Ethnography (Greek ἔθνος ethnos = people and γράφειν graphein = writing) is a genre of writing that uses fieldwork to provide a descriptive study of human societies. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly This article is about the scientific method For the military term see Field fortifications under Fortification. Ethnography presents the results of a holistic research method founded on the idea that a system's properties cannot necessarily be accurately understood independently of each other. Distinguish from the suffix -holism, which describes addictions The genre has both formal and historical connections to travel writing and colonial office reports. Travel writing is a broad category of Writing concerned with various aspects of Travel. Several academic traditions, in particular the constructivist and relativist paradigms, employ ethnographic research as a crucial research method. Compare Moral relativism, Aesthetic relativism, Social constructionism, Cultural relativism, and Cognitive relativism. Many cultural anthropologists consider ethnography the essence of the discipline. Cultural anthropology is one of four fields of Anthropology (the holistic study of humanity) as it developed in the United States.

Contents 1 Cultural and social anthropology 2 Other related fields 2.1 Design Ethnography 3 Techniques 4 Ethics 4.1 Classic Virtues 4.2 Technical Skills 4.3 The Ethnographic Self 5 See also 5.1 Notable ethnographers 6 Notes 7 References 8 Suggested Reading 9 External links

Cultural and social anthropology

Cultural anthropology and social anthropology were developed around ethnographic research and their canonical texts which are mostly ethnographies: e. Cultural anthropology is one of four fields of Anthropology (the holistic study of humanity) as it developed in the United States. Social anthropology is the branch of Anthropology that studies how currently living human beings behave in social groups g. Argonauts of the Western Pacific (1922) by Bronisław Malinowski, Coming of Age in Samoa (1928) by Margaret Mead, The Nuer (1940) by E. E. Evans-Pritchard, or Naven (1958) by Gregory Bateson. Argonauts of the Western Pacific is a 1922 book of anthropology by Bronislaw Malinowski. For the Olympic champion athlete see Bronisław Malinowski (athlete. Coming of Age in Samoa is a book by Margaret Mead based upon youth in Samoa and lightly relating to youth in America, first published in 1928 Margaret Mead ( December 16, 1901, Philadelphia &ndash November 15, 1978, New York City) was an American The Nuer are a confederation of tribes located in Southern Sudan and western Ethiopia. Sir Edward Evan (E E Evans-Pritchard ( September 21, 1902 – September 11, 1973) was a British anthropologist instrumental Gregory Bateson ( 9 May 1904 – 4 July 1980) was a British anthropologist, social scientist, linguist Cultural & social anthropologists today place such a high value on actually doing ethnographic research that ethnology—the comparative synthesis of ethnographic information—is rarely the foundation for a career. Ethnology (from the Greek ἔθνος, ethnos meaning "habit custom convention" is the branch of Anthropology that compares and Within cultural anthropology, there are several sub-genres of ethnography. Beginning in the late 1950s and early 1960s, anthropologists began writing "bi-confessional" ethnographies that intentionally exposed the nature of ethnographic research. Famous examples include Tristes Tropiques by Claude Lévi-Strauss, The High Valley by Kenneth Read, and The Savage and the Innocent by David Maybury-Lewis, as well as the mildly fictionalized Return to Laughter by Elenore Smith Bowen (Laura Bohannan). Claude Lévi-Strauss (klod levi stʁos born 28 November 1908 is a French Anthropologist. David Henry Peter Maybury-Lewis ( May 5 1929 &ndash December 2 2007) was an Anthropologist, Ethnologist of lowland Later "reflexive" ethnographies refined the technique to translate cultural differences by representing their effects on the ethnographer. Famous examples include "Deep Play: Notes on a Balinese Cockfight" by Clifford Geertz, Reflections on Fieldwork in Morocco by Paul Rabinow, The Headman and I by Jean-Paul Dumont, and Tuhami by Vincent Crapanzano. Clifford James Geertz ( August 23 1926, San Francisco – October 30 2006, Philadelphia) was an American Paul Rabinow is Professor of Anthropology at the University of California (Berkeley Director of the Anthropology of the Contemporary Research Collaboratory (ARC and Director In the 1980s, the rhetoric of ethnography was subjected to intense scrutiny within the discipline, under the general influence of literary theory and post-colonial/post-structuralist thought. Postcolonialism ( postcolonial theory, post-colonial theory) is an intellectual discourse that holds together a set of theories found among the texts and Post-structuralism encompasses the intellectual developments of continental philosophers and critical theorists who wrote with tendencies of twentieth-century "Experimental" ethnographies that reveal the ferment of the discipline include Shamanism, Colonialism, and the Wild Man by Michael Taussig, Debating Muslims by Michael F. Michael Taussig (born 1940) received his PhD in Anthropology from the London School of Economics and is a professor at Columbia University. J. Fischer and Mehdi Abedi, A Space on the Side of the Road by Kathleen Stewart, and Advocacy after Bhopal by Kim Fortun.

