valuable than the other and can also refer to a Hatred or distrust towards List of racism-related topics|Racism by country Racism, by its simplest definition is the belief that race is the primary determinant of human traits and capacities and that [72] Forms of feminism that strive to overcome sexism and class oppression but ignore race can discriminate against many people, including women, through racial bias. Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions (or stratification) between individuals or groups in Societies or Cultures. The Combahee River Collective argued in 1974 that the liberation of black women entails freedom for all people, since it would require the end of racism, sexism, and class oppression. The Combahee River Collective was a Black feminist Lesbian organization active in Boston from 1974 to 1980 [73] One of the theories that evolved out of this movement was Alice Walker's Womanism. Alice Malsenior Walker (born February 9 1944 is an American Author, self-declared Feminist and Womanist - the latter a term she herself It emerged after the early feminist movements that were led specifically by white women who advocated social changes such as woman’s suffrage. These movements were largely white middle-class movements and ignored oppression based on racism and classism. Alice Walker and other Womanists pointed out that black women experienced a different and more intense kind of oppression from that of white women. [16]
Angela Davis was one of the first people who articulated an argument centered around the intersection of race, gender, and class in her book, Women, Race, and Class. Angela Yvonne Davis (born January 26, 1944 in Birmingham Alabama) is an American Political activist and University [74] Kimberle Crenshaw, a prominent feminist law theorist, gave the idea the name Intersectionality while discussing identity politics in her essay, "Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics and Violence Against Women of Color". Kimberlé Williams Crenshaw (born 1959 is a prominent figure in Critical Race Theory and a law professor specializing in race and gender issues Intersectionality is a theory which seeks to examine the ways in which various socially and culturally constructed categories interact on multiple levels Identity politics is Political action to advance the interests of members of a group whose members are oppressed by virtue of a shared and marginalized Identity (such
Postcolonial feminism and third-world feminism
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For more details on this topic, see Postcolonial feminism. Postcolonial feminism is a form of Feminist Philosophy which criticizes Western forms of Feminism, notably Radical feminism and
Postcolonial feminists argue that oppression relating to the colonial experience, particularly racial, class, and ethnic oppression, has marginalized women in postcolonial societies. Orientalism refers to the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers designers and artists and can also refer to a sympathetic stance Postcolonialism ( postcolonial theory, post-colonial theory) is an intellectual discourse that holds together a set of theories found among the texts and Transnational Feminism is a contemporary paradigm The name highlights the difference between inter national and trans national conceptions of feminism and favours Postcolonial feminism is a form of Feminist Philosophy which criticizes Western forms of Feminism, notably Radical feminism and See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism They challenge the assumption that gender oppression is the primary force of patriarchy. Postcolonial feminists object to portrayals of women of non-Western societies as passive and voiceless victims and the portrayal of Western women as modern, educated and empowered. [75]
Postcolonial feminism emerged from the gendered history of colonialism: colonial powers often imposed Western norms on colonized regions. Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin In the 1940s and 1950s, after the formation of the United Nations, former colonies were monitored by the West for what was considered "social progress". The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security The status of women in the developing world has been monitored by organizations such as the United Nations and as a result traditional practices and roles taken up by women—sometimes seen as distasteful by Western standards—could be considered a form of rebellion against colonial oppression. Developing countries are countries that haven't reached Western-style standards of democratic government free market economy industrialization social programs and human rights guaranties [76] Postcolonial feminists today struggle to fight gender oppression within their own cultural models of society rather than through those imposed by the Western colonizers. [77]
Postcolonial feminism is critical of Western forms of feminism, notably radical feminism and liberal feminism and their universalization of female experience. Born Nasrin Jahan Taslima to Rajab Ali and Idul Ara Taslima Nasrin (তসিলমা নাসরিন also spelled Taslima Nasreen and popularly referred to as 'Taslima' Radical feminism is a "current" within Feminism that focuses on the theory of Patriarchy as a system of power that organizes society into a complex Liberal feminism, also known as "mainstream Feminism," asserts the equality of men and women through political and legal reform Postcolonial feminists argue that cultures impacted by colonialism are often vastly different and should be treated as such. Colonial oppression may result in the glorification of pre-colonial culture, which, in cultures with traditions of power stratification along gender lines, could mean the acceptance of, or refusal to deal with, inherent issues of gender inequality. [78] Postcolonial feminists can be described as feminists who have reacted against both universalizing tendencies in Western feminist thought and a lack of attention to gender issues in mainstream postcolonial thought. Postcolonialism ( postcolonial theory, post-colonial theory) is an intellectual discourse that holds together a set of theories found among the texts and [79]
Third-world feminism has been described as a group of feminist theories developed by feminists who acquired their views and took part in feminist politics in so-called third-world countries. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Third World is a name given to nations that are generally considered to be underdeveloped economically [14] Although women from the third world have been engaged in the feminist movement, Chandra Talpade Mohanty and Sarojini Sahoo criticize Western feminism on the grounds that it is ethnocentric and does not take into account the unique experiences of women from third-world countries or the existence of feminisms indigenous to third-world countries. Chandra Talpade Mohanty (born 1955 is a prominent postcolonial and transnational feminist theorist Sarojini Sahoo ( Oriya: ସରୋଜିନୀ ସାହୁ) (born 1956) is an Indian Feminist writer who has won the Orissa Sahitya Ethnocentrism is the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one's own Culture. Traditional knowledge (TK indigenous knowledge (IK and local knowledge generally refer to the matured long-standing Traditions and practices of According to Chandra Talpade Mohanty , women in the third world feel that Western feminism bases its understanding of women on "internal racism, classism and homophobia". Chandra Talpade Mohanty (born 1955 is a prominent postcolonial and transnational feminist theorist [15]. According to Sarojini Sahoo , “sexual liberty is a major question for third wave feminist in Europe and it is an important question but for the Asian African feminist”. Sarojini Sahoo ( Oriya: ସରୋଜିନୀ ସାହୁ) (born 1956) is an Indian Feminist writer who has won the Orissa Sahitya This discourse is strongly related to African feminism and postcolonial feminism. Postcolonial feminism is a form of Feminist Philosophy which criticizes Western forms of Feminism, notably Radical feminism and Its development is also associated with concepts such as black feminism, womanism,[16],[80][81] "Africana womanism",[82] "motherism",[83] "Stiwanism",[84] "negofeminism",[85] chicana feminism, and "femalism". Chicana feminism, also called Xicanisma, is a group of social theories that analyze the historical social political and economic roles of Mexican American
