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Ethanol fuel is ethanol (ethyl alcohol), the same type of alcohol found in alcoholic beverages. In Chemistry, an alcohol is any Organic compound in which a Hydroxyl group ( - O[[hydrogen H]]) is bound to a Carbon It can be used as a fuel, mainly as a biofuel alternative to gasoline, and is widely used in cars in Brazil. Brazil is the world's second largest producer of Ethanol and the world's largest exporter and it is considered to have the world's first Sustainable Because it is easy to manufacture and process, and can be made from very common crops, such as sugar cane and maize (corn), it is an increasingly common alternative to gasoline in some parts of the world. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica
Anhydrous ethanol (ethanol with less than 1% water) can be blended with gasoline in varying quantities up to pure ethanol (E100), and most spark-ignited gasoline style engines will operate well with mixtures of 10% ethanol (E10). Ethanol (ethyl Alcohol) and Methanol (methyl alcohol are two types of Alcohol fuels. [1] Most cars on the road today in the U. S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol,[2] and the use of 10% ethanol gasoline is mandated in some cities where harmful levels of auto emissions are possible. [3]
Ethanol can be mass-produced by fermentation of sugar or by hydration of ethylene from petroleum and other sources. Structure This Hydrocarbon has four Hydrogen Atoms bound to a pair of Carbon atoms that are connected by a Double bond. Petroleum ( L petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit Current interest in ethanol mainly lies in bio-ethanol, produced from the starch or sugar in a wide variety of crops, but there has been considerable debate about how useful bio-ethanol will be in replacing fossil fuels in vehicles. Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. Concerns relate to the large amount of arable land required for crops,[4] as well as the energy and pollution balance of the whole cycle of ethanol production. [5][6] Recent developments with cellulosic ethanol production and commercialization may allay some of these concerns. Cellulosic ethanol commercialization can contribute to a successful renewable fuels future [7]
According to the International Energy Agency, cellulosic ethanol could allow ethanol fuels to play a much bigger role in the future than previously thought. The International Energy Agency ( IEA, or AIE in Romance languages) is a Paris -based intergovernmental organization founded by the Organisation Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants [8] Cellulosic ethanol offers promise as resistant cellulose fibers, a major component in plant cells walls, can be used to generate ethanol. Dedicated energy crops, such as switchgrass, are also promising cellulose sources that can be produced in many regions of the United States. Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a warm season Grass and is one of the dominant Species of the central North American [9]
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Chemistry
During ethanol fermentation, glucose is decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide. See also Fermentation (biochemistry Ethanol fermentation is the biological process by which sugars such as Glucose, Fructose, and Sucrose Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single
- C6H12O6 → 2C2H6O + 2CO2
During combustion ethanol reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and heat: (other air pollutants are also produced when ethanol is burned in the atmosphere rather than in pure oxygen)
- C2H6O + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 3H2O
Together, they add up to:
- C6H12O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2O + heat
Also harmful nitrous oxide gases are produced. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. An atmosphere (from Greek ατμός - atmos, " Vapor " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " Nitrogen dioxide is one of the harmful gases as is a major contributor to the formation of "brown smog".
Sources
Ethanol is considered "renewable" because it is primarily the result of conversion of the sun's energy into usable energy. An energy crop is a Plant grown as a low cost and low maintenance Harvest used to make Biofuels or directly exploited for its energy content The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a warm season Grass and is one of the dominant Species of the central North American Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. Creation of ethanol starts with photosynthesis causing the feedstocks such as switchgrass, sugar cane, or corn to grow. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a warm season Grass and is one of the dominant Species of the central North American Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica These feedstocks are processed into ethanol.
About 5% of the ethanol produced in the world in 2003 was actually a petroleum product. [10] It is made by the catalytic hydration of ethylene with sulfuric acid as the catalyst. Sulfuric (or sulphuric acid, H 2 S[[oxygen O]]4 is a strong Mineral acid. Catalysis is the process in which the rate of a Chemical reaction is increased by means of a Chemical substance known as a catalyst It can also be obtained via ethylene or acetylene, from calcium carbide, coal, oil gas, and other sources. Structure This Hydrocarbon has four Hydrogen Atoms bound to a pair of Carbon atoms that are connected by a Double bond. Acetylene ( IUPAC name ethyne), C2H2 is a Hydrocarbon belonging to the group of Alkynes It is the simplest of all alkynes Calcium carbide is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula of Ca[[Carbide C2]] Two million tons of petroleum-derived ethanol are produced annually. The principal suppliers are plants in the United States, Europe, and South Africa. [11] Petroleum derived ethanol (synthetic ethanol) is chemically identical to bio-ethanol and can be differentiated only by radiocarbon dating. [12]
Bio-ethanol is obtained from the conversion of carbon based feedstock. Agricultural feedstocks are considered renewable because they get energy from the sun using photosynthesis, provided that all minerals required for growth (such as nitrogen and phosphorus) are returned to the land. The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Ethanol can be produced from a variety of feedstocks such as sugar cane, bagasse, miscanthus, sugar beet, sorghum, grain sorghum, switchgrass, barley, hemp, kenaf, potatoes, sweet potatoes, cassava, sunflower, fruit, molasses, corn, stover, grain, wheat, straw, cotton, other biomass, as well as many types of cellulose waste and harvestings, whichever has the best well-to-wheel assessment. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Bagasse (sometimes spelled bagass) is the Biomass remaining after Sugarcane or Sorghum stalks are crushed to extract their juice and is Miscanthus is a Genus of about 15 species of Perennial grasses native to subtropical and tropical regions of Africa and southern Sugar beet ( Beta vulgaris L a member of the Chenopodiaceae family is a plant whose root contains a high concentration of Sucrose. Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, some of which are raised for grain and many of which are used as Fodder plants either cultivated or as part Sorghum is a genus of numerous species of grasses, some of which are raised for grain and many of which are used as Fodder plants either cultivated or as part Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a warm season Grass and is one of the dominant Species of the central North American Barley ( Hordeum vulgare) is an annual Cereal Grain, which serves as a major animal Feed crop, with smaller amounts used for This article is about the cultivation and uses of industrial hemp not its psychoactive cousin Cannabis (drug. Kenaf Persian Hibiscus cannabinus, is a plant in the Malvaceae family The potato is a Starchy Tuberous crop Vegetable from the perennial Solanum tuberosum of the Solanaceae The sweet potato ( Ipomoea batatas) is a Dicotyledonous plant which belongs to the family Convolvulaceae The cassava, yuca, manioc, or mandioca ( Manihot esculenta) is a woody Shrub of the Euphorbiaceae (spurge family native The sunflower ( Helianthus annuus) is an Annual plant in the family Asteraceae and native to the Americas, with a large flowering The term fruit has different meanings dependent on context and the term is not synonymous in Food preparation and Biology. Molasses or Treacle is a thick Syrup by-product from the processing of the Sugarcane or Sugar beet into Sugar. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Stover consists of the leaves and stalks of corn (maize sorghum or soybean plants that are left in a field after harvest Wheat ( Triticum spp is a worldwide cultivated grass from the Levant area of the Middle East. Straw is an agricultural By-product, the dry stalk of a Cereal plant after the Grain or Seed has been removed Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4
Current, first generation processes for the production of ethanol from corn use only a small part of the corn plant: the corn kernels are taken from the corn plant and only the starch, which represents about 50% of the dry kernel mass, is transformed into ethanol. Two types of second generation processes are under development. The first type uses enzymes and yeast to convert the plant cellulose into ethanol while the second type uses pyrolysis to convert the whole plant to either a liquid bio-oil or a syngas. Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Pyrolysis is the Chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of Oxygen or any other reagents except possibly Steam Pyrolysis is the Chemical decomposition of organic materials by heating in the absence of Oxygen or any other reagents except possibly Steam Syngas (from syn thesis gas) is the name given to a gas mixture that contains varying amounts of Carbon monoxide and Hydrogen. Second generation processes can also be used with plants such as grasses, wood or agricultural waste material such as straw.
Production process
The basic steps for large scale production of ethanol are: microbial (yeast) fermentation of sugars, distillation, dehydration (requirements vary, see Ethanol fuel mixtures, below), and denaturing (optional). Corn ethanol is Ethanol produced from Corn as a Biomass through industrial fermentation chemical processing and distillation Yeasts are a growth form of eukaryotic Microorganisms classified in the kingdom Fungi, with about 1500 Species currently described Fermentation is the process of deriving energy from the oxidation of organic compounds such as carbohydrates using an endogenous electron acceptor which is Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture Dehydration ( hypohydration) is the removal of Water ( hydro in ancient Greek) from an object Denatured alcohol is Ethanol which has been rendered toxic or otherwise undrinkable and in some cases dyed Prior to fermentation, some crops require saccharification or hydrolysis of carbohydrates such as cellulose and starch into sugars. Hydrolysis is a Chemical reaction during which one or more water molecules are split into hydrogen and hydroxide ions which may go on to participate in further reactions Hydrolysis is a Chemical reaction during which one or more water molecules are split into hydrogen and hydroxide ions which may go on to participate in further reactions Saccharification of cellulose is called cellulolysis (see cellulosic ethanol). Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants Enzymes are used to convert starch into sugar. [13]
Fermentation
Ethanol is produced by microbial fermentation of the sugar. See also Fermentation (biochemistry Ethanol fermentation is the biological process by which sugars such as Glucose, Fructose, and Sucrose Fermentation is the process of deriving energy from the oxidation of organic compounds such as carbohydrates using an endogenous electron acceptor which is Microbial fermentation will currently only work directly with sugars. Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. Two major components of plants, starch and cellulose, are both made up of sugars, and can in principle be converted to sugars for fermentation. Starch, CAS # 9005-25-8 Chemical formula (C6H10O5n is a Polysaccharide Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 Currently, only the sugar (e. g. sugar cane) and starch (e. g. corn) portions can be economically converted. However, there is much activity in the area of cellulosic ethanol, where the cellulose part of a plant is broken down to sugars and subsequently converted to ethanol. Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants
Distillation
For the ethanol to be usable as a fuel, water must be removed. Most of the water is removed by distillation, but the purity is limited to 95-96% due to the formation of a low-boiling water-ethanol azeotrope. Distillation is a method of separating Mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture An azeotrope (pronounced The 95. 6% m/m (96. 5% v/v) ethanol, 4. 4% m/m (3. 5% v/v) water mixture may be used as a fuel alone, but unlike anhydrous ethanol, is immiscible in gasoline, so the water fraction is typically removed in further treatment in order to burn with in combination with gasoline in gasoline engines. As a general term a substance is said to be anhydrous if it contains no Water.
