The Dodo, shown here in a 1651 illustration by Jan Savery, is an often-cited example of modern extinction. The dodo ( Raphus cucullatus) was a Flightless bird endemic to the Indian Ocean island of Mauritius. Jan or Hans Savery the Younger (1589 Haarlem – bur 7 August 1654, Utrecht) was a Dutch baroque painter The Holocene extinction event is the widespread ongoing Mass extinction of Species during the modern Holocene epoch. ^[1]

In biology and ecology, extinction is the cessation of existence of a species or group of taxa. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. A taxon (plural taxa) or taxonomic unit, is a name designating an organism or a group of Organisms In Biological nomenclature according to The moment of extinction is generally considered to be the death of the last individual of that species (although the capacity to breed and recover may have been lost before this point). A population bottleneck (or genetic bottleneck) is an Evolutionary event in which a significant percentage of a population or species is killed or otherwise prevented Because a species' potential range may be very large, determining this moment is difficult, and is usually done retrospectively. Population distribution redirects here For the probability distribution of a statistical population see Probability distribution and Statistical population This difficulty leads to phenomena such as Lazarus taxa, where a species presumed extinct abruptly "re-appears" (typically in the fossil record) after a period of apparent absence. In Paleontology, a Lazarus taxon (plural taxa) is a Taxon that disappears from one or more periods of the Fossil record, only to appear FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system.

Through evolution, new species arise through the process of speciation — where new varieties of organisms arise and thrive when they are able to find and exploit an ecological niche — and species become extinct when they are no longer able to survive in changing conditions or against superior competition. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Speciation is the Evolutionary process by which new biological Species arise In Ecology, a niche (pronounced nich nēsh or nish A shorthand definition of niche is how an organism makes a living A typical species becomes extinct within 10 million years of its first appearance,^[2] although some species, called living fossils, survive virtually unchanged for hundreds of millions of years. Living fossil is an informal term for any living Species (or Clade) of organism which appears Extinction, though, is usually a natural phenomenon; it is estimated that 99. 9% of all species that have ever lived are now extinct. ^[2][3]

Prior to the dispersion of humans across the earth, extinction generally occurred at a continuous low rate, mass extinctions being relatively rare events. An extinction event (also known as mass extinction; extinction-level event, ELE is a sharp decrease in the number of Species in a relatively short period Starting approximately 100,000 years ago, and coinciding with an increase in the numbers and range of humans, species extinctions have increased to a rate unprecedented since the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event. The Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, which occurred approximately ( Ma) was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant species in a geologically ^[4] This is known as the Holocene extinction event and is at least the sixth such extinction event. The Holocene extinction event is the widespread ongoing Mass extinction of Species during the modern Holocene epoch. An extinction event (also known as mass extinction; extinction-level event, ELE is a sharp decrease in the number of Species in a relatively short period Some experts have estimated that up to half of presently existing species may become extinct by 2100. ^[5]

Definition

A species becomes extinct when the last existing member of that species dies. Extinction therefore becomes a certainty when there are no surviving individuals that are able to reproduce and create a new generation. A species may become functionally extinct when only a handful of individuals survive, which are unable to reproduce due to poor health, age, sparse distribution over a large range, a lack of individuals of both sexes (in sexually reproducing species), or other reasons. Functional extinction is the Extinction of a Species or other Taxon such that it disappears from the Fossil record, or historic The Evolution of sexual reproduction is a major puzzle The first Fossilized evidence of sexually reproducing Organisms is from Eukaryotes of the Stenian

Bark from the extinct Lepidodendron, which died out after the Carboniferous, likely due to competition from newer plant life. Lepidodendron (also known as the "Scale tree" is an Extinct Genus of primitive vascular arborescent ( Tree -like Plant The Carboniferous is a geologic period and system that extends from the end of the Devonian period about 359 ^[6]