Multiracial feminism
Multiracial feminism (also known as “women of color” feminism) offers a standpoint theory and analysis of the lives and experiences of women of color. [86] The theory emerged in the 1990s and was developed by Dr. Maxine Baca Zinn, a Chicana feminist and Dr. Bonnie Thornton Dill, a sociology expert on African American women and family. [87][88]
Socialist and Marxist feminisms
Socialist feminism connects the oppression of women to Marxist ideas about exploitation, oppression and labor. Socialist feminism is a branch of Feminism that focuses upon both the public and private spheres of a woman's life and argues that Liberation can only be achieved Marxist feminism is a sub-type of Feminist theory which focuses on the dismantling of Capitalism as a way to liberate women Rosa Luxemburg (Róża Luksemburg 5 March 1870 or 1871 15 January 1919 was a Polish-born Jewish German Marxist theorist, socialist Socialist feminism is a branch of Feminism that focuses upon both the public and private spheres of a woman's life and argues that Liberation can only be achieved Marxism is the political philosophy and practice derived from the work of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Socialist feminists see women as being held down as a result of their unequal standing in both the workplace and the domestic sphere. [89] Prostitution, domestic work, childcare, and marriage are all seen as ways in which women are exploited by a patriarchal system which devalues women and the substantial work that they do. Socialist feminists focus their energies on broad change that affects society as a whole, and not just on an individual basis. They see the need to work alongside not just men, but all other groups, as they see the oppression of women as a part of a larger pattern that affects everyone involved in the capitalist system. [90]
Marx felt that when class oppression was overcome, gender oppression would vanish as well. According to socialist feminists, this view of gender oppression as a sub-class of class oppression is naive and much of the work of socialist feminists has gone towards separating gender phenomena from class phenomena. [91] Some contributors to socialist feminism have criticized these traditional Marxist ideas for being largely silent on gender oppression except to subsume it underneath broader class oppression. [92] Other socialist feminists, notably two long-lived American organizations Radical Women and the Freedom Socialist Party, point to the classic Marxist writings of Frederick Engels[93] and August Bebel[94] as a powerful explanation of the link between gender oppression and class exploitation. Radical Women (RW is a Socialist Feminist, grassroots activist organization that provides a radical voice within the feminist movement a feminist voice within the Freedom Socialist Party is a Socialist political party with a unique program of revolutionary feminism that emerged from a split in the United States Socialist Friedrich Engels (28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895 was a German social scientist and philosopher, who August Ferdinand Bebel ( February 22 1840 &ndash August 13 1913) was a German social democrat and one of the founders of the
In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century both Clara Zetkin and Eleanor Marx were against the demonization of men and supported a proletarian revolution that would overcome as many male-female inequalities as possible. The proletariat (from Latin la ''proles'' "offspring" is a term used to identify a lower Social class; a member of such a class is proletarian [95]
Anarcha-feminism
Another offshoot of radical feminism is anarcha-feminism (also called anarchist feminism or anarcho-feminism), an ideology which combines feminist and anarchist beliefs. The scope of this article includes Bulgaria Romania Hungary former Czechoslovakia and the Balkan states Anarcha-feminism (also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism) combines Anarchism with Feminism. Anarchism is a Political philosophy encompassing theories and attitudes which support the elimination of all compulsory Government, i Anarcha-feminists view patriarchy as a manifestation of hierarchy, believing that the fight against patriarchy is an essential part of the class struggle and the anarchist struggle against the state. Class struggle is the active expression of Class conflict looked at from any kind of socialist perspective [96] Anarcha-feminists such as Susan Brown see the anarchist struggle as a necessary component of the feminist struggle. In Brown's words, "anarchism is a political philosophy that opposes all relationships of power, it is inherently feminist". [97] Recently, Wendy McElroy has defined a position (she describes it as "ifeminism" or "individualist feminism") that combines feminism with anarcho-capitalism or libertarianism, arguing that a pro-capitalist, anti-state position is compatible with an emphasis on equal rights and empowerment for women. Wendy McElroy (born 1951 is a Canadian Individualist anarchist and Individualist feminist. Anarcho-capitalism (also known as Free-market anarchism) is an individualist anarchist Political philosophy that advocates the elimination Libertarianism is a term used by a broad spectrum of political philosophies which prioritize individual Liberty and seek to minimize or even abolish the [98] Individualist anarchist-feminism has grown from the US-based individualist anarchism movement. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Individualist anarchism refers to any of several traditions that hold that "individual conscience and the pursuit of self-interest should not be constrained by any collective [99]
Individualist feminism
Individualist feminism is defined in opposition to, what writers such as Wendy McElroy and Christina Hoff Sommers term, political or gender feminism. Individualist feminism (sometimes also grouped with libertarian feminism or ifeminism) is a term for feminist ideas which seek to celebrate Equity feminism and gender feminism are terms coined by conservative libertarian Christina Hoff Sommers in her book Who Stole Feminism? published in 1992 [100][49] Some individualist feminists trace the movement's roots to the classical liberal tradition. [101] It is closely linked to the libertarian ideas of individuality and personal responsibility for both women and men. Libertarianism is a term used by a broad spectrum of political philosophies which prioritize individual Liberty and seek to minimize or even abolish the Some other feminists believe that it reinforces patriarchal systems because it does not view the rights or political interests of men and women as being in conflict nor does it rest upon class or gender analysis. [102] Individualist feminists attempt to change legal systems in order to eliminate class privileges and gender privileges and to ensure that individuals have equal rights, including an equal claim under the law to their own persons and property. Individualist feminism encourages women to take full responsibility for their own lives. It also opposes any government interference into the choices adults make with their own bodies, because it contends such interference creates a coercive hierarchy (such as patriarchy). [103][104]
Post-structural and postmodern feminism
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For more details on this topic, see Postmodern feminism. Postmodern feminism is an approach to Feminist theory that incorporates postmodern and post-structuralist theory.
