Citizendia
Your Ad Here

In linguistics, evidentiality is, broadly, the indication of the nature of evidence for a given statement, that is, whether evidence exists for the statement and/or what kind of evidence exists. Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Evidence in its broadest sense includes anything that is used to determine or demonstrate the Truth of an assertion An evidential (also verificational or validational) is the particular grammatical element (affix, clitic, or particle) that indicates evidentiality. Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. An affix is a Morpheme that is attached to a stem to form a word In Linguistics, a clitic is a grammatically independent and phonologically dependent Word. In Linguistics, the term particle is a word lacking a strict definition but has the function of changing the relation of the parts of the sentence to one another and is therefore Languages with only a single evidential have had the terms mediative, médiatif, médiaphorique, and indirective used instead of evidential.

Contents

Introduction

All languages have some means of specifying the source of information. European languages (such as Germanic and Romance languages) often indicate evidential-type information through modal verbs (French: devoir, Dutch: zouden, Danish: skulle, German: sollen) or other lexical words (adverbials) (English: reportedly) or phrases (English: it seems to me). The Germanic languages are a group of related languages that constitute a branch of the Indo-European (IE Language family. The Romance languages (sometimes referred to as Romanic languages, or Neolatin languages) are a branch of the Indo-European language family comprising all A modal verb (also modal, modal auxiliary verb, modal auxiliary) is a type of Auxiliary verb that is used to indicate modality. French ( français,) is a Romance language spoken around the world by 118 million people as a native language and by about 180 to 260 million people Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname Danish ( d̥ænsɡ̊ is one of the North Germanic languages (also called Scandinavian languages a sub-group of the Germanic branch of the The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. In Linguistics, the lexicon (from Greek Λεξικόν of a language is its Vocabulary, including its words and expressions In Grammar an adverbial is a word (an Adverb) or a group of words (an adverbial Phrase or an adverbial Clause) that modifies or tells us something English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States

Some languages have a distinct grammatical category of evidentiality that is required to be expressed at all times. The elements in European languages indicating the information source are optional and usually do not indicate evidentiality as their primary function — thus they do not form a grammatical category. The obligatory elements of grammatical evidentiality systems may be translated into English, variously, as I hear that, I see that, I think that, as I hear, as I can see, as far as I understand, they say, it is said, it seems, it seems to me that, it looks like, it appears that, it turns out that, alleged, stated, allegedly, reportedly, obviously, etc.

Alexandra Aikhenvald (2004) reports that about a quarter of the world's languages have some type of grammatical evidentiality. Alexandra Yurievna Aikhenvald (born 1957 in Russia) is the academic coordinator of the Research Centre for Linguistic Typology at La Trobe University She also reports that, to her knowledge, no research has been conducted on grammatical evidentiality in sign languages. A sign language (also signed language) is a Language which instead of acoustically conveyed Sound patterns uses visually transmitted sign patterns

Many languages with grammatical evidentiality mark evidentiality independently from tense-aspect or epistemic modality (which is the speaker's evaluation of the information, i. Grammatical tense is a temporal linguistic quality expressing the time at during or over which a state or action denoted by a verb occurs In Linguistics, the grammatical aspect of a Verb defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof in the described event or state Epistemic modality is a sub-type of Linguistic modality that deals with a speaker's evaluation/judgment of degree of confidence in or belief of the knowledge upon which a e. whether it is reliable, uncertain, probable).

Grammatical evidentiality may be expressed in different forms (depending on the language), such as through affixes, clitics, or particles. An affix is a Morpheme that is attached to a stem to form a word In Linguistics, a clitic is a grammatically independent and phonologically dependent Word. In Linguistics, the term particle is a word lacking a strict definition but has the function of changing the relation of the parts of the sentence to one another and is therefore For example, Eastern Pomo has 4 evidential suffixes that are added to verbs, -ink’e (nonvisual sensory), -ine (inferential), -·le (hearsay), -ya (direct knowledge). Eastern Pomo (also Clear Lake Pomo) is an extinct Hokan language in the Pomoan family formerly spoken around Clear Lake in An affix is a Morpheme that is attached to a stem to form a word

Evidentials in Eastern Pomo
Evidential type Example Verb Gloss
nonvisual sensory pʰa·békʰ-ink’e "burned"
[speaker felt the sensation]
inferential pʰa·bék-ine "must have burned"
[speaker saw circumstantial evidence]
hearsay (reportative) pʰa·békʰ-·le "burned, they say"
[speaker is reporting what was told]
direct knowledge pʰa·bék-a "burned"
[speaker has direct evidence, probably visual]
(McLendon 2003)

The use of evidentiality has pragmatic implications in languages that do not mark evidentiality distinctly from epistemic modality. Pragmatics is the study of the ability of Natural language speakers to communicate more than that which is explicitly stated For example, a person who makes a false statement qualified as a belief may be considered mistaken; a person who makes a false statement qualified as a personally observed fact will probably be considered to have lied.