Pinpointing the extinction (or pseudoextinction) of a species requires a clear definition of that species. Pseudoextinction of a Species occurs where there are no more living members of that species but members of a daughter species or subspecies remain alive In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. If it is to be declared extinct, the species in question must be uniquely identifiable from any ancestor or daughter species, or from other closely related species. Extinction of a species (or replacement by a daughter species) plays a key role in the punctuated equilibrium hypothesis of Stephen Jay Gould and Niles Eldredge. Punctuated equilibrium is a theory of evolutionary biology which states that most sexually reproducing populations experience little change for most of their geological Stephen Jay Gould (September 10 1941 &ndash May 20 2002 was a prominent American paleontologist, evolutionary biologist, and historian of science Niles Eldredge (born August 25 1943 is an American paleontologist, who along with Stephen Jay Gould, proposed the theory of Punctuated equilibrium ^[7]

In ecology, extinction is often used informally to refer to local extinction, in which a species ceases to exist in the chosen area of study, but still exists elsewhere. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Local extinction is where a Species (or other Taxon) ceases to exist in the chosen area of study but still exists elsewhere This phenomenon is also known as extirpation. Local extinctions may be followed by a replacement of the species taken from other locations; wolf reintroduction is an example of this. Species which are not extinct are termed extant. Extant is a term commonly used to refer to Taxa (such as Species, genera or families) that are still in existence (living Those that are extant but threatened by extinction are referred to as threatened or endangered species. Threatened species are any species (including Animals Plants fungi, etc An endangered species is a population of an organism which is at risk of becoming Extinct because it is either few in numbers or threatened by changing environmental or predation

An important aspect of extinction at the present time are human attempts to preserve critically endangered species, which is reflected by the creation of the conservation status "Extinct in the Wild" (EW). The conservation status of a Species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species remaining extant either in the present day or the near future Extinct in the Wild ( EW) is a Conservation status assigned to species or lower taxa the only known living members of which are being kept in captivity or as a naturalized Species listed under this status by the World Conservation Union (IUCN) are not known to have any living specimens in the wild, and are maintained only in zoos or other artificial environments. A zoological garden, shortened to zoo, is an institution in which living animals are exhibited in captivity Some of these species are functionally extinct, as they are no longer part of their natural habitat and it is unlikely the species will ever be restored to the wild. ^[8] When possible, modern zoological institutions attempt to maintain a viable population for species preservation and possible future reintroduction to the wild through use of carefully planned breeding programs. Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Populations with small population size behave differently to larger populations Reintroduction is the deliberate release of species into the wild from captivity or relocated from other areas where the species survives Breeding programs help animals to breed and can be good for animals as well as the agricultural economy

The extinction of one species' wild population can have knock-on effects, causing further extinctions. These are also called "chains of extinction". ^[9]

Pseudoextinction

Main article: Pseudoextinction

Descendants may or may not exist for extinct species. Pseudoextinction of a Species occurs where there are no more living members of that species but members of a daughter species or subspecies remain alive Daughter species that evolve from a parent species carry on most of the parent species' genetic information, and even though the parent species may become extinct, the daughter species lives on. The genotype is the genetic constitution of a cell an organism or an individual (i In other cases, species have produced no new variants, or none that are able to survive the parent species' extinction. Extinction of a parent species where daughter species or subspecies are still alive is also called pseudoextinction. Pseudoextinction of a Species occurs where there are no more living members of that species but members of a daughter species or subspecies remain alive

Pseudoextinction is difficult to demonstrate unless one has a strong chain of evidence linking a living species to members of a pre-existing species. For example, it is sometimes claimed that the extinct Hyracotherium, which was an ancient animal similar to the horse, is pseudoextinct, rather than extinct, because there are several extant species of equus, including zebra and donkeys. Hyracotherium (" Hyrax -like beast" (also known as Eohippus) was a Dog -sized Perissodactyl Ungulate The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. Extant is a term commonly used to refer to Taxa (such as Species, genera or families) that are still in existence (living Equidae is the family of horse-like animals which belong to the order Perissodactyla. Zebras are African Equids best known for their distinctive white and black stripes The donkey or ass, Equus asinus, is a member of the Equidae or horse family and an odd-toed ungulate. However, as fossil species typically leave no genetic material behind, it is not possible to say whether Hyracotherium actually evolved into more modern horse species or simply evolved from a common ancestor with modern horses. The evolution of the horse involves the gradual development of the modern Horse from the fox-sized forest-dwelling Hyracotherium Pseudoextinction is much easier to demonstrate for larger taxonomic groups. It is said that dinosaurs are pseudoextinct, because some of their descendants, the birds, survive today. Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs.