Post-structural feminism, also referred to as French feminism, uses the insights of various epistemological movements, including psychoanalysis, linguistics, political theory (Marxist and post-Marxist theory), race theory, literary theory, and other intellectual currents for feminist concerns. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Post-Marxism has two related but different uses Post-marxism can be used to refer to the situation in Eastern Europe and the ex-Soviet republics after the fall of the [105] Many post-structural feminists maintain that difference is one of the most powerful tools that females possess in their struggle with patriarchal domination, and that to equate the feminist movement only with equality is to deny women a plethora of options because equality is still defined from the masculine or patriarchal perspective. [105][106]
Postmodern feminism is an approach to feminist theory that incorporates postmodern and post-structuralist theory. Postmodern feminism is an approach to Feminist theory that incorporates postmodern and post-structuralist theory. Feminist theory is the extension of Feminism into theoretical or philosophical, ground Postmodern philosophy' is a philosophical direction which is critical of the foundational assumptions and structures of philosophy Post-structuralism encompasses the intellectual developments of continental philosophers and critical theorists who wrote with tendencies of twentieth-century The largest departure from other branches of feminism, is the argument that gender is constructed through language. A social construction or social construct is any phenomenon "invented" or "constructed" by participants in a particular Culture or Society Discourse (L discursus, "running to and from" means either "written or spoken communication or debate" or "a formal discussion [107] The most notable proponent of this argument is Judith Butler. Judith Butler (born February 24, 1956) is an American Post-structuralist philosopher who has contributed to the fields of Feminism In her 1990 book, Gender Trouble, she draws on and criticizes the work of Simone de Beauvoir, Michel Foucault and Jacques Lacan. Gender Trouble ( 1990) by Judith Butler is a highly influential book in academic Feminism and Queer theory. "La Beauvoir" redirects here also see Beauvoir (disambiguation Michel Foucault ( (15 October 1926 – 25 June 1984 was a French philosopher, Historian, Intellectual, Critic and Sociologist. Jacques-Marie-Émile Lacan (French ʒak lakɑ̃ ( April 13, 1901 &ndash September 9, 1981) was a French Psychoanalyst Butler criticizes the distinction drawn by previous feminisms between biological sex and socially constructed gender. An organism's sex is defined by the gametes it produces males produce male gametes (spermatozoa or Sperm) while females produce female gametes (ova or Egg cells; individual She says that this does not allow for a sufficient criticism of essentialism. In Philosophy, essentialism is the view that for any specific kind of Entity, there is a set of Characteristics or Properties all of which For Butler "woman" is a debatable category, complicated by class, ethnicity, sexuality, and other facets of identity. She suggests that gender is performative. Gender Performativity is a term created by Feminist Philosopher Judith Butler in her 1990 book Gender Trouble. This argument leads to the conclusion that there is no single cause for women's subordination and no single approach towards dealing with the issue. [20]
In A Cyborg Manifesto Donna Haraway criticizes traditional notions of feminism, particularly its emphasis on identity, rather than affinity. Donna Haraway (born September 6, 1944 in Denver Colorado) is currently a professor and chair of the History of Consciousness Program at the She uses the metaphor of a cyborg in order to construct a postmodern feminism that moves beyond dualisms and the limitations of traditional gender, feminism, and politics. A cyborg is a Cybernetic Organism ( ie, an organism that has both artificial and natural systems Dualism denotes a state of two parts The word's origin is the Latin duo, "two". [108] Haraway's cyborg is an attempt to break away from Oedipal narratives and Christian origin-myths like Genesis. The Oedipus complex, in Freudian Psychoanalysis, is named after the Greek mythical character Oedipus, who unknowingly kills his father A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth She writes: "The cyborg does not dream of community on the model of the organic family, this time without the oedipal project. The cyborg would not recognize the Garden of Eden; it is not made of mud and cannot dream of returning to dust. "[108]
A major branch in postmodern feminist thought has emerged from the contemporary psychoanalytic French feminism. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Other postmodern feminist works highlight stereotypical gender roles, only to portray them as parodies of the original beliefs. A gender role is defined as a set of perceived behavioural norms associated particularly with Males or Females in a given social group or system The history of feminism is not important in these writings—only what is going to be done about it. The history is dismissed and used to depict how ridiculous past beliefs were. Modern feminist theory has been extensively criticized as being predominantly, though not exclusively, associated with Western middle class academia. Mainstream feminism has been criticized as being too narrowly focused and inattentive to related issues of race and class. [109]
- See also: French feminism, Deconstruction, Poststructuralism, and Postmodernism
Ecofeminism
Ecofeminism links ecology with feminism. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate Deconstruction is a term used in Philosophy, Literary criticism, and the Social sciences, popularised through its usage by Jacques Derrida in Post-structuralism encompasses the intellectual developments of continental philosophers and critical theorists who wrote with tendencies of twentieth-century Postmodernism literally means 'after the modernist movement' While " Modern " itself refers to something "related to the present" the movement of modernism Ecofeminism is a social and political movement which attempts to unite Environmentalism and Feminism, with some currents linking Deep ecology and Ecofeminism is a social and political movement which attempts to unite Environmentalism and Feminism, with some currents linking Deep ecology and Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Ecofeminists see the domination of women as stemming from the same ideologies that bring about the domination of the environment. Patriarchal systems, where men own and control the land, are seen as responsible for the oppression of women and destruction of the natural environment. Since the men in power control the land, they are able to exploit it for their own profit and success. In this same situation, women are exploited by men in power for their own profit, success, and pleasure. Women and the environment are both exploited as passive pawns in the race to domination. Those people in power are able to take advantage of them distinctly because they are seen as passive and rather helpless. Ecofeminism connects the exploitation and domination of women with that of the environment. As a way of repairing social and ecological injustices, ecofeminists feel that women must work towards creating a healthy environment and ending the destruction of the lands that most women rely on to provide for their families. [110]
Ecofeminism argues that there is a connection between women and nature that comes from their shared history of oppression by a patriarchal Western society. Vandana Shiva explains how women's special connection to the environment through their daily interactions with it have been ignored. She says that "women in subsistence economies, producing and reproducing wealth in partnership with nature, have been experts in their own right of holistic and ecological knowledge of nature’s processes. But these alternative modes of knowing, which are oriented to the social benefits and sustenance needs are not recognized by the [capitalist] reductionist paradigm, because it fails to perceive the interconnectedness of nature, or the connection of women’s lives, work and knowledge with the creation of wealth. ”[111] Ecofeminism also criticizes Western lifestyle choices, such as consuming food that has traveled thousands of miles and playing sports (such as golf and bobsledding) which inherently require ecological destruction.