Cultural anthropologists, such as Clifford Geertz and Xavier Andrade, study and interpret cultural diversity through ethnography based on field work. Clifford James Geertz ( August 23 1926, San Francisco – October 30 2006, Philadelphia) was an American It provides an account of a particular culture, society, or community. The fieldwork usually involves spending a year or more in another society, living with the local people and learning about their ways of life. Ethnographers are participant observers. They take part in events they study because it helps with understanding local behavior and thought.

Other related fields

Psychology, economics, sociology and cultural studies also produce ethnography. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Cultural studies is an academic discipline which combines Political economy, Communication, Sociology, Social theory, Literary theory Urban sociology and the Chicago School in particular are associated with ethnographic research, although some of the most well-known examples (including Street Corner Society by William Foote Whyte and Black Metropolis by St. Urban sociology is the sociological study of social life and human interaction in Metropolitan areas It is a normative discipline of sociology seeking to study the In Sociology and later Criminology, the Chicago School (sometimes described as the Ecological School) refers to the first major body of works emerging Street Corner Society is a famous descriptive Case study written by William Foote Whyte and published in 1943 William Foote Whyte ( June 27, 1914 &ndash July 16, 2000) was a sociologist chiefly known for his ethnological study in Clair Drake and Horace R. Caton) were influenced by an anthropologist, Lloyd Warner, who happened to be in the sociology department at Chicago, and by sociologist Robert Park whose earlier career had included journalism. William Lloyd Warner (b October 26 1898, Redlands California; d Symbolic interactionism developed from the same tradition and yielded several excellent sociological ethnographies, including Shared Fantasy by Gary Alan Fine, which documents the early history of fantasy role-playing games. Symbolic interactionism is a major sociological perspective that is influential in many areas of the discipline Gary Alan Fine (born May 11, 1950 in New York City) is an American sociologist A role-playing game ( RPG; often roleplaying game) is a Game in which the participants assume the roles of Fictional characters. But even though many sub-fields and theoretical perspectives within sociology use ethnographic methods, ethnography is not the sine qua non of the discipline, as it is in cultural anthropology. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Please do NOT add the Battlestar Galactica episode

Education, Ethnomusicology, Performance Studies, Folklore, and Linguistics are others fields which have made extensive use of ethnography. Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency This article is about the concept For the society and academic journal see Society for Ethnomusicology. Performance studies has been growing as an academic specialty since the 1970s History The concept of folklore developed as part of the 19th century ideology of Romantic nationalism, leading to the reshaping of oral traditions to serve modern ideological Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields The American anthropologist George Spindler (Stanford University) was a pioneer in applying ethnographic methodology to the classroom. Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly known as Stanford University or simply Stanford, is a private Research university located in James Spradley is another well-known ethnographer, especially for his book, The Ethnographic Interview, published in 1979. James P Spradley was a professor of Anthropology at Macalester College from 1969 and is well known for his additions to the Literature

Ethnographic methods have been used to study business settings. Groups of workers, managers and so on are different social categories participating in common social systems. Each group shows different characteristic attitudes, behavior patterns and values.