Causes

The passenger pigeon, one of several species of extinct birds, was hunted to extinction over the course of a few decades. The passenger pigeon ( Ectopistes migratorius) or wild pigeon was a species of pigeon that was once the most common Bird in North America This page refers only to birds that have gone extinct since the year 1500 A

The Bali Tiger was declared extinct in 1937 due to hunting and habitat loss. The Bali tiger ( Panthera tigris balica) harimau Bali in Indonesian or referred to as samong in archaic Balinese language is an

There are a variety of causes that can contribute directly or indirectly to the extinction of a species or group of species. "Just as each species is unique," write Beverly and Stephen Stearns, "so is each extinction. . . the causes for each are varied — some subtle and complex, others obvious and simple". ^[10] Most simply, any species that is unable to survive or reproduce in its environment, and unable to move to a new environment where it can do so, dies out and becomes extinct. Survival skills are techniques a person may utilize for an indefinite duration in order to survive a dangerous situation (also see Bushcraft) Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced Extinction of a species may come suddenly when an otherwise healthy species is wiped out completely, as when toxic pollution renders its entire habitat unlivable; or may occur gradually over thousands or millions of years, such as when a species gradually loses out in competition for food to better adapted competitors. Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species.

Assessing the relative importance of genetic factors compared to environmental ones as the causes of extinction has been compared to the nature-nurture debate. The nature versus nurture debates concern the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities ("nature" i ^[3] The question of whether more extinctions in the fossil record have been caused by evolution or by catastrophe is a subject of discussion; Mark Newman, the author of Modeling Extinction argues for a mathematical model that falls between the two positions. FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 ^[2] By contrast, conservation biology uses the extinction vortex model to classify extinctions by cause. "Conservation Biology" redirects here For the Scientific journal, see Conservation Biology (journal. Extinction vortices are a class of models through which conservation biologists, geneticists and Ecologists can understand the dynamics of and categorize When concerns about human extinction have been raised, for example in Sir Martin Rees' 2003 book Our Final Hour, those concerns lie with the effects of climate change or technological disaster. Human Extinction is the assured end of the Human Species. Various scenarios have been discussed in Science, Popular culture, and Religion Martin John Rees Baron Rees of Ludlow, OM, PRS (born 23 June 1942 in York) is an English cosmologist Our Final Hour is a 2003 Book by the British Astronomer Royal Sir Martin Rees. Climate change is any long-term significant change in the “average weather” that a given region experiences Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt

Currently, environmental groups and some governments are concerned with the extinction of species caused by humanity, and are attempting to combat further extinctions through a variety of conservation programs. The conservation movement also known as nature conservation is a political social and to some extent scientific movement that seeks to protect natural resources including ^[4] Humans can cause extinction of a species through overharvesting, pollution, habitat destruction, introduction of new predators and food competitors, overhunting, and other influences. Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Habitat destruction is the process in which natural Habitat is rendered functionally unable to support the species originally present Competition is a rivalry between individuals groups nations or animals for territory or resources According to the World Conservation Union (WCU, also known as IUCN), 784 extinctions have been recorded since the year 1500, the arbitrary date selected to define "modern" extinctions, with many more likely to have gone unnoticed. ^[11]

Genetics and demographic phenomena

Population genetics and demographic phenomena affect the evolution, and therefore the risk of extinction, of species. Population genetics is the study of the Allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four evolutionary forces Natural selection, Genetic Species with small populations are much more vulnerable to these types of effects. Populations with small population size behave differently to larger populations Limited geographic range is the most important determinant of genus extinction at background rates but becomes increasingly irrelevant as mass extinction arises. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic ^[12]

Natural selection acts to propagate beneficial genetic traits and eliminate weaknesses. Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of It is nevertheless possible for a deleterious mutation to be spread throughout a population through the effect of genetic drift. In Population genetics, genetic drift is the accumulation of random events that change the makeup of a gene pool slightly but often compound over time