However, feminist and social ecologist Janet Biehl has criticized ecofeminism for focusing too much on a mystical connection between women and nature and not enough on the actual conditions of women. Social Ecology is a philosophy developed by French geographer and anarchist Élisée Reclus and revived by Murray Bookchin in the 1960s Janet Biehl (1953 -) is one of the premier authors on Social ecology. [112]
- See also: Environmentalism
Feminism and society
The feminist movement has effected change in Western society, including women's suffrage; the right to initiate divorce proceedings and "no fault" divorce; and the right of women to make individual decisions regarding pregnancy (including access to contraceptives and abortion); and the right to own property. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. The feminist movement (also known as the Women's Movement or Women's Liberation) is a series of campaigns on issues such as Reproductive rights (sometimes The feminist movement (also known as the Women's Movement or Women's Liberation) is a series of campaigns on issues such as Reproductive rights (sometimes Divorce or dissolution of marriage is the termination of a Marriage. Birth control, sometimes synonymous with contraception, is a regimen of one or more actions devices or Medications followed in order to deliberately prevent An [13][12]
Civil rights
Feminism has effected many changes in Western society, including women's suffrage, broad employment for women at more equitable wages, the right to initiate divorce proceedings and the introduction of "no fault" divorce, the right to obtain contraception and safe abortions, and access to university education. Divorce or dissolution of marriage is the termination of a Marriage. No-fault divorce is a Divorce in which the dissolution of a marriage requires neither a showing of wrong-doing of either party nor any evidentiary proceedings at all A university is an institution of Higher education and Research, which grants Academic degrees in a variety of subjects
The United Nations Human Development Report 2004 estimated that when both paid employment and unpaid household tasks are accounted for, on average women work more than men. In rural areas of selected developing countries women performed an average of 20% more work than men, or an additional 102 minutes per day. In the OECD countries surveyed, on average women performed 5% more work than men, or 20 minutes per day. [113] At the UN's Pan Pacific Southeast Asia Women's Association 21st International Conference in 2001 it was stated that "in the world as a whole, women comprise 51 percent of the population, do 66 percent of the work, receive 10 percent of the income and own less than one percent of the property". [114]
Language
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For more details on this topic, see Gender-neutral language in English. Gender neutrality in English language (and in many other languages is a feature in its written and spoken versions in the late twentieth century for some people
Gender-neutral language is a description of language usages which are aimed at minimizing assumptions regarding the biological sex of human referents. Word usage is how a Word, Phrase, or Concept is used in a Language. An organism's sex is defined by the gametes it produces males produce male gametes (spermatozoa or Sperm) while females produce female gametes (ova or Egg cells; individual In general a reference is a relation between objects in which one object designates by linking to another object The advocacy of gender-neutral language reflects, at least, two different agendas: one aims to clarify the inclusion of both sexes or genders (gender-inclusive language); the other proposes that gender, as a category, is rarely worth marking in language (gender-neutral language). Gender-neutral language is sometimes described as non-sexist language by advocates and politically-correct language by opponents. [115]
Heterosexual relationships
The increased entry of women into the workplace beginning in the twentieth century has affected gender roles and the division of labor within households. Division of labour or specialization is the specialization of cooperative labour in specific circumscribed tasks and roles intended to increase the Productivity Sociologist Arlie Russell Hochschild in The Second Shift and The Time Bind presents evidence that in two-career couples, men and women, on average, spend about equal amounts of time working, but women still spend more time on housework. Arlie Russell Hochschild (born 15 January 1940) is a professor of Sociology at the University of California Berkeley. [116][117]
Feminist criticisms of men's contributions to child care and domestic labor in the Western middle class are typically centered around the idea that it is unfair for women to be expected to perform more than half of a household's domestic work and child care when both members of the relationship also work outside the home. Several studies provide statistical evidence that the financial income of married men does not affect their rate of attending to household duties. [118][119]
In Dubious Conceptions, Kristin Luker discusses the effect of feminism on teenage women's choices to bear children, both in and out of wedlock. Kristin Luker is a professor of Sociology and a professor in the Jurisprudence and Social Policy Program at the Boalt Hall School of Law, at the University of She says that as childbearing out of wedlock has become more socially acceptable, young women, especially poor young women, while not bearing children at a higher rate than in the 1950s, now see less of a reason to get married before having a child. Her explanation for this is that the economic prospects for poor men are slim, hence poor women have a low chance of finding a husband who will be able to provide reliable financial support. [120]
Although research suggests that to an extent, both women and men perceive feminism to be in conflict with romance, studies of undergraduates and older adults have shown that feminism has positive impacts on relationship health for women and sexual satisfaction for men, and found no support for negative stereotypes of feminists. [121]
Culture
- See also: Women's cinema and Women's music
Women's writing
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For more details on Women's literature written in English, see Women's writing in English. (Adeline Virginia Woolf (née Stephen; 25 January 1882 – 28 March 1941 was an English Novelist and Essayist, regarded as one of the foremost
Women's writing came to exist as a separate category of scholarly interest relatively recently. In the West, second-wave feminism prompted a general reevaluation of women's historical contributions, and various academic sub-disciplines, such as women's history and women's writing, developed in response to the belief that women's lives and contributions have been underrepresented as areas of scholarly interest. [122] Virginia Balisn et al. characterize the growth in interest since 1970 in women's writing as "powerful". [122] Much of this early period of feminist literary scholarship was given over to the rediscovery and reclamation of texts written by women. Studies such as Dale Spender's Mothers of the Novel (1986) and Jane Spencer's The Rise of the Woman Novelist (1986) were ground-breaking in their insistence that women have always been writing. Commensurate with this growth in scholarly interest, various presses began the task of reissuing long-out-of-print texts. Virago Press began to publish its large list of nineteenth and early-twentieth-century novels in 1975 and became one of the first commercial presses to join in the project of reclamation. In the 1980s Pandora Press, responsible for publishing Spender's study, issued a companion line of eighteenth-century novels written by women. [123] More recently, Broadview Press has begun to issue eighteenth- and nineteenth-century works, many hitherto out of print and the University of Kentucky has a series of republications of early women's novels. There has been commensurate growth in the area of biographical dictionaries of women writers due to a perception, according to one editor, that "[m]ost of our women are not represented in the 'standard' reference books in the field". There are a large and ever growing number of biographical dictionaries of women writers [122]
Feminist science fiction
In the 1960s the genre of science fiction combined its sensationalism with political and technological critiques of society. Feminist science fiction is a sub-genre of Science fiction which tends to deal with women's roles in society With the advent of feminism, questioning women’s roles became fair game to this "subversive, mind expanding genre". [124] Two early texts are Ursula K. Le Guin's The Left Hand of Darkness (1969) and Joanna Russ' The Female Man (1970). Ursula Kroeber Le Guin (ˈɝsələ ˈkroʊbɚ ləˈgwɪn (born October 21, 1929) is an American author The Left Hand of Darkness is a Science fiction Novel by Ursula K Joanna Russ (born February 22, 1937, New York City) born to teachers Evarett I The Female Man is a Feminist science fiction novel written by Joanna Russ. They serve to highlight the socially constructed nature of gender roles by creating utopias that do away with gender. Utopia is a name for an ideal community taken from the title of a book written in 1516 by Sir Thomas More describing a fictional Island in the [125] Both authors were also pioneers in feminist criticism of science fiction in the 1960s and 70s, in essays collected in The Language of the Night (Le Guin, 1979) and How To Suppress Women's Writing (Russ, 1983). Other major works of feminist science fiction have been The Handmaid's Tale by Margaret Atwood[126] and Kindred by Octavia Butler. The Handmaid's Tale is a dystopian novel by Canadian author Margaret Atwood, first published by McClelland and Stewart in Margaret Eleanor Atwood, CC (born November 18, 1939) is a Canadian Writer. Kindred is a 1979 novel by Octavia Butler. While most of Butler's work is classified as Science fiction, Kindred is often Octavia Estelle Butler ( June 22, 1947 – February 24, 2006) was an American Science fiction Writer, one