Design Ethnography

Anthropologists like Daniel Miller and Mary Douglas have used ethnographic data to answer academic questions about consumers and consumption. Daniel Miller (born 1954) is an anthropologist most closely associated with studies in material culture and consumption Dame Mary Douglas, DBE, FBA ( 25 March 1921 &ndash 16 May 2007) was a British Anthropologist, known for In this sense, Tony Salvador, Genevieve Bell, and Ken Anderson describe design ethnography as being "a way of understanding the particulars of daily life in such a way as to increase the success probability of a new product or service or, more appropriately, to reduce the probability of failure specifically due to a lack of understanding of the basic behaviors and frameworks of consumers^[1]. "

Businesses, too, have found ethnographers helpful for understanding how people use products and services, as indicated in the increasing use of ethnographic methods to understand consumers and consumption, or for new product development (such as video_ethnography). Video recording of subjects in their natural environment and context when confronted with an object or study with an objective of observing their spontaneous reactions and applying that The recent Ethnographic Praxis in Industry (EPIC) conference is evidence of this. Ethnographers' systematic and holistic approach to real-life experience is valued by product developers, who use the method to understand unstated desires or cultural practices that surround products. Where focus groups fail to inform marketers about what people really do, ethnography links what people say to what they actually do—avoiding the pitfalls that come from relying only on self-reported, focus-group data.

Techniques

1. Direct, first-hand observation of daily behavior. This can include participant observation.
2. Conversation with different levels of formality. This can involve small talk to long interviews.
3. The genealogical method. This is a set of procedures by which ethnographers discover and record connections of kinship, descent and marriage using diagrams and symbols.
4. Detailed work with key consultants about particular areas of community life.
5. In-depth interviewing.
6. Discovery of local beliefs and perceptions.
7. Problem-oriented research.
8. Longitudinal research. This is continuous long-term study of an area or site.
9. Team research.
10. Case studies

Not all of these techniques are used by ethnographers, but interviews and participant observation are the most widely used.

Ethics

Gary Alan Fine argues that the nature of ethnographic inquiry demands that researchers deviate from formal and idealistic rules or ethics that have come to be widely accepted in qualitative and quantitative approaches to research. Gary Alan Fine (born May 11, 1950 in New York City) is an American sociologist Many of these ethical assumptions are rooted in positivist and post-positivist epistemologies that have adapted over time, but nonetheless are apparent and must be accounted for in all research paradigms. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge These ethical dilemmas are evident throughout the entire process of conducting ethnographies, including the design, implementation, and reporting of an ethnographic study. Essentially, Fine maintains that researchers are typically not as ethical as they claim or assume to be — and that “each job includes ways of doing things that would be inappropriate for others to know”. ^[2]

Fine is not necessarily casting blame or pointing his finger at ethnographic researchers, but rather is attempting to show that researchers often make idealized ethical claims and standards which in actuality are inherently based on partial truths and self-deceptions. Fine also acknowledges that many of these partial truths and self-deceptions are unavoidable. He maintains that “illusions” are essential to maintain an occupational reputation and avoid potentially more caustic consequences. He claims, “Ethnographers cannot help but lie, but in lying, we reveal truths that escape those who are not so bold”. ^[3] Based on these assertions, Fine establishes three conceptual clusters in which ethnographic ethical dilemmas can be situated: “Classic Virtues,” “Technical Skills,” and “Ethnographic Self. ”

Classic Virtues

• “The kindly ethnographer” – Most ethnographers present themselves as being more sympathetic than they actually are, which aids in the research process, but is also deceptive. The identity that we present to subjects is different from who we are in other circumstances.
• “The friendly ethnographer” – Ethnographers operate under the assumption that they should not dislike anyone. In actuality, when hated individuals are found within research, ethnographers often crop them out of the findings.
• “The honest ethnographer” – If research participants know the research goals, their responses will likely be skewed. Therefore, ethnographers often conceal what they know in order to increase the likelihood of acceptance. ^[4]

Technical Skills

• “The Precise Ethnographer” – Ethnographers often create the illusion that field notes are data and reflect what “really” happened. They engage in the opposite of plagiarism, giving credit to those undeserving by not using precise words but rather loose interpretations and paraphrasing. Researchers take near-fictions and turn them into claims of fact. The closest ethnographers can ever really get to reality is an approximate truth.
• “The Observant Ethnographer” – Readers of ethnography are often led to assume the report of a scene is complete – that little of importance was missed. In reality, an ethnographer will always miss some aspect because they are not omniscient. Everything is open to multiple interpretations and misunderstandings. The ability of the ethnographer to take notes and observe varies, and therefore, what is depicted in ethnography is not the whole picture.
• “The Unobtrusive Ethnographer” – As a “participant” in the scene, the researcher will always have an effect on the communication that occurs within the research site. The degree to which one is an “active member” affects the extent to which sympathetic understanding is possible. ^[5]