A diverse or "deep" gene pool gives a population a higher chance of surviving an adverse change in conditions. In Population genetics, a gene pool is the complete set of unique Alleles in a Species or Population. Effects that cause or reward a loss in genetic diversity can increase the chances of extinction of a species. Genetic diversity is a level of Biodiversity that refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species Population bottlenecks can dramatically reduce genetic diversity by severely limiting the number of reproducing individuals and make inbreeding more frequent. A population bottleneck (or genetic bottleneck) is an Evolutionary event in which a significant percentage of a population or species is killed or otherwise prevented Inbreeding is breeding between close Relatives whether plant or animal The founder effect can cause rapid, individual-based speciation and is the most dramatic example of a population bottleneck. In Population genetics, the founder effect refers to the loss of genetic variation when a new colony is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger

See also: Extinction Vortex

See also: Genetic erosion

Genetic pollution

Main article: Genetic pollution

Purebred naturally evolved region specific wild species can be threatened with extinction in a big way^[13] through the process of Genetic Pollution i. Extinction vortices are a class of models through which conservation biologists, geneticists and Ecologists can understand the dynamics of and categorize Genetic erosion is a process whereby an already limited Gene pool of an Endangered species of plant or animal diminishes even more when individuals from the surviving Genetic pollution is undesirable Gene flow into wild populations e. uncontrolled hybridization, introgression and Genetic swaping which leads to homogenization or replacement of local genotypes as a result of either a numerical and/or fitness advantage of introduced plant or animal. In Biology, hybrid has two meanings The first meaning is the result of interbreeding between two animals or plants of different taxa. Introgression, in Genetics (particularly plant genetics is the movement of a Gene ( Gene flow) from one species into the gene pool of another by backcrossing Fitness (often denoted w in Population genetics models is a central concept in evolutionary theory. ^[14] Nonnative species can bring about a form of extinction of native plants and animals by hybridization and introgression either through purposeful introduction by humans or through habitat modification, bringing previously isolated species into contact. These phenomena can be especially detrimental for rare species coming into contact with more abundant ones where the abundant ones can interbreed with them swamping the entire rarer gene pool creating hybrids thus driving the entire original purebred native stock to complete extinction. Such extinctions are not always apparent from morphological (outward appearance) observations alone. The term morphology in Biology refers to the outward appearance ( Shape, Structure, Colour, Pattern) of an Organism Some degree of gene flow may be a normal, evolutionarily constructive process, and all constellations of genes and genotypes cannot be preserved however, hybridization with or without introgression may, nevertheless, threaten a rare species' existence. In Population genetics, gene flow (also known as gene migration) is the transfer of Alleles of Genes from one Population to another ^[15][16]

Widespread genetic pollution also leads to weakening of the naturally evolved (wild) region specific gene pool leading to weaker hybrid animals and plants which are not able to cope with natural environs over the long run and fast tracks them towards final extinction.

The gene pool of a species or a population is the complete set of unique alleles that would be found by inspecting the genetic material of every living member of that species or population. In Population genetics, a gene pool is the complete set of unique Alleles in a Species or Population. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology An allele (ˈæliːl (UK /əˈliːl/ (US (from the Greek αλληλος allelos, meaning each other) is one member of a pair or series of different forms A large gene pool indicates extensive genetic diversity, which is associated with robust populations that can survive bouts of intense selection. Genetic diversity is a level of Biodiversity that refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species In the context of Evolution, certain traits or Alleles of a Species may be subject to selection Meanwhile, low genetic diversity (see inbreeding and population bottlenecks) can cause reduced biological fitness and an increased chance of extinction amongst the reducing population of purebred individuals from a species. Inbreeding is breeding between close Relatives whether plant or animal A population bottleneck (or genetic bottleneck) is an Evolutionary event in which a significant percentage of a population or species is killed or otherwise prevented Fitness (often denoted w in Population genetics models is a central concept in evolutionary theory.