Riot grrrl movement
Riot grrrl (or riot grrl) is an underground feminist punk movement that started in the 1990s and is often associated with third-wave feminism (it is sometimes seen as its starting point). Riot grrrl was an underground Feminist punk movement that started in the early 1990s and is often associated with Third-wave feminism (it Riot grrrl was an underground Feminist punk movement that started in the early 1990s and is often associated with Third-wave feminism (it Third-wave feminism is a term identified with several diverse strains of feminist activity and study beginning in the early 1990s It was Grounded in the DIY philosophy of punk values, riot grrls took an anti-corporate stance of self-sufficiency and self-reliance. The DIY ethic ( Do it yourself ethic refers to the ethic of being self-reliant by completing tasks oneself as opposed to having others who are likely more experienced complete Punk ideologies are a group of varied social and political beliefs associated with the Punk subculture. Anti-corporate activists (see Activism) believe that the rise of large business Corporations is posing a threat to the legitimate authority of the public good Self-sufficiency refers to the state of not requiring any outside aid support or interaction for survival it is therefore a type of personal or collective autonomy. "Self-reliance" redirects here For the related concept of economic self-reliance see Self-sufficiency. [127] Riot grrrl's emphasis on universal female identity and separatism often appears more closely allied with second-wave feminism than with the third wave. [128] Riot grrrl bands often address issues such as rape, domestic abuse, sexuality, and female empowerment. Some bands associated with the movement are: Bikini Kill, Bratmobile, Excuse 17, Free Kitten, Heavens To Betsy, Huggy Bear, L7, and Team Dresch. Bikini Kill were an American Punk rock band formed in Olympia Washington in October of 1990. Bratmobile was an American punk band Growing from the Northwest and Washington DC underground and influenced by Indie pop in the United States as well as Britpop Excuse 17 is a Queercore punk band from Olympia Washington that performed and recorded in the mid 1990s Free Kitten is a musical collaboration between Sonic Youth 's Kim Gordon and Pussy Galore 's Julie Cafritz. Huggy Bear were an English Riot grrrl band formed in 1991 in London, England. L7 (pronounced /ɛl ˈsɛvən/ was a band from Los Angeles that was active from 1985 to 2000 Team Dresch is an American punk band that performed and recorded in the 1990s and made a significant impression on the DIY Queercore movement In addition to a music scene, riot grrrl is also a subculture; zines, the DIY ethic, art, political action, and activism are part of the movement. For the term in biology see Subculture (biology. For the song by New Order see Sub-culture (song. A zine (an abbreviation of the word Fanzine, or magazine ziːn "zeen" is most commonly a small circulation non-commercial Publication Riot grrrls hold meetings, start chapters, and support and organize women in music. [129]
The riot grrrl movement sprang out of Olympia, Washington and Washington, D.C. in the early 1990s. Olympia is the Capital of Washington and is the County seat of Thurston County. Washington DC ( formally the District of Columbia and commonly referred to as Washington, the District, or simply D It sought to give women the power to control their voices and artistic expressions (Rowe-Finkbeiner 2004:85). Riot grrrls took a growling double or triple r, placing it in the word girl as a way to take back the derogatory use of the term . [127]
The Riot Grrrl’s links to social and political issues are where the beginning rumblings of the third-wave feminism can be seen. The music and zine writings produced are strong examples of "cultural politics in action, with strong women giving voice to important social issues though an empowered, a female oriented community, many people link the emergence of the third-wave feminism to this time". [127] The movement encouraged and made "adolescent girls’ standpoints central," allowing them to express themselves fully. [130]
Religion
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For more details on this topic, see Feminist theology. Feminist Theology is a movement generally in Christianity, Judaism and New Thought, to reconsider the traditions practices Scriptures
- See also: God and gender
Feminist theology is a movement that reconsiders the traditions, practices, scriptures, and theologies of religions from a feminist perspective. Feminist Theology is a movement generally in Christianity, Judaism and New Thought, to reconsider the traditions practices Scriptures Some of the goals of feminist theology include increasing the role of women among the clergy and religious authorities, reinterpreting male-dominated imagery and language about God, determining women's place in relation to career and motherhood, and studying images of women in the religion's sacred texts. [131]
Christian feminism
Christian feminism is a branch of feminist theology which seeks to interpret and understand Christianity in light of the equality of women and men. Christian feminism is an aspect of Feminist theology which seeks to advance and understand the equality of Men and Women morally socially New feminism is a predominantly Catholic philosophy which emphasizes a belief in an integral complementarity of men and women rather than the superiority of men over women or Difference feminism is a philosophy that stresses that Men and Women are ontologically different versions of the human being Christian feminism is an aspect of Feminist theology which seeks to advance and understand the equality of Men and Women morally socially Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Because this equality has been historically ignored, Christian feminists believe their contributions are necessary for a complete understanding of Christianity. While there is no standard set of beliefs among Christian feminists, most agree that God does not discriminate on the basis of biologically-determined characteristics such as sex. Their major issues are the ordination of women, male dominance in Christian marriage, and claims of moral deficiency and inferiority of abilities of women compared to men. In general religious use Ordination is the process by which a person is consecrated (set apart for the administration of various religious rites They also are concerned with the balance of parenting between mothers and fathers and the overall treatment of women in the church. [132][133]
Islamic feminism
Islamic feminism is concerned with the role of women in Islam and aims for the full equality of all Muslims, regardless of gender, in public and private life. Islamic feminism is a form of Feminism concerned with the role of women in Islam. Islamic feminism is a form of Feminism concerned with the role of women in Islam. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Islamic feminists advocate women's rights, gender equality, and social justice grounded in an Islamic framework. Gender equality (also known as gender equity, gender egalitarianism, or sexual equality) is the goal of the Equality of the Genders Although rooted in Islam, the movement's pioneers have also utilized secular and Western feminist discourses and recognize the role of Islamic feminism as part of an integrated global feminist movement. [134] Advocates of the movement seek to highlight the deeply rooted teachings of equality in the Quran and encourage a questioning of the patriarchal interpretation of Islamic teaching through the Quran, hadith (sayings of Muhammad), and sharia (law) towards the creation of a more equal and just society. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. [135]
Jewish feminism
Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious, legal, and social status of women within Judaism and to open up new opportunities for religious experience and leadership for Jewish women. Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious legal and social status of women within Judaism and to open up new opportunities for religious experience Jewish feminism is a movement that seeks to improve the religious legal and social status of women within Judaism and to open up new opportunities for religious experience Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Feminist movements, with varying approaches and successes, have opened up within all major branches of Judaism. In its modern form, the movement can be traced to the early 1970s in the United States. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the According to Judith Plaskow, who has focused on feminism in Reform Judaism, the main issues for early Jewish feminists in these movements were the exclusion from the all-male prayer group or minyan, the exemption from positive time-bound mitzvot, and women's inability to function as witnesses and to initiate divorce. Dr Judith Plaskow is Professor of Religious Studies at Manhattan College. Hi and welcome to Wikipedia! Please understand that this article is frequently subjected to vandalism and the insertion of personal opinions A minyan (מנין lit to count number; pl minyanim) in Judaism refers to the Quorum required for certain religious This article is about commandments in Judaism For the Jewish rite of passage see Bar Mitzvah and Bat Mitzvah Mitzvah ( Hebrew: מצוה Betrothal ( shiddukhin) In Jewish law (halakha Betrothal (shiddukhin or Engagement is defined as the mutual promise between [136]
Wiccan Feminism
This is a female focused, Goddess-centered Wiccan sect; also known as a feminist religion that teaches witchcraft as every woman’s right. Dianic Wicca, also known as Dianic Witchcraft and Dianic Feminist Witchcraft, is a Goddess-centered woman-centered witchcraft tradition founded by Zsuzsanna It is also one sect of the many practiced in Wicca. [137]
- See also: Wicca
Feminism and pornography
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For more details on this topic, see Feminist sex wars. "Porn Wars" redirects here For the musical composition of this name see Frank Zappa Meets the Mothers of Prevention.