Types of grammatical evidentiality

Following the typology of Aikhenvald (2003, 2004), there are two broad types of evidential marking:

  1. indirectivity marking ("type I")
  2. evidential marking ("type II")

The first type (indirectivity) indicates whether evidence exists for a given statement, but does not specify what kind of evidence. Linguistic Typology is an international Peer-reviewed journal in the field of Linguistic typology, founded in 1997 The second type (evidentiality proper) specifies the kind of evidence (such as whether the evidence is visual, reported, or inferred).

Indirectivity (type I)

Indirectivity (also known as inferentiality) systems are common in Iranian, Finno-Ugric, and Turkic languages. The Iranian languages are a branch of the Indo-European language family and its subfamily Indo-Iranian. Finno-Ugric (ˌfɪnoʊˈjuːgɹɪk is a grouping of languages in the Uralic language family comprising Finnish, Estonian, Hungarian and The Turkic languages constitute a Language family of some thirty languages spoken by Turkic peoples across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the These languages indicate whether evidence exists for a given source of information — thus, they contrast direct information (reported directly) and indirect information (reported indirectly, focusing on its reception by the speaker/recipient). Unlike the other evidential "type II" systems, indirectivity marking does not indicate information about the source of knowledge: it is irrelevant whether the information results from hearsay, inference, or perception (however, some Turkic languages distinguish between reported indirect and non-reported indirect, see Johanson 2003, 2000 for further elaboration). This can be seen in the following Turkish verbs:

gel-di "came"         gel-miş "obviously came, came (as far as understood)"
come-PAST         come-INDIRPAST
(Johanson 2003: 275)

In the first word geldi, the unmarked suffix -di indicates past tense. Turkish ( tr Türkçe IPA) is a language spoken by over 63 million people worldwide making it the most commonly spoken of the Turkic languages. Markedness is a linguistic concept that developed out of the Prague School (also known as the Prague linguistic circle) The past tense is a Verb tense expressing action activity state or being in the past of the current moment (in an Absolute tense system or prior In the second word gelmiş, the suffix -miş also indicates past tense but indirectly. It may be translated into English with the added words obviously or as far as I understand. The direct past tense marker -di is unmarked (or neutral) in the sense that whether or not evidence exists supporting the statement is not specified.

Evidentiality (type II)

The other broad type of evidentiality systems ("type II") specifies the nature of the evidence supporting a statement. These kinds of evidence can be divided into such criteria as:

  • Witness vs. Nonwitness
  • Firsthand vs. Secondhand vs. Thirdhand
  • Sensory
    • Visual vs. Nonvisual (i. e. auditory, olfactory, etc. )
  • Inferential
  • Reportative
    • Hearsay
    • Quotative
  • Assumed

A witness evidential indicates that the information source was obtained through direct observation by the speaker. Usually this is from visual observation (eyewitness), but some languages also mark information directly heard with information directly seen. A witness evidential is usually contrasted with a nonwitness evidential which indicates that the information was not witnessed personally but was obtained through a secondhand source or was inferred by the speaker.

A secondhand evidential is used to mark any information that was not personally observed or experienced by the speaker. This may include inferences or reported information. This type of evidential may be contrasted with an evidential that indicates any other kind of source. A few languages distinguish between secondhand and thirdhand information sources.

Sensory evidentials can often by divided into different types. Some languages mark visual evidence differently from nonvisual evidence that is heard, smelled, or felt. The Kashaya language has a separate auditory evidential. Kashaya (also Southwestern Pomo, Kashia) is a severely endangered Pomoan language spoken on the Northern California coast in Sonoma

An inferential evidential indicates information was not personally experienced but was inferred from indirect evidence. Some languages have different types of inferential evidentials. Some of the inferentials found indicate:

  1. information inferred by direct physical evidence,
  2. information inferred by general knowledge,
  3. information inferred/assumed because of speaker's experience with similar situations,
  4. past deferred realization.

In many cases, different inferential evidentials also indicate epistemic modality, such as uncertainty or probability (see evidentiality & epistemic modality below). For example, one evidential may indicate that the information is inferred but of uncertain validity, while another indicates that the information is inferred but unlikely to be true.