Dehydration
Currently, the most widely used purification method is a physical absorption process using a molecular sieve, for example, ZEOCHEM Z3-03 (a special 3A molecular sieve for EtOH dehydration). Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. A molecular sieve is a material containing tiny pores of a precise and uniform size that is used as an adsorbent for Gases and Liquids Molecules Another method, azeotropic distillation, is achieved by adding the hydrocarbon benzene which also denatures the ethanol (to render it undrinkable for duty purposes). In Chemistry, azeotropic distillation is any of a range of techniques used to break an Azeotrope in Distillation. Benzene, or benzol, is an organic Chemical compound and a known Carcinogen with the molecular formula C 6 H 6 See also Taxation, Indirect Tax In Economics, a duty is a kind of Tax, often associated with Customs, a payment due to the A third method involves use of calcium oxide as a desiccant. Calcium oxide ( CaO) commonly known as burnt lime, lime or quicklime, is a widely used Chemical compound. A Desiccant is a Hygroscopic substance that induces or sustains a state of dryness ( Desiccation) in its local vicinity in a moderately-well sealed container
Technology
Ethanol-based engines
Ethanol is most commonly used to power automobiles, though it may be used to power other vehicles, such as farm tractors and airplanes. A tractor is a Vehicle specifically designed to deliver a high Tractive effort at slow speeds for the purposes of hauling a trailer or machinery used Overview Fixed-wing aircraft range from small training and recreational aircraft to Wide-body aircraft and military cargo aircraft. Ethanol (E100) consumption in an engine is approximately 34% higher than that of gasoline (the energy per volume unit is 34% lower). [14][15] However, higher compression ratios in an ethanol-only engine allow for increased power output and better fuel economy than would be obtained with the lower compression ratio. [16][17] In general, ethanol-only engines are tuned to give slightly better power and torque output to gasoline-powered engines. In flexible fuel vehicles, the lower compression ratio requires tunings that give the same output when using either gasoline or hydrated ethanol. For maximum use of ethanol's benefits, a much higher compression ratio should be used,[18] which would render that engine unsuitable for gasoline use. When ethanol fuel availability allows high-compression ethanol-only vehicles to be practical, the fuel efficiency of such engines should be equal or greater than current gasoline engines. However, since the energy content (by volume) of ethanol fuel is less than gasoline, a larger volume of ethanol fuel (151%) would still be required to produce the same amount of energy. [19]
A 2004 MIT study,[20] and an earlier paper published by the Society of Automotive Engineers,[21] describing tests, identify a method to exploit the characteristics of fuel ethanol that is substantially better than mixing it with gasoline. The method presents the possibility of leveraging the use of alcohol to even achieve definite improvement over the cost-effectiveness of hybrid electric. The improvement consists of using dual-fuel direct-injection of pure alcohol (or the azeotrope or E85) and gasoline, in any ratio up to 100% of either, in a turbocharged, high compression-ratio, small-displacement engine having performance similar to an engine having twice the displacement. Each fuel is carried separately, with a much smaller tank for alcohol. The high-compression (which increases efficiency) engine will run on ordinary gasoline under low-power cruise conditions. Alcohol is directly injected into the cylinders (and the gasoline injection simultaneously reduced) only when necessary to suppress ‘knock’ such as when significantly accelerating. Direct cylinder injection raises the already high octane rating of ethanol up to an effective 130. The calculated over-all reduction of gasoline use and CO2 emission is 30%. The consumer cost payback time shows a 4:1 improvement over turbo-diesel and a 5:1 improvement over hybrid. In addition, the problems of water absorption into pre-mixed gasoline (causing phase separation), supply issues of multiple mix ratios and cold-weather starting are avoided.
Ethanol's higher octane rating allows an increase of an engine's compression ratio for increased thermal efficiency. In Thermodynamics, the thermal efficiency (\eta_{th} \ is a dimensionless performance measure of a thermal device such as an Internal combustion [22] In one study, complex engine controls and increased exhaust gas recirculation allowed a compression ratio of 19. 5 with fuels ranging from neat ethanol to E50. Thermal efficiency up to approximately that for a diesel was achieved. [23] This would result in the MPG (miles per gallon) of a dedicated ethanol vehicle to be about the same as one burning gasoline.
Engines using fuel with 30% to 100% ethanol also need a cold-starting system. For E85 fuel at temperatures below 11 °C (52 °F) a cold-starting system is required for reliable starting and to meet EPA emissions standards. [24] However, the EPA does not require cold start systems on E85 vehicles. No current production E85 vehicles in the USA are equipped with these cold start systems, and they meet EPA emission guidelines.
Ethanol fuel mixtures
- For more details on this topic, see Common ethanol fuel mixtures. Ethanol (ethyl Alcohol) and Methanol (methyl alcohol are two types of Alcohol fuels.
To avoid engine stall due to "slugs" of water in the fuel lines interrupting fuel flow, the fuel must exist as a single phase. Ethanol (ethyl Alcohol) and Methanol (methyl alcohol are two types of Alcohol fuels. The fraction of water that an ethanol-gasoline fuel can contain without phase separation increases with the percentage of ethanol. [25]. This shows, for example, that E30 can have up to about 2% water. If there is more than about 71% ethanol, the remainder can be any proportion of water or gasoline and phase separation will not occur. However, the fuel mileage declines with increased water content. The increased solubility of water with higher ethanol content permits E30 and hydrated ethanol to be put in the same tank since any combination of them always results in a single phase. Somewhat less water is tolerated at lower temperatures. For E10 it is about 0. 5% v/v at 70 F and decreases to about 0. 23% v/v at -30 F. [26]
In many countries cars are mandated to run on mixtures of ethanol. Brazil requires cars be suitable for a 25% ethanol blend, and has required various mixtures between 22% and 25% ethanol, since of July 2007 25% is required. The United States allows up to 10% blends, and some states require this (or a smaller amount) in all gasoline sold. Other countries have adopted their own requirements. Beginning with the model year 1999, an increasing number of vehicles in the world are manufactured with engines which can run on any fuel from 0% ethanol up to 100% ethanol without modification. Many cars and light trucks (a class containing minivans, SUVs and pickup trucks) are designed to be flexible-fuel vehicles (also called dual-fuel vehicles). Light truck or' light duty truck' is a classification for Trucks or truck-based Vehicles with a payload capacity of less than 4000 pounds A minivan, multi-purpose vehicle (abbreviated MPV) people-carrier, people-mover or multi-utility vehicle (shortened A sport utility vehicle ( SUV) is a generic marketing description for a rugged automotive vehicle similar to a Station wagon but built on a light-truck chassis A pickup truck is a light Motor vehicle with an open-top rear cargo area which is almost always separated from the cab to allow for chassis flex when carrying or pulling A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV or dual-fuel vehicle ( Colloquially called a flex-fuel vehicle) is an alternative fuel Automobile or In older model years, their engine systems contained alcohol sensors in the fuel and/or oxygen sensors in the exhaust that provide input to the engine control computer to adjust the fuel injection to achieve stochiometric (no residual fuel or free oxygen in the exhaust) air-to-fuel ratio for any fuel mix. Stoichiometry (sometimes called reaction stoichiometry to distinguish it from composition stoichiometry is the Calculation of Quantitative (measurable In newer models, the alcohol sensors have been removed, with the computer using only oxygen and airflow sensor feedback to estimate alcohol content. The engine control computer can also adjust (advance) the ignition timing to achieve a higher output without pre-ignition when it predicts that higher alcohol percentages are present in the fuel being burned. This method is backed up by advanced knock sensors - used in most high performance gasoline engines regardless if they're designed to use ethanol or not - that detect pre-ignition and detonation.
Fuel economy
In theory, all fuel-driven vehicles have a fuel economy (measured as miles per US gallon, or liters per 100 km) that is directly proportional to the fuel's energy content. Fuel economy in automobiles is the amount of Fuel required to move the Automobile over a given Distance. [27]In reality, there are many other variables that come in to play that affect the performance of a particular fuel in a particular engine. Ethanol contains approx. 34% less energy per unit volume than gasoline, and therefore in theory, burning pure ethanol in a vehicle will result in a 34% reduction in miles per US gallon, given the same fuel economy, compared to burning pure gasoline. This assumes that the octane ratings of the fuels, and the thus the engine's ability to extract energy from the fuels, are the same. [14][15] For E10 (10% ethanol and 90% gasoline), the effect is small (~3%) when compared to conventional gasoline,[28] and even smaller (1-2%) when compared to oxygenated and reformulated blends. [29] However, for E85 (85% ethanol), the effect becomes significant. E85 is an Alcohol fuel mixture that typically contains a mixture of up to 85% denatured fuel ethanol and Gasoline or other hydrocarbon (HC by E85 will produce lower mileage than gasoline, and will require more frequent refueling. Actual performance may vary depending on the vehicle. The EPA-rated mileage of current USA flex-fuel vehicles[30] should be considered when making price comparisons, but it must be noted that E85 is a high performance fuel, with an octane rating of about 104, and should be compared to premium. In one estimate[31] the US retail price for E85 ethanol is 2. Price in Economics and Business is the result of an exchange and from that trade we assign a numerical Monetary value to a good, 62 US dollar per gallon or 3. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been A gallon is a measure of Volume. It is in current use in the United States and still has limited use in many other English-speaking countries 71 dollar corrected for energy equivalency compared to a gallon of gasoline priced at 3. 03 dollar. Brazilian cane ethanol (100%)is priced at 3. 88 dollar against 4. 91 dollar for E25 (figures July 2007).