The Feminist Sex Wars, (some times called the "Lesbian Sex Wars" or "Porn Wars") were the acrimonious debates within the feminist movement and lesbian community in the late 1970s through the 1980s around the issues of feminist strategies regarding sexuality, sexual representation, pornography, sadomasochism, the role of transwomen in the lesbian community, and other sexual issues. Feminism is a discourse that involves various movements theories, and Philosophies which are concerned with the issue of Gender difference, advocate A lesbian is a Woman who is romantically or sexually attracted only to other women Pornography or porn is the explicit depiction of Sexual subject matter with the sole intention of sexually exciting the viewer Sadism refers to Sexual or non-sexual gratification in the infliction of Pain or humiliation upon or by another person A transwoman (also spelled trans woman or trans-woman) is a male-to-female transsexual and the term transwoman is preferred by many such The debate pitted anti-pornography feminism against sex-positive feminism, and the feminist movement ended up deeply divided as a result. The term anti-pornography movement is used to describe those who argue that Pornography has a variety of harmful effects such as encouragement of Human trafficking Sex-positive feminism, also known as pro-sex feminism, sex-radical feminism, or sexually liberal feminism, is a movement that began in the early 1980s [138][139][140][141][142]
Anti-pornography feminism
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For more details on this topic, see Anti-pornography#Feminist objections. The term anti-pornography movement is used to describe those who argue that Pornography has a variety of harmful effects such as encouragement of Human trafficking
- See also: Women Against Pornography and Women Against Violence in Pornography and Media
Sex-positive feminism
Sex-positive feminism, sometimes known as "pro-sex feminism", "sex-radical feminism"', or "sexually liberal feminism", is a movement that was formed in order to address issues of women's sexual pleasure, freedom of expression, sex work, and inclusive gender identities. Sex-positive feminism, also known as pro-sex feminism, sex-radical feminism, or sexually liberal feminism, is a movement that began in the early 1980s A sex worker is a person who works in the Sex industry. Sex workers may be employed as prostitutes strippers go-go dancers burlesque performers escorts dominatrices Ellen Willis' 1981 essay, "Lust Horizons: Is the Women's Movement Pro-Sex?" is the origin of the term, "pro-sex feminism"; the more commonly-used variant, "sex positive feminism" arose soon after. Ellen Jane Willis ( December 14, 1941 &ndash November 9, 2006) was an American political essayist, Journalist [143]
Although some sex-positive feminists, such as Betty Dodson, were active in the early 1970s, much of sex-positive feminism largely began in the late 1970s and 1980s as a response to the increasing emphasis in radical feminism on anti-pornography activism, and to the ideas of anti-pornography feminists like Robin Morgan, Andrea Dworkin, and Catharine MacKinnon, who argued that sexual expressions such as pornography, sadomasochism, transexualism, and other "male" modes of sexuality are a central cause of women's oppression. Betty Dodson PhD (born August 24 1929) is an American sex educator, Author, and Artist. Robin Morgan (born January 29 1941) is a former Child actor turned American radical feminist activist writer poet and editor of Andrea Rita Dworkin (September 26 1946 &ndash April 9 2005 was an American radical feminist and writer best known for her criticism of Pornography, which she believed Catharine Alice MacKinnon (born October 7, 1946) is an American feminist, Scholar, Lawyer, Teacher and Pornography or porn is the explicit depiction of Sexual subject matter with the sole intention of sexually exciting the viewer Sadism refers to Sexual or non-sexual gratification in the infliction of Pain or humiliation upon or by another person Transsexualism is a condition in which a person identifies with a physical Sex different from the one with which they were born [10][98]
Sex-positive feminists are also strongly opposed to radical feminist calls for legislation against pornography, a strategy they decried as censorship, and something that could, they argued, be used by social conservatives to censor the sexual expression of women, gay people, and other sexual minorities. Censorship is the suppression of speech or deletion of communicative material which may be considered objectionable harmful or sensitive as determined by a censor The initial period of intense debate and acrimony between sex-positive and anti-pornography feminists during the early 1980s is often referred to as the Feminist Sex Wars. "Porn Wars" redirects here For the musical composition of this name see Frank Zappa Meets the Mothers of Prevention. Other sex-positive feminists became involved not in opposition to other feminists, but in direct response to what they saw as patriarchal control of sexuality.
- See also: Samois
Feminism and political movements
Feminism and socialism
Some early twentieth century feminists allied with socialism. For the French town with the same name see Samois-sur-Seine. Samois was a Lesbian - Feminist BDSM organization based Early Feminists and advocates of Women’s rights were closely connected to positions that were politically radical and of the left in their time Socialism refers to a broad set of economic theories of social organization advocating state or collective ownership and administration of the Means of production and distribution In 1907 there was an International Conference of Socialist Women in Stuttgart where suffrage was described as a tool of class struggle. Stuttgart (ˈʃtʊtgaɐ̯t is the capital of the state of Baden-Württemberg in southern Germany. Clara Zetkin of the Social Democratic Party of Germany called for women's suffrage to build a "socialist order, the only one that allows for a radical solution to the women's question". Clara Zetkin, maiden name Eissner ( 5 July 1857 - 20 June 1933) was an influential socialist German politician [144][145][146]
In Britain, the women's movement was allied with the Labour party. The Labour Party is a Political party in the United Kingdom. Founded at the start of the 20th century it has been since the 1920s the principal party of the In America, Betty Friedan emerged from a radical background to take command of the organized movement. Betty Friedan ( February 4, 1921 – February 5, 2006) was an American feminist, activist and Radical Women, founded in 1967 in Seattle is the oldest (and still active) socialist feminist organization in the U. Radical Women (RW is a Socialist Feminist, grassroots activist organization that provides a radical voice within the feminist movement a feminist voice within the S. [147] During the Spanish Civil War, Dolores Ibárruri (La Pasionaria) led the Communist Party of Spain. The Spanish Civil War was a major conflict in Spain that started after an attempted Coup d'état committed by parts of the army against the government of Dolores Ibárruri Gómez, also known as La Pasionaria (the Passion flower) ( December 9, 1895 &ndash November 12, The Communist Party of Spain ( Partido Comunista de España or PCE) is the third largest national Political party of Spain. Although she supported equal rights for women, she opposed women fighting on the front and clashed with the anarcho-feminist Mujeres Libres. Anarcha-feminism (also called anarchist feminism and anarcho-feminism) combines Anarchism with Feminism. Mujeres Libres ( English: Free Women) was an anarchist women's organization in Spain that aimed to empower working class women [148]
Revolutions in Latin America brought changes in women's status in countries such as Nicaragua where Feminist ideology during the Sandinista Revolution was largely responsible for improvements in the quality of life for women but fell short of achieving a social and ideological change. The women in Revolutionary Nicaragua essentially fought a double revolution 1 to secure national freedom and 2 to secure their equality. [149]
Feminism and fascism
Scholars have argued that Nazi Germany and the other fascist states of the 1930s and 1940s illustrates the disastrous consequences for society of a state ideology that, in glorifying women, becomes antifeminist,[150] In Germany after the political shift of 1933, there was a rapid dissolution of the political rights and economic opportunities that feminists had fought for during the prewar period and to some extent during the 1920s. The scope of this article includes Bulgaria Romania Hungary former Czechoslovakia and the Balkan states The women in Revolutionary Nicaragua essentially fought a double revolution 1 to secure national freedom and 2 to secure their equality. Nazi Germany and the Third Reich are the common English names for Germany under the regime of Adolf Hitler and the National Socialist German Workers Fascism is a totalitarian nationalist and corporatist ideology In Franco's Spain, the right wing Catholic conservatives undid the work of feminists during the Republic. Fascist society was hierarchical with an emphasis and idealization of virility, with women maintaining a largely subordinate position to men. [146]
Feminism and science
Feminists has been critical of traditional scientific discourse, arguing that the field has historically been biased towards a masculine perspective. [11] Evelyn Fox Keller argues that the rhetoric of science reflects a masculine perspective, and she questions the idea of scientific objectivity. Evelyn Fox Keller (born 1936 is an American Physicist, Author, and feminist and is currently a Professor of History and Philosophy of Science "n objective account is one which attempts to capture the nature of the object studied in a way that does not depend on any features of the particular subject who studies it Primatologist Sarah Blaffer Hrdy notes the prevalence of masculine-coined stereotypes and theories, such as the non-sexual female, despite "the accumulation of abundant openly available evidence contradicting it". Primatology is the study of Primates It is a diverse Discipline and primatologists can be found in departments of Biology, Anthropology Sarah Blaffer Hrdy (note Hrdy is Czech for "proud" (born July 11, 1946) is a U [151] Some natural and social scientists have examined feminist ideas using scientific methods.
Feminism and the biology of gender
Modern feminist science is based on the view that many differences between the sexes are based on socially constructed gender identities rather than on biological sex differences. The biology of gender is scientific analysis of the physical basis for behavioural differences between men and women For example, Anne Fausto-Sterling's book Myths of Gender explores the assumptions embodied in scientific research that purports to support a biologically essentialist view of gender. Anne Fausto-Sterling, Ph D (born 1944 is Professor of Biology and Gender Studies at Brown University. In Philosophy, essentialism is the view that for any specific kind of Entity, there is a set of Characteristics or Properties all of which [152] However, in The Female Brain, Louann Brizendine argues that brain differences between the sexes are a biological reality with significant implications for sex-specific functional differences. [153] Steven Rhoads' book Taking Sex Differences Seriously illustrates sex-dependent differences across a wide scope. [154]
Carol Tavris, in The Mismeasure of Woman, uses psychology and sociology to critique theories that use biological reductionism to explain differences between men and women. Carol Anne Tavris (born September 17, 1944) is an American Social psychologist and Author. Reductionism can either mean (a an approach to understanding the nature of complex things by reducing them to the interactions of their parts or to simpler or more fundamental things She argues rather than using evidence of innate gender difference there is an over-changing hypothesis to justify inequality and perpetuate stereotypes. [155]
Feminism and evolutionary biology
Sarah Kember—drawing from numerous areas such as evolutionary biology, sociobiology, artificial intelligence, and cybernetics in development with a new evolutionism—discusses the biologization of technology. Evolutionary biology is a sub-field of Biology concerned with the origin of Species from a Common descent, and Descent of species Sociobiology is a neo-Darwinian and Socialism Synthesis of Scientific disciplines that attempts to explain Social behavior Cybernetics is the interdisciplinary study of the Structure of Complex systems especially Communication processes control mechanisms and Feedback She notes how feminists and sociologists have become suspect of evolutionary psychology, particularly inasmuch as sociobiology is subjected to complexity in order to strengthen sexual difference as immutable through pre-existing cultural value judgments about human nature and natural selection. Evolutionary psychology ( EP) attempts to explain mental and psychological traits such as Memory, Perception, In general usage complexity often tends to be used to characterize something with many parts in intricate arrangement Human nature is the concept that there are a set of logical characteristics including ways of thinking feeling and acting that all 'normal' human beings have in common Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of Where feminist theory is criticized for its "false beliefs about human nature," Kember then argues in conclusion that "feminism is in the interesting position of needing to do more biology and evolutionary theory in order not to simply oppose their renewed hegemony, but in order to understand the conditions that make this possible, and to have a say in the construction of new ideas and artefacts. "[156]
Men and feminism
The relationship between men and feminism has been complex. The relationship between men and Feminism has been complex and intricate Men have taken part in significant responses to feminism in each 'wave' of the movement. There have been positive and negative reactions and responses, depending on the individual man and the social context of the time. [157] These responses have varied from pro-feminism to masculism[158][159][160] to anti-feminism. Pro-feminism refers to support of the cause of Feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the Feminist movement. Masculism (or Masculinism) has two contrasting meanings When used by self-identified masculists the term refers to social theories, Political movements Antifeminism is opposition to Feminism in some or all of its forms In the twenty-first century new reactions to feminist ideologies have emerged including a generation of male scholars involved in gender studies,[161][162] and also men's rights activists who promote of male equality (rights to equal treatment in family, divorce and anti-discrimination law). Men’s rights are the freedoms inherently possessed by men and boys of all ages which may be institutionalized ignored or suppressed by law custom and behavior in a particular Unlike most discrimination policies discrimination between, which is the discernment of qualities and recognition of the differences focused here discrimination against is [50]
Historically a number of men have engaged with feminism. Philosopher Jeremy Bentham demanded equal rights for women in the eighteenth century. Jeremy Bentham ( IPA: or) (15 February 1748&ndash6 June 1832 was an English Jurist, Philosopher, and legal and Social reformer In 1866, philosopher John Stuart Mill (author of “The Subjection of Women”) presented a women’s petition to the British parliament; and supported an amendment to the 1867 Reform Bill. John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential The Subjection of Women is the title of an essay written by John Stuart Mill in 1869 possibly jointly with his wife Harriet Taylor Mill, stating an argument Others have lobbied and campaigned against feminism. Today, academics like Michael Flood, Michael Messner and Michael Kimmel are involved with men's studies and pro-feminism. Dr Michael Flood is an Australian Sociologist. His research includes the critical study of men and gender what some have termed ' Men's studies ' Michael Alan Messner (*1952 is an American Sociologist. His main areas of research are Gender, (especially Men's studies) and Sociology of sports Michael Scott Kimmel (*1951 is an American sociologist. His focus is Pro-feminism. Men's studies - sometimes called masculinity studies - is an Interdisciplinary Academic field devoted to topics concerning Men, Masculinity Pro-feminism refers to support of the cause of Feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the Feminist movement. [161][163][50][164][165]