Reportative evidentials indicate that the information was reported to the speaker by another person. A few languages distinguish between hearsay evidentials and quotative evidentials. Hearsay indicates reported information that may or may not be accurate. A quotative indicates the information is accurate and not open to interpretation (i. e. , is like a direct quotation). An example of a reportative from Shipibo (-ronki):

Aronkiai. Shipibo (also Shipibo-Conibo, Shipibo-Konibo) is a Panoan language spoken in Peru and Brazil by approximately 26000 speakers
a-ronki-ai
do-REPRT-INCOMPL
"It is said that she will do it. " / "She says that she will do it. "
(Valenzuela 2003:39)

Typology of evidentiality systems

The following is a brief survey of evidential systems found in the languages of the world as identified in Aikhenvald (2003). Some languages only have two evidential markers while others may have six or more. The system types are organized by the number of evidentials found in the language. For example, a 2-term system (A) will have two different evidential markers; a 3-term system (B) will have three different evidentials. The systems are further divided by the type of evidentiality that is indicated (e. g. , A1, A2, A3, etc). Languages that exemplify each type are listed in parentheses.

The most common system found is the A3 type.

2-term systems:

3-term systems:

4-term systems:

5+ term systems:

Evidential-marking & other categories

Evidential systems in many languages are often marked simultaneously with other linguistic categories. Western Apache refers to the similar Apache peoples living primarily in east central Arizona. For example, a given language may use the same element to mark both evidentiality and mirativity (i. A mirative (or admirative) is a particular Grammatical element in some languages that indicates unexpected and new information e. unexpected information). This is the case of Western Apache where the post-verbal particle lą̄ą̄ primarily functions as a mirative but also has a secondary function as an inferential evidential. Western Apache refers to the similar Apache peoples living primarily in east central Arizona. This phenomenon of evidentials developing secondary functions or of other grammatical elements (e. g. miratives, modal verbs) developing evidential functions is fairly widespread. A modal verb (also modal, modal auxiliary verb, modal auxiliary) is a type of Auxiliary verb that is used to indicate modality. The following types of mixed systems have been reported:

  • evidentiality with mirativity
  • evidentiality with tense-aspect
  • evidentiality with modality   (this is discussed in the next section below)

In addition to the interactions with tense, modality, and mirativity, the usage of evidentials in some languages may also depend on the clause type, discourse structure, and/or linguistic genre. Grammatical tense is a temporal linguistic quality expressing the time at during or over which a state or action denoted by a verb occurs In Linguistics, the grammatical aspect of a Verb defines the temporal flow (or lack thereof in the described event or state In Linguistics, modals are expressions broadly associated with notions of Possibility and Necessity. In Grammar, a clause is a word or group of words that consists of a subject and a predicate, although in some Languages and some types of Discourse (L discursus, "running to and from" means either "written or spoken communication or debate" or "a formal discussion A genre (ˈʒɑːnrə also /ˈdʒɑːnrə/ from French "kind" or "sort" from Latin: genus (stem gener-) is a loose set

However, despite the intersection of evidentiality systems with other semantic or pragmatic systems (through grammatical categories), several languages do mark evidentiality without any grammatical connection to these other semantic/pragmatic systems. Semantics is the study of meaning in communication The word derives from Greek σημαντικός ( semantikos) "significant" from Pragmatism generally considered to have originated in the late nineteenth century with Charles Peirce, who first stated the Pragmatic maxim. More explicitly stated, there are modal systems which do not express evidentiality and evidential systems which do not express modality. Likewise, there are mirative systems which do not express evidentiality and evidential systems which do not express mirativity. Because some languages mark these separately, some linguists (e. g. Aikhenvald, de Haan, DeLancey) argue that evidentiality should be considered a distinct grammatical category, although they also admit the close connection of evidentiality to these other areas of language.

Evidentiality & epistemic modality

Evidentiality is often considered to be a sub-type of epistemic modality (see, for example, Palmer 1986, Kiefer 1994). Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Other linguists consider evidentiality (marking the source of information in a statement) to be distinct from epistemic modality (marking the degree of confidence in a statement). An English example:

I see that he is coming. (evidential)
I guess that he is coming. (epistemic)

For instance, de Haan (1999, 2001, 2005) states that evidentiality asserts evidence while epistemic modality evaluates evidence and that evidentiality is more akin to a deictic category marking the relationship between speakers and events/actions (like the way demonstratives mark the relationship between speakers and objects, see also Joseph 2003). In Pragmatics and Linguistics, deixis is collectively the orientational features of human languages to have reference to points in time space and the speaking event Demonstratives are deictic words (they depend on an external frame of reference that indicate which entities a speaker refers to and distinguishes those entities from others Aikhenvald (2003) finds that evidentials may indicate a speaker's attitude about the validity of a statement but this is not a required feature of evidentials. Additionally, she finds that evidential-marking may co-occur with epistemic-marking, but it may also co-occur with aspectual/tense or mirative marking.