Experience by country
The top five ethanol producers in 2006 were the United States with 4. 855 billion U.S. liquid gallons (bg), Brazil (4. A gallon is a measure of Volume. It is in current use in the United States and still has limited use in many other English-speaking countries 49 bg), China (1. 02 bg), India (0. 50 bg) and France (0. 25 bg). [32] Brazil and the United States accounted for 70 percent of all ethanol production, with total world production of 13. 5 billion US gallons (40 million tonnes). When accounting just for fuel ethanol production in 2007, the U. S. and Brazil are responsible for 88% of the 13. 1 billion gallons total world production. Strong incentives, coupled with other industry development initiatives, are giving rise to fledgling ethanol industries in countries such as Thailand, Colombia, and some Central American countries. The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. Nevertheless, ethanol has yet to make a dent in world oil consumption of approximately 4000 million tonnes/yr (84 million barrels/day). [33]
| Total Annual Ethanol Production (All Grades) by Country (2004-2006)[32] Top 15 countries (Millions of U.S. liquid gallons) | Annual Fuel Ethanol Production by Country (2004-2006)[34] Top 15 countries/blocks (Millions of U.S. liquid gallons) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| World rank | Country | 2006 | 2005 | 2004 | World rank | Country/Region | 2007 |
| 1 |  United States | 4,855 | 4,264 | 3,535 | 1 | United States | 6,498. A gallon is a measure of Volume. It is in current use in the United States and still has limited use in many other English-speaking countries A gallon is a measure of Volume. It is in current use in the United States and still has limited use in many other English-speaking countries The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The United States of America —commonly referred to as the 6 |
| 2 |  Brazil | 4,491 | 4,227 | 3,989 | 2 | Brazil | 5,019. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld 2 |
| 3 |  China | 1,017 | 1,004 | 964 | 3 |  European Union | 570. Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in 3 |
| 4 |  India | 502 | 449 | 462 | 4 | China | 486. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Talk People's Republic of China) PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF CHINA ARTICLE GUIDELINES 0 |
| 5 |  France | 251 | 240 | 219 | 5 |  Canada | 211. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page 3 |
| 6 |  Germany | 202 | 114 | 71 | 6 |  Thailand | 79. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj 2 |
| 7 |  Russia | 171 | 198 | 198 | 7 |  Colombia | 74. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. 9 |
| 8 | Canada | 153 | 61 | 61 | 8 | India | 52. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country 8 |
| 9 |  Spain | 122 | 93 | 79 | 9 | Central America | 39. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. 6 |
| 10 |  South Africa | 102 | 103 | 110 | 10 |  Australia | 26. The Republic of South Africa (also known by other official names) is a country located at the southern tip of the continent of Africa For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. 4 |
| 11 | Thailand | 93 | 79 | 74 | 11 |  Turkey | 15. The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches 8 |
| 12 |  United Kingdom | 74 | 92 | 106 | 12 |  Pakistan | 9. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Pakistan () officially the Islamic Republic of Pakistan, is a country located in South Asia, Southwest Asia, Middle East and 2 |
| 13 |  Ukraine | 71 | 65 | 66 | 13 |  Peru | 7. Ukraine (Україна Ukrayina, /ukrɑˈjinɑ/ is a country in Eastern Europe. Peru (Perú Piruw Piruw officially the Republic of Peru ( reˈpuβlika del peˈɾu is a country in western South America. 9 |
| 14 |  Poland | 66 | 58 | 53 | 14 |  Argentina | 5. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. 2 |
| 15 |  Saudi Arabia | 52 | 32 | 79 | 15 |  Paraguay | 4. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi Paraguay, officially the Republic of Paraguay ( Spanish: República del Paraguay; Guaraní: Tetã Paraguái) is one of the only 7 |
| World Total | 13,489 | 12,150 | 10,770 | World Total | 13,101. 7 | ||
Brazil
Brazil has the largest and most successful bio-fuel programs in the world, involving production of ethanol fuel from sugar cane, and it is considered to have the world's first sustainable biofuels economy. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Sustainability, in a general sense is the capacity to maintain a certain process or state indefinitely [35][36][37] In 2006 Brazilian ethanol provided around 20% of the country's road transport sector fuel consumption needs, and more than 40% of fuel consumption for the light vehicle fleet. [38][39] [36] As a result of the increasing use of ethanol, together with the exploitation of domestic deep water oil sources, Brazil, which years ago had to import a large share of the petroleum needed for domestic consumption, in 2006 reached complete self-sufficiency in oil supply. [40][41][42]
Together, Brazil and the United States lead the industrial world in global ethanol production, accounting together for 70% of the world's production[43] and nearly 90% of ethanol used for fuel. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld The United States of America —commonly referred to as the [44] In 2006 Brazil produced 16. 3 billion liters (4. The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of Volume. 3 billion U.S. liquid gallons),[32] which represents 33. A gallon is a measure of Volume. It is in current use in the United States and still has limited use in many other English-speaking countries 3% of the world's total ethanol production and 42% of the world's ethanol used as fuel. [44] Sugar cane plantations cover 3. 6 million hectares of land for ethanol production, representing just 1% of Brazil's arable land, with a productivity of 7,500 liters of ethanol per hectare, as compared with the U. Explanation The hectare is commonly used in most countries around the world especially in domains concerned with land planning and management such as Agriculture, S. maize ethanol productivity of 3,000 liters per hectare. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica [45][35]
Production and use of ethanol has been stimulated through:
- Low-interest loans for the construction of ethanol distilleries
- Guaranteed purchase of ethanol by the state-owned oil company at a reasonable price
- Retail pricing of neat ethanol so it is competitive if not slightly favorable to the gasoline-ethanol blend
- Tax incentives provided during the 1980s to stimulate the purchase of neat ethanol vehicles. [46]
Guaranteed purchase and price regulation were ended some years ago, with relatively positive results. In addition to these other policies, ethanol producers in the state of São Paulo established a research and technology transfer center that has been effective in improving sugar cane and ethanol yields. [46]
There are no longer light vehicles in Brazil running on pure gasoline. Since 1977 the government made mandatory to blend 20% of ethanol (E20) with gasoline (gasohol), requiring just a minor adjustment on regular gasoline motors. Ethanol (ethyl Alcohol) and Methanol (methyl alcohol are two types of Alcohol fuels. Today the mandatory blend is allowed to vary nationwide between 20% to 25% ethanol (E25) and it is used by all regular gasoline vehicles, plus three million cars running on 100% anhydrous ethanol and five million of dual or flexible-fuel vehicles. Ethanol (ethyl Alcohol) and Methanol (methyl alcohol are two types of Alcohol fuels. The Brazilian car manufacturing industry developed full flexible-fuel vehicles that can run on any proportion of gasoline and ethanol. [47] Introduced in the market in 2003, these vehicles became a commercial success. [48] On March 2008, the fleet of "flex" cars and light commercial vehicles had reached 5 million new vehicles sold. [49] which represents around 10% of Brazil's motor vehicle fleet and 15. 6% of all light vehicles. [50] The ethanol-powered and "flex" vehicles, as they are popularly known, are manufactured to tolerate hydrated ethanol, an azeotrope comprised of 95. A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV or dual-fuel vehicle ( Colloquially called a flex-fuel vehicle) is an alternative fuel Automobile or An azeotrope (pronounced 6% ethanol and 4. 4% water. [51]
United States
| United States fuel ethanol production and imports (2001-2007)[32] (Millions of U.S. liquid gallons) | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Year | Production | Imports | Demand |
| 2001 | 1,770 | n/a | n/a |
| 2002 | 2,130 | 46 | 2,085 |
| 2003 | 2,800 | 61 | 2,900 |
| 2004 | 3,400 | 161 | 3,530 |
| 2005 | 3,904 | 135 | 4,049 |
| 2006 | 4,855 | 653 | 5,377 |
| 2007 | 6,485 | 435 | 6,847 |
| Note: Demand figures includes stocks change and small exports in 2005 | |||
The United States produces and consumes more ethanol fuel than any other country in the world. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the A gallon is a measure of Volume. It is in current use in the United States and still has limited use in many other English-speaking countries See also Biofuel in the United States, Ethanol fuel Current interest in ethanol fuel in the United States mainly lies in bio-ethanol produced from corn but Most cars on the road today in the U. S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends. In 2007 Portland, Oregon, became the first city in the United States to require all gasoline sold within city limits to contain at least 10% ethanol. [52][53] As of January 2008, three states — Missouri, Minnesota, and Hawaii — require ethanol to be blended with gasoline motor fuel. Many cities are also required to use an ethanol blend due to non-attainment of federal air quality goals. [54]