A number of feminist writers maintain that identifying as a feminist is the strongest stand men can take in the struggle against sexism. They have argued that men should be allowed, or even be encouraged, to participate in the feminist movement. [166][35] Other female feminists argue that men cannot be feminists simply because they are not women. They maintain that men are granted inherent privileges that prevent them from identifying with feminist struggles, thus making it impossible for them to identify with feminists. [167] Fidelma Ashe has approached the issue of male feminism by arguing that traditional feminist views of male experience and of "men doing feminism" have been monolithic. [168][169] She explores the multiple political discourses and practices of pro-feminist politics, and evaluates each strand through an interrogation based upon its effect on feminist politics. [169][168]
Other concepts
Pro-feminism
Pro-feminism is the support of feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the feminist movement. Pro-feminism refers to support of the cause of Feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the Feminist movement. Pro-feminism refers to support of the cause of Feminism without implying that the supporter is a member of the Feminist movement. The feminist movement (also known as the Women's Movement or Women's Liberation) is a series of campaigns on issues such as Reproductive rights (sometimes The term is most often used in reference to men who are actively supportive of feminism and of efforts to bring about gender equality. Gender equality (also known as gender equity, gender egalitarianism, or sexual equality) is the goal of the Equality of the Genders The activities of pro-feminist men's groups include anti-violence work with boys and young men in schools, offering sexual harassment workshops in workplaces, running community education campaigns, and counseling male perpetrators of violence. Pro-feminist men also are involved in men's health, activism against pornography including anti-pornography legislation, men's studies, and the development of gender equity curricula in schools. Men's studies - sometimes called masculinity studies - is an Interdisciplinary Academic field devoted to topics concerning Men, Masculinity This work is sometimes in collaboration with feminists and women's services, such as domestic violence and rape crisis centers. Some activists of both genders will not refer to men as "feminists" at all, and will refer to all pro-feminist men as "pro-feminists". [161][157]
Anti-feminism
Antifeminism is opposition to feminism in some or all of its forms. Antifeminism is opposition to Feminism in some or all of its forms [170] Feminists such as Camille Paglia, Christina Hoff Sommers, Jean Bethke Elshtain and Elizabeth Fox-Genovese have been labeled "anti-feminists" by other feminists. Camille Anna Paglia (born 2 April 1947 in Endicott New York) is an American Author, Teacher, Feminist and Social critic Christina Hoff Jean Bethke Elshtain (born 1941 is an American political philosopher. Elizabeth Fox-Genovese ( May 28, 1941 &ndash January 2, 2007) was a Feminist (and later Antifeminist) American [171][172] Daphne Patai and Noretta Koertge argue that in this way the term "anti-feminist" is used to silence academic debate about feminism. Daphne Patai (born 1943, daughter of Raphael Patai) is a feminist scholar and author [173] Paul Nathanson and Katherine K. Young's books Spreading Misandry and Legalizing Misandry explore what they argue is feminist-inspired misandry. Paul Nathanson and Katherine K Young are Religious studies academics and co-researchers for a project funded by the Canadian government Misandry ( IPA) is hatred (or contempt of Men or Boys. Misandry is parallel to Misogyny —the hatred of women [174] Christina Hoff-Sommers argues feminist misandry leads directly to misogyny by what she calls "establishment feminists" against (the majority of) women who love men in Who Stole Feminism: How Women Have Betrayed Women. Christina Hoff Misogyny (mɪˈsɒdʒɪni is hatred (or contemptof women Misogyny is parallel to Misandry — the hatred of men [49] "Marriage rights" advocates criticize feminists like Sheila Cronan who take the view that marriage constitutes slavery for women, and that freedom for women cannot be won without the abolition of marriage. [175]
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- ^ Porter, David L. , Between Men and Feminism (Routledge, 1992), ISBN 9780415069885
- ^ a b c Michael S. Kimmel, “Who’s Afraid of Men Doing Feminism?,” from Men Doing Feminism, Tom Digby, ed. New York: Routledge, 1993, 57-68
- ^ Schacht, Steven P. , and Doris W. Ewing, Feminism and Men: Reconstructing Gender Relations (New York UP, 1998), ISBN 9780814780770
- ^ Michael S. Kimmel, “Introduction,” in Against the Tide: Pro-Feminist Men in the U. S. , 1776-1990, A Documentary History. Boston: Beacon 1992, 1-51.
- ^ Messner, Michael, Power at Play: Sports and the Problem of Masculinity, Beacon Press; Reissue edition 1995, ISBN 978-0-8070-4105-5
- ^ Messner, Michael, Taking the Field: Women, Men, and Sports, University of Minnesota Press, 2002, ISBN 978-0-8166-3449-1
- ^ Harry Brod, “To Be a Man, or Not to be a Man — That Is the Feminist Question,” in Men Doing Feminism, Tom Digby, ed. (NY: Routledge, 1993), 197-212.
- ^ Russ Ervin Funk, “The Power of Naming: Why Men Can’t Be Feminists,” in Feminista!: The Journal of Feminist Construction 1, no. 4.
- ^ a b Ashe, F. The New Politics of Masculinity (NY: Routledge, 2007).
- ^ a b Ashe, Fidelma, 'Deconstructing the Experiential Bar' in Men and Masculinities, Vol. 7, No. 2, 187-204 (2004)
- ^ "Anti-feminist." The Oxford English Dictionary. 2nd ed. 1989
- ^ Judith Stacey, Is Academic Feminism an Oxymoron?, Signs, Vol. 25, No. 4, Feminisms at a Millennium. (Summer, 2000), pp. 1189-1194
- ^ Elizabeth Kamarck Minnich, Review: 'Feminist Attacks on Feminisms: Patriarchy's Prodigal Daughters', Feminist Studies, Vol. 24, No. 1. (Spring, 1998), pp. 159-175
- ^ Patai, Daphne; Noretta Koertge. Professing Feminism: Education and Indoctrination in Women's Studies. ISBN 0739104551.
- ^ Nathanson, P. and K. K. Young, Legalizing Misandry: From Public Shame to Systemic Descrimination Against Men (McGill-Queen's University Press)
- ^ Poloma M. M. , Garland T. N. (1971). "The Married Professional Woman: A Study in the Tolerance of Domestication". Journal of Marriage and the Family 33 (3): 531–540. doi:. A digital object identifier ( DOI) is a permanent identifier given to an Electronic document.
See also
- Equal pay for women
- Equal Rights Amendment
- Feminist therapy
- List of feminist literature
- Masculism
- Sex/gender distinction
- Social criticism
- Human trafficking
- Women's Environment & Development Organization
- Lactivism
External links
- FemINist INitiative Canadian effort at building a political party, archived at the Internet Archive
- National Organization for Women United States
- ROKS Swedish women's organization
- Women's Forum Australia
- International Women's Day is a slide show in English of the Brazilian Vinna Mara Magalhães
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