Habitat degradation

Main article: Habitat destruction

The degradation of a species' habitat may alter the fitness landscape to such an extent that the species is no longer able to survive and becomes extinct. Habitat destruction is the process in which natural Habitat is rendered functionally unable to support the species originally present A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species. In Evolutionary biology, fitness landscapes or adaptive landscapes are used to visualize the relationship between Genotypes (or Phenotypes and This may occur by direct effects, such as the environment becoming toxic, or indirectly, by limiting a species' ability to compete effectively for diminished resources or against new competitor species. Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism

Habitat degradation through toxicity can kill off a species very rapidly, by killing all living members through contamination or sterilizing them. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Sterilization (or sterilisation, see spelling differences) refers to any process that effectively kills or eliminates transmissible agents (such as Fungi It can also occur over longer periods at lower toxicity levels by affecting life span, reproductive capacity, or competitiveness.

Habitat degradation can also take the form of a physical destruction of niche habitats. The widespread destruction of tropical rainforests and replacement with open pastureland is widely cited as an example of this;^[5] elimination of the dense forest eliminated the infrastructure needed by many species to survive. Tropical rainforests are generally found near the Equator. They are common in Asia, Australia, Africa, South America, Central For example, a fern that depends on dense shade for protection from direct sunlight can no longer survive without forest to shelter it. A fern is any one of a group of about 20000 Species of Plants classified in the phylum or division Pteridophyta, also known as Filicophyta Another example is the destruction of ocean floors by bottom trawling. Bottom trawling is Trawling (towing a trawl, which is a Fishing net) along the sea floor ^[17]

Diminished resources or introduction of new competitor species also often accompany habitat degradation. Global warming has allowed some species to expand their range, bringing unwelcome competition to other species that previously occupied that area. Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the Sometimes these new competitors are predators and directly affect prey species, while at other times they may merely outcompete vulnerable species for limited resources. Vital resources including water and food can also be limited during habitat degradation, leading to extinction. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life.

The Golden Toad was last seen on May 15, 1989. The golden toad WikipediaNaming conventions (fauna --> ( Bufo periglenes) was a small shiny bright True Events 1252 - Pope Innocent IV issues the Papal bull Ad exstirpanda, which authorizes but also limits the Year 1989 ( MCMLXXXIX) was a Common year starting on Sunday (link displays 1989 Gregorian calendar) Decline in amphibian populations is ongoing worldwide. Dramatic declines in Amphibian populations, including Population crashes and mass localized Extinctions have been noted since the 1980s from locations all

Predation, competition, and disease

Humans have been transporting animals and plants from one part of the world to another for thousands of years, sometimes deliberately (e. Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. g. , livestock released by sailors onto islands as a source of food) and sometimes accidentally (e. Livestock is the term used to refer (singularly or plurally to a Domesticated Animal intentionally reared in an agricultural setting to produce such as Food g. , rats escaping from boats). Rats are various medium sized long-tailed Rodents of the superfamily Muroidea In most cases, such introductions are unsuccessful, but when they do become established as an invasive alien species, the consequences can be catastrophic. Introduced species|Weed Invasive species is a phrase with several definitions Invasive alien species can affect native species directly by eating them, competing with them, and introducing pathogens or parasites that sicken or kill them or, indirectly, by destroying or degrading their habitat. Endemism is the Ecological state of being unique to a place Endemic species are not naturally found elsewhere A pathogen (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering passion" and γἰγνομαι (γεν- gignomai (gen- "I give birth to" infectious Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Human populations may themselves act as invasive predators. According to the "overkill hypothesis", the swift extinction of the megafauna in areas such as New Zealand, Australia, Madagascar and Hawaii resulted from the sudden introduction of human beings to environments full of animals that had never seen them before, and were therefore completely unadapted to their predation techniques. Megafauna are species of large Animals ( Greek μεγας large + modern Latin fauna animal New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Madagascar, or Republic of Madagascar (older name Malagasy Republic) is an Island nation in the Indian Ocean off the southeastern The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the ^[18]

Coextinction

Main article: Coextinction

Coextinction refers to the loss of a species due to the extinction of another; for example, the extinction of parasitic insects following the loss of their hosts. Coextinction of a Species is the loss of one species upon the Extinction of another Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Coextinction can also occur when a species loses its pollinator, or to predators in a food chain who lose their prey. A pollinator is the biotic agent ( vector) that moves Pollen from the male Anthers of a Flower to the female stigma of a flower to accomplish Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. "Species coextinction is a manifestation of the interconnectedness of organisms in complex ecosystems . . . While coextinction may not be the most important cause of species extinctions, it is certainly an insidious one". ^[19]

Mass extinctions

Apparent fraction of genera going extinct at any given time, as reconstructed from the fossil record. A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. Does not attempt to include recent Holocene extinction event. The Holocene extinction event is the widespread ongoing Mass extinction of Species during the modern Holocene epoch.

Main article: Extinction event

There have been at least five mass extinctions in the history of life, and four in the last 3. An extinction event (also known as mass extinction; extinction-level event, ELE is a sharp decrease in the number of Species in a relatively short period 5 billion years in which many species have disappeared in a relatively short period of geological time. The most recent of these, the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event 65 million years ago at the end of the Cretaceous period, is best known for having wiped out the non-avian dinosaurs, among many other species. The Cretaceous (kriːˈteɪʃəs, usually abbreviated 'K' for its German translation "Kreide" is a geologic period and system, reaching from the end of

Modern mass extinction

Main article: Holocene extinction event

According to a 1998 survey of 400 biologists conducted by New York's American Museum of Natural History, nearly 70 percent believed that they were currently in the early stages of a human-caused mass extinction,^[20] known as the Holocene extinction event. The Holocene extinction event is the widespread ongoing Mass extinction of Species during the modern Holocene epoch. New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous The American Museum of Natural History ( AMNH) located on the Upper West Side, Manhattan, New York, USA is one of the largest and most The Holocene extinction event is the widespread ongoing Mass extinction of Species during the modern Holocene epoch. In that survey, the same proportion of respondents agreed with the prediction that up to 20 percent of all living populations could become extinct within 30 years (by 2028). Biologist E. O. Wilson estimated ^[5] in 2002 that if current rates of human destruction of the biosphere continue, one-half of all species of life on earth will be extinct in 100 years. Edward Osborne Wilson (born June 10, 1929) is an American biologist researcher ( Sociobiology, Biodiversity) theorist ( ^[21] More significantly the rate of species extinctions at present is estimated at 100 to 1000 times "background" or average extinction rates in the evolutionary time scale of planet Earth. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 ^[22]

History of scientific understanding

Dilophosaurus, one of the many extinct dinosaur genera. Dilophosaurus was a Theropod Dinosaur from the Early Jurassic Period. The cause of the Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event is a subject of much debate amongst researchers. The Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, which occurred approximately ( Ma) was a large-scale mass extinction of animal and plant species in a geologically

In the 1800s when extinction was first described, the idea of extinction was threatening to those who held a belief in the Great Chain of Being, a theological position that did not allow for "missing links". The great chain of being or scala naturæ is a classical and western Medieval conception of the order of the universe whose chief characteristic is a strict Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective ^[23]

The possibility of extinction was not widely accepted before the 1800s. ^[23][24] The devoted naturalist Carl Linnaeus, could "hardly entertain" the idea that humans could cause the extinction of a species. Carl Linnaeus (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus, also known after his ennoblement as, May 23 new style (13 May old style 1707 who laid the foundations for ^[25] When parts of the world had not been thoroughly examined and charted, scientists could not rule out that animals found only in the fossil record were not simply "hiding" in unexplored regions of the Earth. ^[26] Georges Cuvier is credited with establishing extinction as a fact in a 1796 lecture to the French Institute. Baron Georges Léopold Chrétien Frédéric Dagobert Cuvier ( August 23 1769 &ndash May 13, 1832) was a French naturalist The Institut de France (French Institute is a French Learned society, grouping five académies, the most famous of which is probably the Académie ^[24] Cuvier's observations of fossil bones convinced him that they did not originate in extant animals. This discovery was critical for the spread of uniformitarianism,^[27] and lead to the first book publicizing the idea of evolution ^[28] though Cuvier himself strongly opposed the theories of evolution advanced by Lamarck and others. Uniformitarianism in the Philosophy of science, is the assumption that the natural processes operating in the past are the same as those that can be observed operating in the Jean-Baptiste Pierre Antoine de Monet Chevalier de Lamarck ( August 1, 1744 &ndash December 18, 1829) was a French Soldier