Several motor vehicle manufacturers, including Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM, sell flexible-fuel vehicles that can use gasoline and ethanol blends ranging from pure gasoline all the way up to 85% ethanol (E85). Ford Motor Company is an American Multinational corporation and the world's fourth largest automaker based on Worldwide vehicle sales, following Daimler AG ( (formerly DaimlerChrysler AG) is a German car corporation (not to be confused with the British car-maker Daimler Motor Company) and General Motors Corporation ( GM) ( is a multinational automobile manufacturer founded in 1908 and headquartered in the United States. A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV or dual-fuel vehicle ( Colloquially called a flex-fuel vehicle) is an alternative fuel Automobile or By mid-2006, there were approximately six million E85-compatible vehicles on U. S. roads. [55]
In the USA there are currently 1,522 stations distributing ethanol, although most stations are in the corn belt area. Grain Belt The Grain Belt is an informal name for a United States region composed of the Prairie -region states across the northern Midwest [56][57] One of the debated methods for distribution in the US is using existing oil pipelines,[58] which raises concerns over corrosion. Pipeline transport is the transportation of goods through a pipe. In any case, some companies proposed building a 1,700-mile pipeline to carry ethanol from the Midwest through Central Pennsylvania to New York. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ( often colloquially referred to as PA (its abbreviation by natives and Northeasterners is a state located in the Northeastern New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous [59]
The production of fuel ethanol from corn in the United States is controversial for a few reasons. Production of ethanol from corn is 5 to 6 times less efficient than producing it from sugarcane. Ethanol production from corn is highly dependent upon subsidies and it consumes a food crop to produce fuel. [31] The subsidies paid to fuel blenders and ethanol refineries have often been cited as the reason for driving up the price of corn, and in farmers planting more corn and the conversion of considerable land to corn (maize) production which generally consumes more fertilizers and pesticides than many other land uses. [31] This is at odds with the subsidies actually paid directly to farmers that are designed to take corn land out of production and pay farmers to plant grass and idle the land, often in conjunction with soil conservation programs, in an attempt to boost corn prices. Recent developments with cellulosic ethanol production and commercialization may allay some of these concerns. Cellulosic ethanol commercialization can contribute to a successful renewable fuels future [60]
Europe
| Production of Bioethanol in the European Union (GWh)[61] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| No | Country | 2006 | 2005 |
| 1 | Germany | 2,554 | 978 |
| 2 | Spain | 2,382 | 1,796 |
| 3 | France | 1,482 | 853 |
| 4 |  Sweden | 830 | 907 |
| 5 |  Italy | 759 | 47 |
| 6 | Poland | 711 | 379 |
| 7 |  Hungary | 201 | 207 |
| 8 |  Lithuania | 107 | 47 |
| 9 |  Netherlands | 89 | 47 |
| 10 |  Czech Republic | 89 | 0 |
| 11 |  Latvia | 71 | 71 |
| 12 |  Finland | 0 | 77 |
| 27 | Total | 9,274 | 5,411 |
| 100 l bioethanol = 79,62 kg, 1 tonne bioethanol = 0,64 toe | |||
| Consumption of Bioethanol in the European Union (GWh)[61] | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| No | Country | 2006 | 2005 |
| 1 | Germany | 3,573 | 1,682 |
| 2 | Sweden | 1,895 | 1,681 |
| 3 | France | 1,747 | 871 |
| 4 | Spain | 1,332 | 1,314 |
| 5 | Poland | 611 | 329 |
| 6 | United Kingdom | 561 | 502 |
| 7 | Netherlands | 238 | 0 |
| 8 | Hungary | 125 | 28 |
| 9 | Lithuania | 99 | 10 |
| 10 | Czech Republic | 14 | 0 |
| 11 | Finland | 9 | 0 |
| 12 |  Ireland | 8 | 0 |
| 13 | Italy | 0 | 59 |
| 14 | Latvia | 0 | 5 |
| 27 | EU | 10,210 | 6,481 |
| 1 toe = 11,63 MWh | |||
The consumption of bioethanol is largest in Europe in Germany, Sweden, France and Spain. Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Ethanol fuel is Ethanol (ethyl alcohol the same type of Alcohol found in Alcoholic beverages. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands Hungary (Magyarország 'mɔɟɔrorsaːg) officially in English the Republic of Hungary ( Magyar Köztársaság, literally Magyar (Hungarian Republic Lithuania, officially the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublika is a Country in Eastern often referred to as Northern Europe or in the The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, Finland, officially the Republic of Finland ( is a Nordic country situated in the Fennoscandian region of northern Europe. Ireland ( Irish: Éire, ˈeːrʲə is a country in north-western Europe. Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest Latvia ( Latvija officially the Republic of Latvia (Latvijas Republika is a Country in Northern Europe in the Baltic region. Europe produces equivalent to 90% of its consumption (2006). Germany produced ca 70% of its consumption, Spain 60% and Sweden 50% (2006). In Sweden there are 792 E85 filling stations and in France 131 E85 service stations with 550 more under construction. E85 is an Alcohol fuel mixture that typically contains a mixture of up to 85% denatured fuel ethanol and Gasoline or other hydrocarbon (HC by [56]
On Monday, September 17, 2007 the first ethanol fuel pump was opened in Reykjavik, Iceland. Events 1176 - The Battle of Myriokephalon is fought 1462 - The Battle of Świecino (or Battle of Żarnowiec Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Iceland, officially the Republic of Iceland ( ( Ísland or Lýðveldið Ísland ( This pump is the only one of its kind in Iceland. The fuel is imported by Brimborg, a Volvo dealer, as a pilot to see how ethanol fueled cars work in Iceland. In a few weeks, the pump will be opened for public use.
In The Netherlands regular petrol with no bio-additives is slowly outphased, since EU-legislation has been passed that requires the fraction of nonmineral origin to become minimum 5,75% of the total fuel consumption volume in 2010. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands This can be realised by substitutions in diesel or in petrol of any biological source; or fuel sold in the form of pure biofuel. (2007:) There are only a few gas stations where E85 is sold, which is an 85% ethanol, 15% petrol mix. [62] Directly neighbouring country Germany is reported to have a much better biofuel infrastructure and offers both E85 and E50. Biofuel is taxed equally as regular fuel. However, fuel tanked abroad cannot be taxed and a recent payment receipt will in most cases suffice to prevent fines if customs check tank contents. (Authorities are aware of high taxation on fuels and cross-border fuel refilling is a well-known practice. )
All Swedish gas stations are required by an act of parliament to offer at least one alternative fuel, and every fifth car in Stockholm now drives at least partially on alternative fuels, mostly ethanol. Sweden has achieved the largest E85 Flexible-fuel vehicle fleet in Europe, with a sharp growth from 717 vehicles in 2001 to 116695 by July 2008 "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. Alternative fuels, also known as non-conventional Fuels are any Materials or substances that can be used as a Fuel, other than conventional fuels [63] The number of bioethanol stations in Europe is highest in Sweden, with 792 stations.
Stockholm will introduce a fleet of Swedish-made electric hybrid buses in its public transport system on a trial basis in 2008. These buses will use ethanol-powered internal-combustion engines and electric motors. The vehicles’ diesel engines will use ethanol. [64]
| Bioethanol stations European Union[56] | ||
|---|---|---|
| Country | Stations | No/106 persons |
| Sweden | 792 | 86. The European Union ( EU) is a political and economic union of twenty-seven member states, located primarily in "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. 6 |
| Germany | 73 | 0. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. 89 |
| France | 36 | 0. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. 56 |
| United Kingdom | 14 | 0. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located 24 |
| Ireland | 13 | 3. Ireland ( Irish: Éire, ˈeːrʲə is a country in north-western Europe. 07 |
 Switzerland | 6 | 0. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation 8 |
Asia
China
China is promoting ethanol-based fuel on a pilot basis in five cities in its central and northeastern region, a move designed to create a new market for its surplus grain and reduce consumption of petroleum. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The cities include Zhengzhou, Luoyang and Nanyang in central China's Henan province, and Harbin and Zhaodong in Heilongjiang province, northeast China. Henan ( is a province of the People's Republic of China, located in the central part of the country ( Postal map spelling: Heilungkiang Manchu: Sahaliyan ula is a province of the People's Republic of China located in the northeastern Under the program, Henan will promote ethanol-based fuel across the province by the end of this year. Officials say the move is of great importance in helping to stabilize grain prices, raise farmers' income and reducing petrol- induced air pollution. [65]
Thailand
Thailand already use 10% ethanol (E10) widely on big scale on the local market. The Kingdom of Thailand (ˈtaɪlænd ราชอาณาจักรไทย, râːtɕʰa-ʔaːnaːtɕɑ̀k-tʰɑj Beginning in 2008 Thailand started with the sale of E20 and the in the third quarter of 2008 E85 will come on the mark. E85 is an Alcohol fuel mixture that typically contains a mixture of up to 85% denatured fuel ethanol and Gasoline or other hydrocarbon (HC by
Australia
Legislation in Australia imposes a 10% cap on the concentration of fuel ethanol blends. Biofuel in Australia is available both as Biodiesel and as Ethanol fuel, which can be produced from sugarcane or grains For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Blends of 90% unleaded petrol and 10% fuel ethanol are commonly referred to as E10. E10 is available through service stations operating under the BP, Caltex, Shell and United brands as well as those of a number of smaller independents. Not surprisingly, E10 is most widely available closer to the sources of production in Queensland and New South Wales. E10 is most commonly blended with 91 RON "regular unleaded" fuel. There is a requirement that retailers label blends containing fuel ethanol on the dispenser.
Central America and the Caribbean
| United States fuel ethanol imports by country (2002-2007)[32] (Millions of U.S. liquid gallons) | ||||||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Country | 2007* | 2006 | 2005 | 2004 | 2003 | 2002 |
| Brazil | 188. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the A gallon is a measure of Volume. It is in current use in the United States and still has limited use in many other English-speaking countries |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld 8 | 433. 7 | 31. 2 | 90. 3 | 0 | 0 |
 Jamaica | 75. Jamaica (ˈdʒəˈmeɪkə} is an Island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. 2 | 66. 8 | 36. 3 | 36. 6 | 39. 3 | 29. 0 |
 El Salvador | 73. El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. 3 | 38. 5 | 23. 7 | 5. 7 | 6. 9 | 4. 5 |
 Trinidad and Tobago | 42. The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (ˈtrɪnɪdæd ən təˈbeɪgoʊ is an archipelagic state in the southern Caribbean, lying northeast of the South American 7 | 24. 8 | 10. 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 |
 Costa Rica | 39. Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in 3 | 35. 9 | 33. 4 | 25. 4 | 14. 7 | 12. 0 |
| *Note: 2007 figures through November only. | ||||||
All countries in Central America and the Caribbean are located in a tropical zone with suitable climate for growing sugar cane. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae In fact, most of these countries have a long tradition of growing sugar cane mainly for producing sugar and alcoholic beverages. Sugar is a class of edible Crystalline substances mainly Sucrose, Lactose, and Fructose. As a result of the guerilla movements in Central America, in 1983 the United States unilateral and temporarily approved the Caribbean Basin Initiative, allowing most countries in the region to benefit from several tariff and trade benefits. Guerrilla warfare is the unconventional warfare and combat with which a small group of combatants use mobile tactics (ambushes raids etc Unilateralism ("one+side -ism " is any doctrine or agenda that supports one-sided action The Caribbean Basin Initiative (CBI was a Unilateral and temporary United States program initiated by the 1983 "Caribbean Basin Economic Recovery Act" (CBERA These benefits were made permanent in 1990 and more recently, these benefits were replaced by the Caribbean Basin Trade and Partnership Act, approved in 2000, and the Dominican Republic–Central America Free Trade Agreement that went to effect in 2008. The Caribbean Basin Trade Partnership Act (CBTPA is a Law adopted by the U All these agreements have allowed several countries in the region to export ethanol to the U. S free of tariffs. [47] Until 2004, the countries that benefited the most were Jamaica and Costa Rica, but as the U. Jamaica (ˈdʒəˈmeɪkə} is an Island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in S. began demanding more fuel ethanol, the two countries increased their exports and two others began exporting. In 2007, Jamaica, El Salvador, Trinidad & Tobago and Costa Rica exported together to the U. Jamaica (ˈdʒəˈmeɪkə} is an Island nation of the Greater Antilles, in length and as much as in width situated in the Caribbean Sea. El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago (ˈtrɪnɪdæd ən təˈbeɪgoʊ is an archipelagic state in the southern Caribbean, lying northeast of the South American Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in S. a total of 230. 5 million gallons of ethanol, representing 54. 1% of U. S. fuel ethanol imports. Brasil began exporting ethanol to the U. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld S. in 2004 and exported 188. 8 million gallons representing 44. 3% of U. S. ethanol imports in 2007. The remaining imports that year came from Canada and China. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National [32]
In March 2007, "ethanol diplomacy" was the focus of President George W. Bush's Latin American tour, in which he and Brazil's president, Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva, were seeking to promote the production and use of sugar cane based ethanol throughout Latin America and the Caribbean. George Walker Bush ( born July 6 1946 is the forty-third and current President of the United States. Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (pronounced /lu'iz i'nasju 'lulɐ da 'siwvɐ/; born October 27, 1945) known simply as Lula, is the thirty-fifth and The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting The two countries also agreed to share technology and set international standards for biofuels. [43] The Brazilian sugar cane technology transfer would allow several Central American, Caribbean and Andean countries to take advantage of their tariff-free trade agreements to increase or become exporters to the United States in the short-term. The Caribbean (ˌkærəˡbiən kæ'rəbiən Cariben|Caraïben or Caraïben; Caraïbe or more commonly Antilles; Caribe is a Region consisting The Andean Community ( Spanish: Comunidad Andina, CAN) is a Trade bloc comprising the South American countries of [66] Also, in August 2007, Brazil's President toured Mexico and several countries in Central America and the Caribbean to promote Brazilian ethanol technology. The United Mexican States ( or commonly Mexico (ˈmɛksɪkoʊ () is a federal constitutional Republic in North America. [67] The ethanol alliance between the U. S. and Brazil generated some negative reactions from Venezuela's President Hugo Chavez,[68] and by then Cuba's President, Fidel Castro, who wrote that "you will see how many people among the hungry masses of our planet will no longer consume corn. Venezuela (ˌvɛnəˈzweɪlə) officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela (Spanish República Bolivariana de Venezuela) is a country on the Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías (ˈuɰo rafaˈel ˈtʃaβ̞es ˈfɾias (born July 28 1954 is the current President of Venezuela. The Republic of Cuba (ˈkjuːbə or) consists of the island of Cuba (the largest and second-most populous island of the Greater Antilles) Isla de la Fidel Alejandro Castro Ruz (born August 13 1926 is a Cuban revolutionary leader who was prime minister of Cuba from December 1959 to December 1976 and then president until " "Or even worse," he continued, "by offering financing to poor countries to produce ethanol from corn or any other kind of food, no tree will be left to defend humanity from climate change. "'[69] Daniel Ortega, Nicaragua's President, and one of the preferencial recipients of Brazilian technical aid also voiced critics to the Bush plan, but he vowed support for sugar cane based ethanol during Lula's visit to Nicaragua. José Daniel Ortega Saavedra (xoˈse ðanjεl ɔrteγa saˈβeðra(born 11 November 1945 is the current President of Nicaragua. Nicaragua (ˌnɪkəˈrɑgwə officially the Republic of Nicaragua () is a representative democratic republic and the largest nation in Central America Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (pronounced /lu'iz i'nasju 'lulɐ da 'siwvɐ/; born October 27, 1945) known simply as Lula, is the thirty-fifth and [70][71]
Costa Rica
Starting in October 2008, all gasoline sold in Costa Rica will be blended with 7. Costa Rica, officially the Republic of Costa Rica ( Spanish: Costa Rica or República de Costa Rica,) is a Country in 5% ethanol. This follows a two year trial that took place in the provinces of Guanacaste and Puntarenas. Puntarenas, which means "Sandy Point" in Spanish is the capital and largest City in the province Puntarenas, Costa Rica, at the Pacific The government expects to increase the percent of ethanol mixed with gasoline to 12% in the next 4 to 5 years. The Costa Rican government is pursuing this policy to lower the country's dependency of foreign oil and to reduce the amount of greenhouse gases produced. The plan also calls for an increase in ethanol producing crops and tax breaks for flex-fuel vehicles. [72]
El Salvador
As a result of the cooperation agreement between the United States and Brazil, El Salvador was chosen in 2007 to lead a pilot experience to introduce state-of-the-art technology for growing sugar cane for production of ethanol fuel in Central America, as this technical bilateral cooperation is looking for helping Central American countries to reduce their dependence on foreign oil. El Salvador ( República de El Salvador,) is a country in Central America. [73]
Comparison between Brazil and the U. S.
Brazil's sugar cane-based industry is far more efficient than the U. S. corn-based industry. Brazilian distillers are able to produce ethanol for 22 cents per liter, compared with the 30 cents per liter for corn-based ethanol. [74] Sugarcane cultivation requires a tropical or subtropical climate, with a minimum of 600 mm (24 in) of annual rainfall. Sugarcane is one of the most efficient photosynthesizers in the plant kingdom, able to convert up to 2% of incident solar energy into biomass. Ethanol is produced by yeast fermentation of the sugar extracted from sugar cane.
Sugarcane production in the United States occurs in Florida, Louisiana, Hawaii, and Texas. Florida ( is a state located in the southeastern region of the United States, bordering Alabama to the northwest and Georgia to the The State of Louisiana ( or, État de Louisiane, pronounced) is a state located in the southern region of the United States of America The State of Hawaii ( or həˈwaɪʔiː Hawaiian: Mokuāina o Hawaii) is a state in the United States located on an Archipelago in the Texas ( is a state geographically located in the South Central United States and is also known as the Lone Star State. In prime growing regions, such as Hawaii, sugarcane can produce 20 kg for each square meter exposed to the sun. The first three plants to produce sugar cane-based ethanol are expected to go online in Louisiana by mid 2009. Sugar mill plants in Lacassine, St. James and Bunkie were converted to sugar cane-based ethanol production using Colombian technology in order to make possible a profitable ethanol production. St James Parish (Paroisse de Saint-Jacques is a Parish located in the U Bunkie is a city in Avoyelles Parish, Louisiana, United States. Colombia (kəˈlʌmbɪə officially the Republic of Colombia () is a country in northwestern South America. These three plants will produce 100 million gallons of ethanol within five years. [75]
U. S. corn-derived ethanol costs 30% more because the corn starch must first be converted to sugar before being distilled into alcohol. Unfortunately, despite this cost differential in production, in contrast to Japan and Sweden, the U. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. "Sverige" redirects here For other uses see Sweden (disambiguation and Sverige (disambiguation. S. does not import much of Brazilian ethanol because of U. S. trade barriers corresponding to a tariff of 54-cent per gallon – a levy designed to offset the 51-cent per gallon blender's federal tax credit that is applied to ethanol no matter its country of origin. For other uses of this word see Tariff (disambiguation. A tariff is a tax imposed on goods when they are moved across a political boundary [76] One advantage U. S. corn-derived ethanol offers is the ability to return 1/3 of the feedstock back into the market as a replacement for the corn used in the form of Distillers Dried Grain. [51]
| Comparison of key characteristics between the ethanol industries in the United States and Brazil | |||
|---|---|---|---|
| Characteristic | Brazil | U.S. | Units/comments |
| Feedstock | Sugar cane | Maize | Main cash crop for ethanol production, the US has less than 2% from other crops. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In Agriculture, a cash crop is a crop which is grown for Money. |
| Total ethanol production (2007) [32] | 5,019. 2 | 6,498. 6 | Million U.S. liquid gallons |
| Total arable land [45] | 355 | 270(1) | Million hectares. A gallon is a measure of Volume. It is in current use in the United States and still has limited use in many other English-speaking countries Explanation The hectare is commonly used in most countries around the world especially in domains concerned with land planning and management such as Agriculture, |
| Total area used for ethanol crop [45][51] | 3. 6 (1%) | 10 (3. 7%) | Million hectares (% total arable) |
| Productivity per hectare [45][35][51] | 7,500 | 4,000 | Liters of ethanol per hectare. Explanation The hectare is commonly used in most countries around the world especially in domains concerned with land planning and management such as Agriculture, The litre or liter (see spelling differences) is a unit of Volume. Explanation The hectare is commonly used in most countries around the world especially in domains concerned with land planning and management such as Agriculture, Brazil is 727 to 870 gal/acre (2006), US is 424 gal/acre (2006) |
| Energy balance (input energy productivity) [37][51][77] | 8. 3 to 10. 2 times | 1. 3 to 1. 6 times | Ratio of the energy obtained from ethanol to the energy expended in its production |
| Estimated greenhouse gas emission reduction [44][51][78] | 86-90%(2) | 10-30%(2) | % GHGs avoided by using ethanol instead of gasoline, using existing crop land. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared |
| Ethanol fueling stations in the counrty[35][36] | 33,000 (100%) | 873 (0,5%) | As % of total fueling gas stations in the country. U. S. has 170,000 (see Inslee, op cit pp. 161) |
| Fuel ethanol used by the road transport sector [39][38] | 20%(3) | 3. 6% | As % of the sector's total on a volumetric basis for 2006. |
| Cost of production (USD/gallon) [35] | 0. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been A gallon is a measure of Volume. It is in current use in the United States and still has limited use in many other English-speaking countries 83 | 1. 14 | 2006/2007 for Brazil (22¢/liter), 2004 for U. S. (35¢/liter) |
| Government subsidy (in USD) [45][36] | 0 | 0. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been 51/gallon | U. S. as of 2008-04-30. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 313 - Roman emperor Licinius unifies the entire Eastern Roman Empire under his rule Brazilian ethanol production is no longer subsidized. |
| Import tariffs (in USD) [37][35] | 0 | 0. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been 54/gallon | As of April 2008, Brazil does not import ethanol, the U. S. does |