Considering evidentiality as a type of epistemic modality may only be the result of analyzing non-European languages in terms of the systems of modality found in European languages. For example, the modal verbs in Germanic languages are used to indicate both evidentiality and epistemic modality (and are thus ambiguous when taken out of context). Other (non-European) languages clearly mark these differently. De Haan (2001) finds that the use of modal verbs to indicate evidentiality is comparatively rare (based on a sample of 200 languages).

Terminology. Although some linguists have proposed that evidentiality should be considered separately from epistemic modality, other linguists conflate the two. Because of this conflation, some researchers use the term evidentiality to refer both to the marking of the knowledge source and the commitment to the truth of the knowledge.

Evidentiality in English (non-grammatical)

Evidentiality is not considered a grammatical category in English because it is expressed in diverse ways and is always optional. In contrast, many other languages (including Quechua, Yukaghir) require the speaker to mark the main verb or the sentence as a whole for evidentiality, or offer an optional set of affixes for indirect evidentiality, with direct experience being the default assumed mode of evidentiality. Quechua ( Runa Simi) is a Native American language of South America. The Yukaghir languages (also Yukagir, Jukagir) are a family of related languages spoken in the Russian Far East by the Yukaghir, an Indigenous

Consider these English sentences:

I am hungry. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States
Bob is hungry.

We are unlikely to say the second unless someone (perhaps Bob himself) has told us that Bob is hungry. (We might still say it for someone incapable of speaking for himself, such as a baby or a pet. ) If we are simply assuming that Bob is hungry based on the way he looks or acts, we are more likely to say something like:

Bob looks hungry.
Bob seems hungry.

Here, the fact that we are relying on sensory evidence, rather than direct experience, is conveyed by our use of the word look or seem.

History of the concept

The notion of evidentiality as obligatory grammatical information was first made apparent in 1911 by Franz Boas in his introduction to The Handbook of American Indian Languages in a discussion of Kwakiutl and in his grammatical sketch of Tsimshianic. Franz Boas ( July 9, 1858 &ndash December 21, 1942) was a German - American anthropologist and a pioneer of modern Kwak'wala (also Kwagiutl or Kwakiutl) is the Indigenous language spoken by the Kwakwaka'wakw. The Tsimshianic languages are a family of languages spoken in northwestern British Columbia and in southern Alaska on Annette Island and The term evidential was first used in the current linguistic sense by Roman Jakobson in 1957 in reference to Balkan Slavic (Jacobsen 1986:4; Jakobson 1990) with the following definition:

"EnEns/Es evidential is a tentative label for the verbal category which takes into account three events — a narrated event (En), a speech event (Es), and a narrated speech event (Ens). Roman Osipovich Jakobson, (Russian Роман Осипович Якобсон) ( 11 October 1896 – 18 July 1982) was a Russian This is a list of languages spoken in the Balkans. With the exception of several Turkic languages Hungarian and Circassian all of them belong to the Indo-European family The Slavic languages (also called Slavonic languages) a group of closely related Languages of the Slavic peoples and a subgroup of Indo-European languages The speaker reports an event on the basis of someone else's report (quotative, i. e. hearsay evidence), of a dream (revelative evidence), of a guess (presumptive evidence) or of his own previous experience (memory evidence). "

Jakobson also was the first to clearly separate evidentiality from grammatical mood. Grammatical mood is one of a set of distinctive Verb forms that are used to signal modality. By the middle of the 1960s, evidential and evidentiality were established terms in linguistic literature.

Systems of evidentiality have received focused linguistic attention only relatively recently. The first major work to examine evidentiality cross-linguistically is Chafe & Nichols (1986). A more recent typological comparison is Aikhenvald (2004). Linguistic Typology is an international Peer-reviewed journal in the field of Linguistic typology, founded in 1997

References and further reading

See also

External links

Epistemic modality is a sub-type of Linguistic modality that deals with a speaker's evaluation/judgment of degree of confidence in or belief of the knowledge upon which a In Linguistics, modals are expressions broadly associated with notions of Possibility and Necessity. Epistemic moods are a class of Grammatical moods that indicate the Epistemic probability of an uterrance being true Grammatical mood is one of a set of distinctive Verb forms that are used to signal modality. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge A mirative (or admirative) is a particular Grammatical element in some languages that indicates unexpected and new information
© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
 Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic