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"E. coli" redirects here. For the protozoan parasite, see Entamoeba coli. Protozoa (in Greek πρῶτον proton "first" and ζῷα zoia "animals" are unicellular Eukaryotes (singular Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Entamoeba coli is a non-pathogenic Species of Entamoeba that frequently exists as a Commensal Parasite in the
Escherichia coli

Scientific classification
Domain: Bacteria
Phylum: Proteobacteria
Class: Gamma Proteobacteria
Order: Enterobacteriales
Family: Enterobacteriaceae
Genus: Escherichia
Species: E. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have The Proteobacteria are a major group ( Phylum) of Bacteria. They include a wide variety of Pathogens such as Escherichia, The Proteobacteria are a major group ( Phylum) of Bacteria. They include a wide variety of Pathogens such as Escherichia, The Enterobacteriaceae are a large family of bacteria, including many of the more familiar Pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia The Enterobacteriaceae are a large family of bacteria, including many of the more familiar Pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia Escherichia is a Genus of Gram-negative, non- spore forming facultatively anaerobic, rod-shaped Bacteria from the coli
Binomial name
Escherichia coli
(Migula 1895)
Castellani and Chalmers 1919

Escherichia coli (commonly E. coli; pronounced /ˌɛʃɪˈrɪkiə ˈkoʊlaɪ/, /iː ~/), is a bacterium that is commonly found in the lower intestine of warm-blooded animals. The Bacteria ( singular: bacterium) are a large group of unicellular Microorganisms Typically a few Micrometres in length bacteria have Most E. coli strains are harmless, but some, such as serotype O157:H7, can cause serious food poisoning in humans, and are occasionally responsible for costly product recalls. In biology strain is a low-level Taxonomic rank used in three related ways A serovar or serotype is a group of Microorganisms or Viruses based on their cell surface Antigens Serovars allow the epidemiologic classification Escherichia coli O157H7 is an Enterohemorrhagic strain of the bacterium Escherichia coli and a cause of Foodborne illness Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease) is any Illness resulting from the consumption of food A product recall is a request to return to the maker a batch or an entire production run of a product usually due to the discovery of safety issues [1][2] The harmless strains are part of the normal flora of the gut, and can benefit their hosts by producing vitamin K2,[3] or by preventing the establishment of pathogenic bacteria within the intestine. In biology strain is a low-level Taxonomic rank used in three related ways The human flora is the Microrganisms that constantly inhabit the Human body. Vitamin K (K from "Koagulations-Vitamin" in German Danish Swedish and Norwegian denotes a group of Lipophilic, Hydrophobic Vitamins that A pathogen (from Greek πάθος pathos "suffering passion" and γἰγνομαι (γεν- gignomai (gen- "I give birth to" infectious [4][5]

E. coli are not always confined to the intestine, and their ability to survive for brief periods outside the body makes them an ideal indicator organism to test environmental samples for fecal contamination. Indicator organisms are used to measure potential fecal contamination of environmental samples Feces, faeces, or fæces (see spelling differences) is a waste product from an animal's digestive tract expelled through the Anus [6][7] The bacteria can also be grown easily and its genetics are comparatively simple and easily-manipulated, making it one of the best-studied prokaryotic model organisms, and an important species in biotechnology. Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is A model organism is a Species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological Phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made Biotechnology is Technology based on Biology, especially when used in Agriculture, Food science, and Medicine. E. coli was discovered by German pediatrician and bacteriologist Theodor Escherich in 1885,[6] and is now classified as part of the Enterobacteriaceae family of gamma-proteobacteria. Theodor Escherich ( 29 November 1857 &ndash 15 February 1911) was a German - Austrian pediatrician and a professor The Enterobacteriaceae are a large family of bacteria, including many of the more familiar Pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia The Proteobacteria are a major group ( Phylum) of Bacteria. They include a wide variety of Pathogens such as Escherichia, [8]

Contents

Strains

Model of successive binary fission in E. coli
Model of successive binary fission in E. coli

A strain of E. In biology strain is a low-level Taxonomic rank used in three related ways coli is a sub-group within the species that has unique characteristics that distinguish it from other E. coli strains. These differences are often detectable only on the molecular level; however, they may result in changes to the physiology or lifecycle of the bacterium. For example, a strain may gain pathogenic capacity, the ability to use a unique carbon source, the ability to inhabit a particular ecological niche or the ability to resist antimicrobial agents. Pathogenicity is the ability of an organism a Pathogen, to produce an infectious disease in another organism Different strains of E. coli are often host-specific, making it possible to determine the source of fecal contamination in environmental samples. Depending on which E. coli strains are present in a water sample, for example, assumptions can be made about whether the contamination originated from a human, other mammal or bird source.

New strains of E. coli evolve through the natural biological process of mutation, and some strains develop traits that can be harmful to a host animal. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 In biology mutations are changes to the Nucleotide sequence of the Genetic material of an organism Although virulent strains typically cause no more than a bout of diarrhea in healthy adult humans, particularly virulent strains, such as O157:H7 or O111:B4, can cause serious illness or death in the elderly, the very young or the immunocompromised. Escherichia coli O157H7 is an Enterohemorrhagic strain of the bacterium Escherichia coli and a cause of Foodborne illness In Medicine, immunodeficiency (or immune deficiency) is a state in which the Immune system 's ability to fight Infectious disease is compromised [4]

Biology and biochemistry

E. coli is Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic and non-sporulating. Gram-negative bacteria are those Bacteria that do not retain Crystal violet dye in the Gram staining protocol A facultative anaerobic organism is an Organism, usually a Bacterium, that makes ATP by Aerobic respiration if Oxygen is present An endospore is a dormant, tough and non-reproductive structure produced by a small number of Bacteria from the Firmicute phylum It can live on a wide variety of substrates. E. coli uses mixed-acid fermentation in anaerobic conditions, producing lactate, succinate, ethanol, acetate and carbon dioxide. Lactic acid ( IUPAC Systematic name: 2-hydroxypropanoic acid) also known as milk acid, is a Chemical compound that plays a role Succinic acid ( IUPAC Systematic name: butanedioic acid; historically known as spirit of amber) is a Dicarboxylic acid. An acetate, or ethanoate, is either a salt or Ester of Acetic acid. Since many pathways in mixed-acid fermentation produce hydrogen gas, these pathways require the levels of hydrogen to be low, as is the case when E. coli lives together with hydrogen-consuming organisms such as methanogens or sulfate-reducing bacteria. Methanogens are Archaea that produce Methane as a Metabolic byproduct in Anoxic conditions Sulfate-reducing bacteria comprise several groups of bacteria that use Sulfate as an oxidizing agent reducing it to Sulfide. [9]

Optimal growth of E. coli occurs at 37°C, but some laboratory strains can multiply at temperatures of up to 49°C. [10] Growth can be driven by aerobic or anaerobic respiration, using a large variety of redox pairs, including the oxidation of pyruvic acid, formic acid, hydrogen and amino acids, and the reduction of substrates such as oxygen, nitrate, dimethyl sulfoxide and trimethylamine N-oxide. Redox (shorthand for reduction-oxidation reaction describes all Chemical reactions in which atoms have their Oxidation number ( Oxidation state Pyruvic acid (CH3COCO2H is an alpha-keto acid. The Carboxylate Anion of pyruvic acid is known as pyruvate. Formic acid (systematically called methanoic acid) is the simplest Carboxylic acid. Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the In Inorganic chemistry, a nitrate is a salt of Nitric acid with an Ion composed of one Nitrogen and three Oxygen atoms Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO is the Chemical compound with the formula (CH32SO Trimethylamine N -oxide, also known by several other names and acronyms is the Organic compound with the formula (CH33NO [11]

Strains that possess flagella can swim and are motile, but other strains lack flagellum. A flagellum ( plural flagella) is a tail-like structure that projects from the Cell body of certain Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells and it Motility is a biological term which refers to the ability to move spontaneously and actively consuming energy in the process The flagella of E. coli have a peritrichous arrangement. A flagellum ( plural flagella) is a tail-like structure that projects from the Cell body of certain Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic cells and it [12]

E. coli and related bacteria possess the ability to transfer DNA via bacterial conjugation, transduction or transformation, which allows genetic material to spread horizontally through an existing population. Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through direct cell-to-cell contact Transduction is the process by which DNA is transferred from one Bacterium to another by a Virus. In Molecular biology, transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the uptake genomic incorporation and expression of foreign It is believed that this process led to the spread of shiga toxin from Shigella to E. Shiga toxins are a family of related toxins with two major groups Stx1 and Stx2 whose genes are considered to be part of the Genome of lambdoid Prophages This article is about the bacteria For the disease see Shigellosis Shigella is a Genus of Gram-negative coli O157:H7.