| Notes: (1) Only contiguous U. S. , excludes Alaska. Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent (2) Assuming no land use change. [78] (3) Excluding diesel-powered vehicles, ethanol consumption in the road sector is more than 40% [35][36] | |||
Environment
Energy balance
| Country | Type | Energy balance |
|---|---|---|
| United States | Corn ethanol | 1. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the 3 |
| Brazil | Sugarcane ethanol | 8 |
| Germany | Biodiesel | 2. |utc_offset = -2 to -4 |time_zone_DST = BRST |utc_offset_DST = -2 to -5 |cctld Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. 5 |
| United States | Cellulosic ethanol | †2–36 |
† depending on production method
All biomass goes through at least some of these steps: it needs to be grown, collected, dried, fermented, and burned. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Energy balance reports In 1995 the USDA released a report stating that the net energy balance of corn ethanol in All of these steps require resources and an infrastructure. The total amount of energy input into the process compared to the energy released by burning the resulting ethanol fuel is known as the energy balance. Figures compiled in a 2007 by National Geographic Magazine[31] point to modest results for corn ethanol produced in the US: one unit of fossil-fuel energy is required to create 1. The National Geographic Magazine is the official journal of the National Geographic Society. 3 energy units from the resulting ethanol. The energy balance for sugarcane ethanol produced in Brazil is more favorable, 1:8. Energy balance estimates are not easily produced, thus numerous such reports have been generated that are contradictory. For instance, a separate survey reports that production of ethanol from sugarcane, which requires a tropical climate to grow productively, returns from 8 to 9 units of energy for each unit expended, as compared to corn which only returns about 1. 34 units of fuel energy for each unit of energy expended. [79]
Carbon dioxide, a greenhouse gas, is emitted during fermentation and combustion. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared However, this is canceled out by the greater uptake of carbon dioxide by the plants as they grow to produce the biomass. [80] When compared to gasoline, depending on the production method, ethanol releases less greenhouse gases. Greenhouse gases are gaseous constituents of the atmosphere bothnatural and anthropogenic that absorb and emit radiation at specific wavelengths within the spectrum of thermal infrared [81][82]
Air pollution
Compared with conventional unleaded gasoline, ethanol is a particulate-free burning fuel source that combusts cleanly with oxygen to form carbon dioxide and water. Gasoline produces 2. 44 CO2 equivalent kg/l and ethanol 1. Global warming potential (GWP is a measure of how much a given mass of Greenhouse gas is estimated to contribute to Global warming. 94 (this is -21% CO2). The Clean Air Act requires the addition of oxygenates to reduce carbon monoxide emissions in the United States. A Clean Air Act describes one of a number of pieces of legislation relating to the reduction of Smog and Air pollution in general Oxygenated chemical compounds contain Oxygen as a part of their chemical structure The additive MTBE is currently being phased out due to ground water contamination, hence ethanol becomes an attractive alternative additive. Methyl tert -butyl ether, also known as methyl tertiary butyl ether and MTBE, is a Chemical compound with molecular formula C5H12O Current production methods includes air pollution from the manufacturer of macronutrient fertilizers such as ammonia. Fertilizers ( also spelt fertiliser are chemical compounds given to Plants to promote growth they are usually applied either through the soil for uptake by plant
A study by atmospheric scientists at Stanford University found that E85 fuel would increase the risk of air pollution deaths relative to gasoline. [83] Ozone levels are significantly increased, thereby increasing photochemical smog and aggravating medical problems such as asthma. OZONE is an object oriented Operating system written in the C programming language. [84][85]
Manufacture
In 2002, monitoring of ethanol plants revealed that they released VOCs (volatile organic compounds) at a higher rate than had previously been disclosed. [86] The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) subsequently reached settlement with Archer Daniels Midland and Cargill, two of the largest producers of ethanol, to reduce emission of these VOCs. The Archer Daniels Midland Company ( is a conglomerate based in Decatur Illinois. Cargill Incorporated is a privately held, Multinational corporation, and is based in the state of Minnesota in the United States. VOCs are produced when fermented corn mash is dried for sale as a supplement for livestock feed. Devices known as thermal oxidizers or catalytic oxidizers can be attached to the plants to burn off the hazardous gases.
Carbon Dioxide
The calculation of exactly how much Carbon Dioxide is produced in the manufacture of bioethanol is a complex and inexact process, and is highly dependent on the method by which the ethanol is produced and the assumptions made in the calculation. A calculation should include:
- The cost of growing the feedstock
- The cost of transporting the feedstock to the factory
- The cost of processing the feedstock into bioethanol
Such a calculation may or may not consider the following effects:
- The cost of the change in land use of the area where the fuel feedstock is grown.
- The cost of transportation of the bioethanol from the factory to its point of use
- The efficiency of the bioethnol compared with standard gasoline
- The amount of Carbon Dioxide produced at the tail pipe.
- The benefits due to the production of useful bi-products, such as cattle feed or electricity. Different cattle feeding production systems have separate advantages and disadvantages
The graph on the right shows figures calculated by the UK government for the purposes of the Renewable transport fuel obligation. The Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation (RTFO in the United Kingdom is a requirement on transport fuel suppliers to ensure that by 2010, 5% of all road vehicle fuel [87]
The January 2006 Science article from UC Berkeley's ERG, estimated reduction from corn ethanol in GHG to be 13% after reviewing a large number of studies. However, in a correction to that article released shortly after publication, they reduce the estimated value to 7. 4%. A National Geographic Magazine overview article (2007)[31] puts the figures at 22% less CO2 emissions in production and use for corn ethanol compared to gasoline and a 56% reduction for cane ethanol. The National Geographic Magazine is the official journal of the National Geographic Society. Carmaker Ford reports a 70% reduction in CO2 emissions with bioethanol compared to petrol for one of their flexible-fuel vehicles. A flexible-fuel vehicle (FFV or dual-fuel vehicle ( Colloquially called a flex-fuel vehicle) is an alternative fuel Automobile or [88]
An additional complication is that production requires tilling new soil[89] which produces a one-off release of GHG that it can take decades or centuries of production reductions in GHG emissions to equalize. [90] As an example, converting grass lands to corn production for ethanol takes about a century of annual savings to make up for the GHG released from the initial tilling. [91]
Change in land use
Large-scale farming is necessary to produce agricultural alcohol and this requires substantial amounts of cultivated land. University of Minnesota researchers report that if all corn grown in the U. S. were used to make ethanol it would displace 12% of current U. S. gasoline consumption. [92] There are claims that land for ethanol production is acquired through deforestation, while others have observed that areas currently supporting forests are usually not suitable for growing crops. [93][94] In any case, farming may involve a decline in soil fertility due to reduction of organic matter,[95] a decrease in water availability and quality, an increase in the use of pesticides and fertilizers, and potential dislocation of local communities. [96] However, new technology enables farmers and processors to increasingly produce the same output using less inputs. [92]
There is a concern that as demand for ethanol fuel increases, food crops are replaced by fuel crops, driving food supply down and food prices up. Growing demand for ethanol in the United States has been discussed as a factor in the increased corn prices in Mexico. [97] Average barley prices in the United States rose 17% from January to June 2007 to the highest in 11 years. However, some commentators suggest that recent food price increases mainly reflect high oil prices in recent years, not specific pressures associated with ethanol production. [98]
Cellulosic ethanol production is a new approach which may alleviate land use and related concerns. Cellulosic ethanol also know by the name Ceetol, is a Biofuel produced from wood grasses or the non-edible parts of plants Cellulosic ethanol can be produced from any plant material, potentially doubling yields, in an effort to minimize conflict between food needs versus fuel needs. Instead of utilizing only the starch by-products from grinding wheat and other crops, cellulosic ethanol production maximizes the use of all plant materials, including gluten. This approach would have a smaller carbon footprint because the amount of energy-intensive fertilisers and fungicides remain the same for higher output of usable material. A carbon footprint is a "measure of the impact human activities have on the environment in terms of the amount of Greenhouse gases produced measured in units of carbon The technology for producing cellulosic ethanol is currently in the commercialization stage. Cellulosic ethanol commercialization can contribute to a successful renewable fuels future [99][100]
Many analysts suggest that, whichever ethanol fuel production strategy is used, fuel conservation efforts are also needed to make a large impact on reducing petroleum fuel use. [101]
Efficiency of common crops
As ethanol yields improve or different feedstocks are introduced, ethanol production may become more economically feasible in the US. Currently, research on improving ethanol yields from each unit of corn is underway using biotechnology. Also, as long as oil prices remain high, the economical use of other feedstocks, such as cellulose, become viable. Cellulose is an Organic compound with the formula, a Polysaccharide consisting of a linear chain of several hundred to over ten thousand β(1→4 By-products such as straw or wood chips can be converted to ethanol. Fast growing species like switchgrass can be grown on land not suitable for other cash crops and yield high levels of ethanol per unit area. Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a warm season Grass and is one of the dominant Species of the central North American [31]
| Crop | Annual yield (Liters/hectare) | Annual yield (US gal/acre) | Greenhouse-gas savings (% vs. petrol) | Comments |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Miscanthus | 7300 | 780 | 37–73 | Low-input perennial grass. Miscanthus is a Genus of about 15 species of Perennial grasses native to subtropical and tropical regions of Africa and southern Ethanol production depends on development of cellulosic technology. |
| Switchgrass | 3100–7600 | 330–810 | 37–73 | Low-input perennial grass. Panicum virgatum, commonly known as switchgrass, is a warm season Grass and is one of the dominant Species of the central North American Ethanol production depends on development of cellulosic technology. Breeding efforts underway to increase yields. Higher biomass production possible with mixed species of perennial grasses. |
| Poplar | 3700–6000 | 400–640 | 51–100 | Fast-growing tree. Populus is a genus of between 25–35 species of Flowering plants in the family Salicaceae, native to most of the Northern Hemisphere. Ethanol production depends on development of cellulosic technology. Completion of genomic sequencing project will aid breeding efforts to increase yields. |
| Sugar cane | 5300–6500 | 570–700 | 87–96 | Long-season annual grass. Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae Used as feedstock for most bioethanol produced in Brazil. Newer processing plants burn residues not used for ethanol to generate electricity. Only grows in tropical and subtropical climates. |
| Sweet sorghum | 2500–7000 | 270–750 | No data | Low-input annual grass. Sweet sorghum is any of the many varieties of Sorghum which have a high sugar content Ethanol production possible using existing technology. Grows in tropical and temperate climates, but highest ethanol yield estimates assume multiple crops per year (only possible in tropical climates). Does not store well. [102][103][104][105] |
| Corn | 3100–3900 | 330–420 | 10–20 | High-input annual grass. Maize (ˈmeɪz ( Zea mays L. ssp mays) known as corn in some countries is a cereal grain domesticated in Mesoamerica Used as feedstock for most bioethanol produced in USA. Only kernels can be processed using available technology; development of commercial cellulosic technology would allow stover to be used and increase ethanol yield by 1,100 - 2,000 litres/ha. |
| Source (except sorghum): Nature 444 (December 7, 2006): 670-654. Events 43 BC - Marcus Tullius Cicero assassinated 1696 - Connecticut Route 108, one of the oldest highways Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. | ||||
Reduced petroleum imports and costs
One rationale given for extensive ethanol production in the U. S. is its benefit to energy security, by shifting the need for some foreign-produced oil to domestically-produced energy sources. Access to cheap energy has become essential to the functioning of modern economies [106] Production of ethanol requires significant energy, but current U. S. production derives most of that energy from coal, natural gas and other sources, rather than oil. [107] Because 66% of oil consumed in the U. S. is imported, compared to a net surplus of coal and just 16% of natural gas (2006 figures),[108] the displacement of oil-based fuels to ethanol produces a net shift from foreign to domestic U. S. energy sources.
According to a 2008 analysis by Iowa State University, the growth in US ethanol production has caused retail gasoline prices to be US $0. 29 to US $0. 40 per gallon lower than would otherwise have been the case. [109]
Recent patents
In 2006-2-23, Veridium Corporation announced the technology to convert exhaust carbon dioxide from the fermentation stage of ethanol production facilities back into new ethanol and biodiesel. The bioreactor process is based on a new strain of iron-loving blue-green algae discovered thriving in a hot stream at Yellowstone National Park. [110]
In 2006-11-14, US Patent Office approved Patent 7135308, a process for the production of ethanol by harvesting starch-accumulating filament-forming or colony-forming algae to form a biomass, initiating cellular decay of the biomass in a dark and anaerobic environment, fermenting the biomass in the presence of a yeast, and the isolating the ethanol produced. [111]
Criticism and controversy
In 2007, biofuels consumed one third of America's corn (maize) harvest. Food vs fuel is the dilemma regarding the risk of diverting farmland or crops for Biofuels production in detriment of the Food Filling up one large vehicle fuel tank one time with 100% ethanol uses enough corn to feed one person for a year. Thirty million tons of U. S. corn going to ethanol in 2007 greatly reduces the world's overall supply of grain. [112] However, 31% of the corn put into the process comes out as distiller's grain, or DDGS, which is very high in protein, and is used to feed livestock. [113]
Jean Ziegler, the United Nations Special Rapporteur on the Right to Food, called for a five-year moratorium on biofuel production to halt the increasing catastrophe for the poor. Jean Ziegler (born April 19, 1934) is a senior professor of Sociology at the University of Geneva and the Special Rapporteur is a title given to individuals working on behalf of the United Nations who bear a specific mandate from the UN Human Rights Council (or the former He proclaimed that the rising practice of converting food crops into biofuel is "A Crime Against Humanity," saying it is creating food shortages and price jumps that cause millions of poor people to go hungry. [114]
The European Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development warns that “the current push to expand the use of biofuels is creating unsustainable tensions that will disrupt markets without generating significant environmental benefits. ”[115]
When all 200 American ethanol subsidies are considered, they cost about $7 billion USD per year (equal to roughly $1. 90 USD total for each a gallon of ethanol). [116] When the price of one agricultural commodity increases, farmers are motivated to quickly shift finite land and water resources to it, away from traditional food crops. [117]
The 2007-12-19 U. S. Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 requires American “fuel producers to use at least 36 billion gallons of biofuel in 2022. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 ( originally named the CLEAN Energy Act of 2007) is an Act of Congress concerning the Energy policy of the This is nearly a fivefold increase over current levels. ”[118]
When cellulosic ethanol is produced from feedstock like switchgrass and sawgrass, the nutrients required to grow the cellulose are removed and cannot decay and replenish the soil. The soil is of poorer quality, and unsustainable soil erosion occurs.
Ethanol production consumes large quantities of unsustainable petroleum and natural gas. Even with the most-optimistic energy return on investment claims, in order to use 100% solar energy to grow corn and produce ethanol (fueling farm-and-transportation machinery with ethanol, distilling with heat from burning crop residues, using NO fossil fuels), the consumption of ethanol to replace current U. In Finance, rate of return ( ROR) also known as return on investment ( ROI) rate of profit or sometimes just return, is Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life S. petroleum use alone would require about 75% of all cultivated land on the face of the Earth, with no ethanol for other countries, or sufficient food for humans and animals. [119]
Fuel system problems
Several of the outstanding ethanol fuel issues are linked specifically to fuel systems. Fuels with more than 10% ethanol are not compatible with non E85-ready fuel system components and may cause corrosion of ferrous components. Corrosion means the breaking down of essential properties in a material due to Chemical reactions with its surroundings Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 [120][121] Ethanol fuel can negatively affect electric fuel pumps by increasing internal wear,[121] cause undesirable spark generation,[122] and is not compatible with capacitance fuel level gauging indicators and may cause erroneous fuel quantity indications in vehicles that employ that system. Capacitance is a measure of the amount of Electric charge stored (or separated for a given Electric potential. [123] It is also not always compatible with marine craft, especially those that use fiberglass fuel tanks. [124][125]
Using 100% ethanol fuel decreases fuel-economy by 15-30% over using 100% gasoline; this can be avoided using certain modifications that would, however, render the engine inoperable on regular petrol without the addition of an adjustable ECU. An engine control unit (ECU is an Electronic control unit which controls various aspects of an Internal combustion engine 's operation [126] Tough materials are needed to accommodate a higher compression ratio to make an ethanol engine as efficient as it would be on petrol; these would be similar to those used in diesel engines which typically run at a CR of 20:1,[127] versus about 8-12:1 for petrol engines. [128]
In April 2008 the German environmental minister cancelled a proposed 10% ethanol fuel scheme citing technical problems: too many older cars in Germany are unequipped to handle this fuel. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Ethanol levels in fuel will remain at 5%. [129]
Bibliography
- Goettemoeller, Jeffrey; Adrian Goettemoeller (2007), Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence, Praire Oak Publishing, Maryville, Missouri, ISBN 978-0-9786293-0-4 . Brief and comprehensive account of the history, evolution and future of ethanol.
- The Worldwatch Institute (2007), Biofuels for Transport: Global Potential and Implications for Energy and Agriculture, Earthscan Publications Ltd. , London, U. K. , ISBN 978-1-84407-422-8 . Global view, includes country study cases of Brazil, China, India and Tanzania.
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- ^ a b American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (1999). Policies for a More Sustainable Energy Future
- ^ a b Luiz A. Horta Nogueira (2004-03-22). "MMIV" redirects here For the Modest Mouse album see " Baron von Bullshit Rides Again " Events 238 - Gordian I and his son Gordian II are proclaimed Roman emperor. Perspectivas de un Programa de Biocombustibles en América Central: Proyecto Uso Sustentable de Hidrocarburos (Spanish). Comisión Económica para América Latina y el Caribe (CEPAL). Retrieved on 2008-05-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1457 BC - Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of
- ^ William Lemos (2007-11-12). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 764 - Tibetan troops occupy Chang'an, the capital of the Chinese Tang Dynasty, for fifteen days Brazil's flex-fuel car production rises, boosting ethanol consumption to record highs. ICIS chemical business. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João
- ^ Brasil tem 5 milhões de veículos bicombustíveis (Portuguese). Globo G1 (2008-03-10). 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing Retrieved on 2008-05-04. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1256 - The Augustinian monastic order is constituted at the Lecceto Monastery when Pope Alexander IV
- ^ DENATRAN Frota por tipo/UF 2008 (file 2008-03) (Portuguese). Departamento Nacional de Trânsito. Retrieved on 2008-05-03. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1491 - Kongo monarch Nkuwu Nzinga is baptised by Portuguese missionaries adopting the baptismal name of João As of March 31st, 2008, DENATRAN reports a total fleet of 50 million, including motorcycles, trucks and special equipment, and 32 million automobiles and light commercial vehicles.
- ^ a b c d e f Goettemoeller, Jeffrey; Adrian Goettemoeller (2007), Sustainable Ethanol: Biofuels, Biorefineries, Cellulosic Biomass, Flex-Fuel Vehicles, and Sustainable Farming for Energy Independence, Praire Oak Publishing, Maryville, Missouri, pp. 42, ISBN 978-0-9786293-0-4
- ^ Todd Murphy (22 May 2007). In biodiesel we trust. Portland Tribune. The Portland Tribune is a free weekly newspaper published each Thursday in Portland, Oregon, United States. Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ Introduction: The Clean Tech Opportunity p. 3.
- ^ 3 states, many cities: [1]
- ^ American energy: The renewable path to energy security
- ^ a b c Brochure5_Bioethanol_low_res Bioethanol Production and Use “Creating Markets for Renewable Energy Technologies EU, RES Technology Marketing Campaign“, European Biomass Industry Association EUBIA 4/2007, page 12
- ^ National Ethanol Vehicle Coalition
- ^ Timothy Gardner (December 24, 2007). Biomass refers to living and recently dead Biological material that can be used as fuel or for industrial production US Ethanol Producers Covet Existing Oil Pipelines. Reuters. This article is primarily about Reuters prior to its 2008 merger with Thomson Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ http://correu.cs.san.gva.es/exchweb/bin/redir.asp?URL=http://www.pennenvironment.org/in-the-news/energy/energy/new-3b-ethanol-pipeline-could-run-through-midstate
- ^ Biofuels look to the next generation
- ^ a b Biofuels barometer 2007 - EurObserv’ER Systèmes solaires Le journal des énergies renouvelables n° 179, s. 63-75, 5/2007
- ^ Biofuel gas stations locator
- ^ Scandinavia Gets Serious on Global Warming, The Progressive, July 2007.
- ^ Scandinavia Gets Serious on Global Warming, The Progressive, July 2007.
- ^ China Promotes Ethanol-Based Fuel in Five Cities
- ^ Edmund L. Andrews and Larry Rother (2007-03-03). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1284 - Statute of Rhuddlan incorporated the Principality of Wales into England 1575 - Indian U.S. and Brazil Seek to Promote Ethanol in West. The New York Times. Retrieved on 2008-04-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title
- ^ Diana Renée (2007-08-10). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 612 BC - Killing of Sinsharishkun, King of Assyrian Empire Diplomacia de biocombustibles" de Lula no genera entusiasmo (Spanish). La Nación. Retrieved on 2008-04-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title
- ^ Jim Rutenberg and Larry Rohter (2007-03-10). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 241 BC - First Punic War: Battle of the Aegates Islands - The Romans sink the Carthaginian fleet bringing Bush and Chávez Spar at Distance Over Latin Visit. The Washington Post. Retrieved on 2008-04-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title
- ^ Americas: Cuba: Castro Criticizes U.S. Biofuel Policies. The New York Times (2007-03-30). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 240 BC - 1st recorded Perihelion passage of Halley's Comet. Retrieved on 2008-04-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title
- ^ Xinhua News (2007-08-09). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 48 BC - Caesar's civil war: Battle of Pharsalus - Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus Nicaragua president backs sugar-made biofuel as Lula visits. People's Daily Online. Retrieved on 2008-04-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title
- ^ AFP (2007-08-09). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 48 BC - Caesar's civil war: Battle of Pharsalus - Julius Caesar decisively defeats Pompey at Pharsalus Lula ofrece cooperación y energía eléctrica (Spanish). La Nación. Retrieved on 2008-04-28. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title
- ^ Vanessa Loaiza N. (2008-05-25). 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1085 - Alfonso VI of Castile takes Toledo Spain back from the Moors. Gasolineras solo venderán biocombustible desde octubre (Spanish). La Nación. Retrieved on 2008-06-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins
- ^ Oscar Batres (2008-05-29). 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 363 - Roman Emperor Julian defeats the Sassanid army in the Battle of Ctesiphon, under the walls of the Centroamérica busca cooperación de Brasil para biocombustibles y comercio (Spanish). La Nación. Retrieved on 2008-06-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1099 - The First Crusade: The Siege of Jerusalem begins
- ^ The Economist, March 3-9th, 2007 "Fuel for Friendship" p. 44
- ^ Gerardo Reyes (2008-06-08). 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 68 - The Roman Senate accepts emperor Galba. 536 - St Silverius becomes Pope (probable Colombians in U.S. sugar mills to produce ethanol. Miami Herald. Retrieved on 2008-06-11. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1184 BC - Trojan War: Troy is sacked and burned according to the calculations of Eratosthenes.
- ^ U.S. Congress Stands Behind Domestic Ethanol, Extends Tariff
- ^ Macedo Isaias, M. Lima Verde Leal and J. Azevedo Ramos da Silva (2004). Assessment of greenhouse gas emissions in the production and use of fuel ethanol in Brazil. Secretariat of the Environment, Government of the State of São Paulo. Retrieved on 2008-05-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1457 BC - Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of
- ^ a b Timothy Searchinger et al. (2008-02-07). 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 457 - Leo I becomes emperor of the Byzantine Empire. 1074 - Battle of Montesarchio in which the Prince Use of U.S. Croplands for Biofuels Increases Greenhouse Gases Through Emissions from Land-Use Change. Science Express. Retrieved on 2008-05-09. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1457 BC - Battle of Megiddo (15th century BC between Thutmose III and a large Canaanite coalition under the King of
- ^ iea.org, biofuels2004.pdf
- ^ oregon.gov, biomass forum
- ^ (pdf) (Wang et al. 1999)
- ^ (pdf) (Wang 2002)
- ^ San Francisco Chronicle, April 18, 2007 Study warns of health risk from ethanol, accessed October 6, 2007.
- ^ "Clearing the air on ethanol". Environmental Science & Technology (April 18, 2007). Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ Mark Z. Jacobson (March 14, 2007). "Effects of Ethanol (E85) versus Gasoline Vehicles on Cancer and Mortality in the United States". ACS Publications. Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ CBS News
- ^ a b c Carbon and Sustainability Reporting Within the Renewable Transport Fuel Obligation
- ^ Bioethanol Production and Use Creating Markets for Renewable Energy Technologies EU, RES Technology Marketing Campaign, European Biomass Industry Association EUBIA 2007
- ^ New York Times, Biofuels Deemed a Greenhouse Threat Biofuels Deemed a Greenhouse Threat by Rosenthal, Feb. 8, 2008.
- ^ Sciencexpress Report Land Clearing and the Biofuel Carbon Debt Fargione, Hill, Tilman, Polasky, and Hawthorne. G David Tilman (formerly Titman born in 1949 in Aurora Illinois, is a prominent American Ecologist who earned his Ph Feb. 7, 2008.
- ^ New York Times, Biofuels Deemed a Greenhouse Threat Biofuels Deemed a Greenhouse Threat by Rosenthal, Feb. 8, 2008.
- ^ a b Deane Morrison (September 18, 2006). Ethanol fuel presents a corn-undrum. University of Minnesota. The University of Minnesota Twin Cities ( U of M or The U) is the oldest and largest part of the University of Minnesota system. Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ "Lula calls for ethanol investment". BBC (4 June 2007). Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ "Brazil's ethanol push could eat away at Amazon". Associated Press (March 7, 2007). The Associated Press ( AP) is an American News agency. The AP is a Cooperative owned by its contributing Newspapers radio Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ Kononova, M. M. Soil Organic Matter, Its Nature, Its role in Soil Formation and in Soil Fertility, 1961
- ^ Daniela Russi (07 March 2007). Biofuels: An advisable strategy?.
- ^ Chomsky, Noam. “Starving The Poor. ” The International News. 16 May 2007. Events 1204 - Baldwin IX Count of Flanders is crowned as the first Emperor of the Latin Empire. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Retrieved 2007-05-17.
- ^ Why Our Food is So Dependent on Oil
- ^ International Energy Agency (2006). World Energy Outlook 2006 p. 8.
- ^ Biotechnology Industry Organization (2007). Industrial Biotechnology Is Revolutionizing the Production of Ethanol Transportation Fuel pp. 3-4.
- ^ Maywa Montenegro (04 Dec 2006). The Big Three. [[Grist (magazine)|]]. Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ Belum V S Reddy; A Ashok Kumar and S Ramesh. "Sweet sorghum: A Water Saving BioEnergy Crop". International Crops Research Institute for the SemiArid Tropics. Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ RP INVESTOR TO PUT UP PIONEERING SWEET SORGHUM ETHANOL PLANT. Manila Bulletin (25-October-2006). Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ Glen C. Rains; John S. Cundiff, and Gregory E. Welbaum (September 12, 1997). Sweet Sorghum for a Piedmont Ethanol Industry. Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ ICRISAT develops sweet sorghum for ethanol production (12 August 2004). Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ http://ethanol.org Energy Security
- ^ http://www.ethanol.org Ethanol Can Contribute to Energy and Environmental Goals
- ^ http://www.eia.doe.gov Energy INFOcard
- ^ Ethanol Lowers Gas Prices 29-40 Cents Per Gallon
- ^ Veridium Patents Yellowstone Algae-Fed Bioreactor to Capture Ethanol Plant CO2 Emissions
- ^ US patent 7135308
- ^ The Economist – The End Of Cheap Food.
- ^ Amber Waves - Ethanol Reshapes the Corn Market.
- ^ Crime Against Humanity.
- ^ Financial Times: OECD Warns Against Biofuels Subsidies.
- ^ The Economist - Food Prices: Cheap No More.
- ^ The Economist - Food Prices: Cheap No More.
- ^ Bush Signs Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007.
- ^ Global Science Forum Conference on Scientific Challenges for Energy Research: Energy At The Crossroads.
- ^ Capability of vehicles to satisfactorily operate on Ethanol Blend petrol 8 August 2006. Federal Chamber of Automotive Industries. Retrieved on 2007-04-09. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 193 - Septimius Severus is proclaimed Roman Emperor by the army in Illyricum (in the Balkans)
- ^ a b Orbital Fuel Company. Market Barriers to the Uptake of Biofuels Study May 2003. Environment Australia. Retrieved on 2007-04-29
- ^ Ethanol Production Plant, Fuel Stock e85, Cellulosic Corn Ethanol, Prices. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1429 - Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orleans. Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ Ethanol Motor Fuel Storage Overview September 2005. Wisconsin Department of Commerce. Retrieved on 2007-04-29
- ^ Dan Nakaso (April 11, 2007). Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 1429 - Joan of Arc arrives to relieve the Siege of Orleans. "Ethanol fuel gunking up Island boats". Honolulu Advertiser. The Honolulu Advertiser is the largest daily Newspaper in the American state of Hawai{{okina}}i. Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ Philip Gaudreau. New Fuels: Gasoline and Diesel (PDF). Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ Ethanol Facts: Engine Performance. Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ Performance Tuning for Diesel Cars & Vans. Denbury Diesels (2008). Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ Marc West (1 Mar 2007). The Science And Costs of Diesel Cars. Retrieved on 2008-01-14. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1129 - Formal approval of the Order of the Templar at the Council of Troyes.
- ^ [Gabriel stoppt die Biosprit-Verordnung http://www.welt.de/wirtschaft/article1869275/Gabriel_stoppt_die_Biosprit-Verordnung.html] Die Welt 4 April 2008
See also
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External links
- World Bank, Biofuels: The Promise and the Risks. World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development
- Biofuels: Ethanol at the Open Directory Project
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