Human attitudes and interests

Extinction is an important research topic in the field of zoology, and biology in general, and has also become an area of concern outside the scientific community. Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles A number of organizations, such as the Worldwide Fund for Nature, have been created with the goal of preserving species from extinction. Governments have attempted, through enacting laws, to avoid habitat destruction, agricultural over-harvesting, and pollution. For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in While many human-caused extinctions have been accidental, humans have also engaged in the deliberate destruction of some species, such as dangerous viruses, and the extirpation of other problematic species has been suggested. A virus (from the Latin virus meaning Toxin or Poison) is a sub-microscopic infectious agent that is unable

Biologist Bruce Walsh of the University of Arizona states three reasons for scientific interest in the preservation of species; genetic resources, ecosystem stability, and ethics;^[29] and today the scientific community "stress[es] the importance" of maintaining biodiversity. The University of Arizona (also referred to as UA, U of A, or Arizona) is a Land-grant and space-grant public institution Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life ^[30][29]

In modern times, commercial and industrial interests often have to contend with the effects of production on plant and animal life. However, some technologies with minimal, or no, proven harmful effects on Homo sapiens can be devastating to wildlife (for example, DDT). Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus DDT (from its trivial name D ichloro- D iphenyl- T richloroethane is one of the best known synthetic Pesticides It is a chemical with a long ^[31] Biogeographer Jared Diamond notes that while big business may label environmental concerns as "exaggerated", and often cause "devastating damage", some corporations find it in their interest to adopt good conservation practices, and even engage in preservation efforts that surpass those taken by national parks. Biogeography is the study of the distribution of Biodiversity over Space and Time. TemplateInfobox writer --> Jared Mason Diamond (b 10 September, 1937) is an American Evolutionary biologist Big Business or big business is a term used to describe large corporations in either an individual or collective sense A national park is a reserve of land usually declared and owned by a national Government, protected from most Human development and pollution ^[32]

Governments sometimes see the loss of native species as a loss to ecotourism,^[33] and can enact laws with severe punishment against the trade in native species in an effort to prevent extinction in the wild. Ecotourism, also known as ecological tourism, is a form of Tourism that appeals to ecologically and socially conscious individuals Nature preserves are created by governments as a means to provide continuing habitats to species crowded by human expansion. nature reserve ( natural reserve, nature preserve, natural preserve) is a Protected area of importance for Wildlife, flora The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity has resulted in international Biodiversity Action Plan programmes, which attempt to provide comprehensive guidelines for government biodiversity conservation. The Convention on Biological Diversity, known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is an international Treaty that was adopted in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 This article is about a conservation biology topic For other uses of BAP see BAP (disambiguation. Advocacy groups, such as The Wildlands Project^[34] and the Alliance for Zero Extinctions,^[35] work to educate the public and pressure governments into action.

People who live close to nature can be dependent on the survival of all the species in their environment, leaving them highly exposed to extinction risks. Risk is a Concept that denotes the precise probability of specific eventualities However, people prioritize day-to-day survival over species conservation; with human overpopulation in tropical developing countries, there has been enormous pressure on forests due to subsistence agriculture, including slash-and-burn agricultural techniques that can reduce endangered species's habitats. Overpopulation refers to a condition where an Organism 's numbers exceed the Carrying capacity of its Habitat. Developing countries are countries that haven't reached Western-style standards of democratic government free market economy industrialization social programs and human rights guaranties Subsistence agriculture is self-sufficient farming in which farmers grow only enough food to feed the family and to pay taxes or feudal dues Slash and burn consists of cutting and burning of Forests or Woodlands to create fields for Agriculture or Pasture for Livestock, or ^[36]

Planned extinction

Humans have aggressively worked toward the extinction of many species of virus and bacterium in the cause of disease eradication. For example, the smallpox virus is now essentially extinct in the wild^[37] — although samples are retained in laboratory settings, and the polio virus is now confined to small parts of the world as a result of human efforts to cure the disease it causes. Smallpox is an Infectious disease unique to humans caused by either of two virus variants named Variola major and Variola minor. Poliomyelitis, often called polio or infantile paralysis, is an acute viral Infectious disease spread from person to person primarily via ^[38]