The Ethnographic Self

• “The Candid Ethnographer” – Where the researcher situates themselves within the ethnography is ethically problematic. There is an illusion that everything reported has actually happened because the researcher has been directly exposed to it.
• “The Chaste Ethnographer” – When ethnographers participate within the field, they invariably develop relationships with research subjects/participants. These relationships are sometimes not accounted for within the reporting of the ethnography despite the fact that they seemingly would influence the research findings.
• “The Fair Ethnographer” – Fine claims that objectivity is an illusion and that everything in ethnography is known from a perspective. Therefore, it is unethical for a researcher to report fairness in their findings.
• “The Literary Ethnographer” – Representation is a balancing act of determining what to “show” through poetic/prosaic language and style versus what to “tell” via straightforward, ‘factual’ reporting. The idiosyncratic skill of the ethnographer influences the face-value of the research. ^[6]

See also

• Contextual Inquiry
• Critical Ethnography
• Ethnography of communication
• Realist ethnography
• Virtual Ethnography: a form of ethnography that involves conducting ethnographic studies on the Internet. According to Thomas (2003 critical ethnography is not a theory but a perspective through which a qualitative researcher can frame questions and promote action The Ethnography of communication (EOC is a method of Discourse analysis in Linguistics, which draws on the anthropological field of Ethnography Within the field of Anthropology and other Social sciences Ethnography is a genre of writing used to describe human social and cultural interactions Online ethnography or Virtual ethnography - also called netnography for a decade in the business marketing and consumer research field (Robert Kozinets 1997
• Participant observation
• Video_ethnography

Notable ethnographers

• Alexey Okladnikov
• Zalpa Bersanova
• Nikolai Nadezhdin
• Sergey Oldenburg
• José Leite de Vasconcelos
• Bronislaw Malinowski
• Raymond Firth

Notes

Jan Chipchase

References

• Agar, Michael (1996) The Professional Stranger: An Informal Introduction to Ethnography. Academic Press.
• Douglas, Mary and Baron Isherwood (1996) The World of Goods: Toward and Anthropology of Consumption. Routledge, London.
• Erickson, Ken C. and Donald D. Stull (1997) Doing Team Ethnography : Warnings and Advice. Sage, Beverly Hills.
• Fine, G. A. (1993). Ten lies of ethnography. Journal of Contemporary Ethnography, 22, p. 267-294.
• Hymes, Dell. (1974). Foundations in sociolinguistics: An ethnographic approach. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
• Kottak, Conrad Phillip (2005) Window on Humanity : A Concise Introduction to General Anthropology, (pages 2-3, 16-17, 34-44). McGraw Hill, New York.
• Miller, Daniel (1987) Material Culture and Mass Consumption. Blackwell, London.
• Spradley, James P. (1979) The Ethnographic Interview. Wadsworth Group/Thomson Learning.
• Salvador, Tony; Genevieve Bell; and Ken Anderson (1999) Design Ethnography. Design Management Journal.

Suggested Reading

• "On Ethnography" by Shirley Brice Heath & Brian Street, with Molly Mills.
• The Interpretation of Cultures by Clifford Geertz.

External links

• Genzuk, Michael (2003) A Synthesis of Ethnographic Research
• Division of Anthropology, American Museum of Natural History - Over 160,000 objects from Pacific, North American, African, Asian ethnographic collections with images and detailed description, linked to the original catalogue pages, field notebooks, and photographs are available online.
• Ethnography.com A community based Ethnography website for academic and professional ethnographers and interested parties
• Digital Ethnography A published article in a Chicago newspaper discussing KSU Professor Michael Wesch's term Digital Ethnography
• University of Pennsylvania's "What is Ethnography?" Penn's Public Interest Anthropology Web Site
• American Ethnography -- Definitions: What is Ethnography? A collection of quotes about ethnography (Malinowski, Lévi-Strauss, Geertz, . . . )

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