Olivia Judson is one of six modern scientists to have advocated the deliberate extinction of specific species. Olivia Judson (born 1970 is an evolutionary biologist at Imperial College London. Her September 25, 2003 New York Times article, "A Bug's Death", advocates "specicide" of thirty mosquito species through the introduction of a genetic element, capable of inserting itself into another crucial gene, to create a recessive "knockout genes". Events 303 - On a voyage preaching the Gospel, Saint Fermin of Pamplona is beheaded in Amiens, France Year 2003 ( MMIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday of the Gregorian calendar. Mosquitoes are insects in the family Culicidae. They have a pair of scaled wings a pair of Halteres, a slender body and long legs A gene knockout is a genetic technique in which an organism is engineered to carry genes that have been made inoperative (have been "knocked out" of the organism Her arguments for doing so are that the Anopheles mosquitoes (which spread malaria) and Aedes mosquitoes (which spread dengue fever, yellow fever, elephantiasis, and other diseases) represent only 30 species; eradicating these would save at least one million human lives per annum at a cost of reducing the genetic diversity of the family Culicidae by only 1%. Anopheles is a Genus of Mosquito ( Culicidae) There are approximately 400 Anopheles species of which 30-40 transmit five different Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Aedes is a Genus of Mosquito originally found in tropical and subtropical zones but has spread by human activity to all continents excluding Yellow fever (also called yellow jack, black vomit or sometimes American Plague) is an acute viral disease Elephantiasis (/ˌɛləfənˈtaɪəsɪs -fæn-/ -fan- is a disease that is characterized by the thickening of the skin and underlying tissues especially in the legs and genitals Genetic diversity is a level of Biodiversity that refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species In Biological classification, family ( Latin Mosquitoes are insects in the family Culicidae. They have a pair of scaled wings a pair of Halteres, a slender body and long legs She further argues that since species go extinct "all the time" the disappearance of a few more will not destroy the ecosystem: "We're not left with a wasteland every time a species vanishes. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( Removing one species sometimes causes shifts in the populations of other species - but different need not mean worse. " In addition, anti-malarial and mosquito control programs offer little realistic hope to the 300 million people in developing nations who will be infected with acute illnesses this year; although trials are ongoing she writes that if they fail: "We should consider the ultimate swatting. Malaria is a vector -borne Infectious disease caused by Protozoan Parasites It is widespread in tropical and subtropical regions including Mosquitoes are insects in the family Culicidae. They have a pair of scaled wings a pair of Halteres, a slender body and long legs Developing countries are countries that haven't reached Western-style standards of democratic government free market economy industrialization social programs and human rights guaranties "^[39]

Cloning

While no extinct species has currently ever been recreated, recent technological advances have encouraged the hypothesis that using DNA from the remains of an extinct species, through the process of cloning, this species may be "brought back to life". Cloning in Biology is the process of producing populations of genetically-identical individuals that occurs in nature when organisms such as Bacteria, Insects ^[40] Proposed targets for cloning include the mammoth^[40], thylacine, and the dodo. A mammoth is any Species of the Extinct Genus Mammuthus. These Proboscideans are members of the elephant family and The Thylacine (ˈθaɪləsaɪn -iːn ( Thylacinus cynocephalus Latin wolf-headed pouched dog was the largest known carnivorous Marsupial of modern The dodo ( Raphus cucullatus) was a Flightless bird endemic to the Indian Ocean island of Mauritius. As of now, scientists claim to have stopped pursuing the cloning of the thylacine. ^[41] In order for such a program to succeed, a sufficient number of individuals would have to be cloned, from the DNA of different individuals (in the case of sexually reproducing organisms) to create a viable population. The cloning of an extinct species has not yet been attempted, primarily due to technological limitations, though bioethical and philosophical objections have also been raised. Bioethics is the philosophical study of the ethical controversies brought about by advances in Biology and Medicine. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language The concept of cloning extinct species was popularized in the successful novel and movie Jurassic Park. Jurassic Park is a Science fiction Novel that was written by Michael Crichton and published in 1990.

See also

• Gene pool
• Genetic erosion
• Genetic pollution
• Habitat fragmentation
• IUCN Red List
• List of extinct animals
• List of extinct plants
• Living Planet Index
• Red List Index
• Refugium (population biology)
• Timeline of extinctions
• Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

Notes and references

External links

• Committee on recently extinct organisms