Normal role

E. coli normally colonizes an infant's gastrointestinal tract within 40 hours of birth, arriving with food or water or with the individuals handling the child. In the bowel, it adheres to the mucus of the large intestine. In vertebrates mucus is a slippery secretion produced by and covering Mucous membranes It is a viscous Colloid containing Antiseptic enzymes (such as The large intestine is the last part of the Digestive system: the final stage of the Alimentary canal in Vertebrate Animals Its function is to It is the primary facultative organism of the human gastrointestinal tract. A facultative anaerobic organism is an Organism, usually a Bacterium, that makes ATP by Aerobic respiration if Oxygen is present [13] As long as these bacteria do not acquire genetic elements encoding for virulence factors, they remain benign commensals. This article is about a biological infectious particle for other uses see Phage (disambiguation. Virulence factors are molecules produced by a Pathogen that specifically cause disease or that influence their host's function to allow the pathogen to thrive In Ecology, commensalism is a kind of symbiotic relationship between two organisms where one benefits and the other is not significantly harmed or helped (like a bird [14]

Role in disease

Virulent strains of E. coli can cause gastroenteritis, urinary tract infections, and neonatal meningitis. Gastroenteritis (also known as gastro, gastric flu, and stomach flu, although unrelated to Influenza) is Inflammation of the A urinary tract infection ( UTI) is a bacterial Infection that affects any part of the Urinary tract. Meningitis is Inflammation of the protective membranes covering the Brain and Spinal cord, known collectively as the Meninges. In rarer cases, virulent strains are also responsible for Hæmolytic-uremic Syndrome (HUS), peritonitis, mastitis, septicemia and Gram-negative pneumonia. In Medicine, hemolytic-uremic syndrome (or haemolytic-uraemic syndrome, abbreviated HUS is a disease characterized by Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia Peritonitis is defined as Inflammation of the Peritoneum (the Serous membrane which lines part of the abdominal cavity and some of the Viscera Mastitis is the Inflammation of the Parenchyma of the Mammary gland ( Breast in Primates Udder in other mammals Sepsis is a serious medical condition characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state (called a Systemic inflammatory response syndrome or SIRS caused Pneumonia is an inflammatory illness of the Lung. Frequently it is described as lung Parenchyma / alveolar inflammation and abnormal [13]. Recently it is thought that E. coli and certain other foodborne illnesses can sometimes trigger serious health problems months or years after patients survived that initial bout. Food poisoning can be a long-term problem.

Virulence properties

Enteric E. coli (EC) are classified on the basis of serological characteristics and virulence properties. [13] Virotypes include:

Gastrointestinal infection

Low-temperature electron micrograph of a cluster of E. coli bacteria, magnified 10,000 times. Each individual bacterium is oblong shaped.
Low-temperature electron micrograph of a cluster of E. coli bacteria, magnified 10,000 times. Each individual bacterium is oblong shaped.

Certain strains of E. coli, such as O157:H7, O121 and O104:H21, produce toxins. Escherichia coli O157H7 is an Enterohemorrhagic strain of the bacterium Escherichia coli and a cause of Foodborne illness Escherichia coli O121 is a Serotype of Escherichia coli, a species of Bacteria that lives in the lower Intestines of Escherichia coli O104H21 is a rare Serotype of Escherichia coli, a species of Bacteria that lives in the Lower intestines of Mammals A toxin ( Greek:, toxikon, lit (poison for use on arrows is a Poisonous substance produced by living cells or organisms that is active at very low Food poisoning caused by E. Foodborne illness (also foodborne disease) is any Illness resulting from the consumption of food coli are usually associated with eating unwashed vegetables and meat contaminated post-slaughter. O157:H7 is further notorious for causing serious and even life-threatening complications like Hemolytic Uremic Syndrome (HUS). In Medicine, hemolytic-uremic syndrome (or haemolytic-uraemic syndrome, abbreviated HUS is a disease characterized by Microangiopathic hemolytic anemia This particular strain is linked to the 2006 United States E. coli outbreak of fresh spinach. The 2006 North American E coli outbreak was an outbreak in two principal phases of foodborne ''E Severity of the illness varies considerably; it can be fatal, particularly to young children, the elderly or the immunocompromised, but is more often mild. E. coli can harbor both heat-stable and heat-labile enterotoxins. The latter, termed LT, contains one 'A' subunit and five 'B' subunits arranged into one holotoxin, and is highly similar in structure and function to Cholera toxins. Cholera, sometimes known as Asiatic cholera or epidemic cholera, is an infectious Gastroenteritis caused by the Bacterium The B subunits assist in adherence and entry of the toxin into host intestinal cells, while the A subunit is cleaved and prevents cells from absorbing water, causing diarrhea. In Medicine, diarrhea, also spelled diarrhoea (see spelling differences) is frequent loose or liquid Bowel movements Acute diarrhea LT is secreted by the Type 2 secretion pathway. [15]

If E. coli bacteria escape the intestinal tract through a perforation (for example from an ulcer, a ruptured appendix, or a surgical error) and enter the abdomen, they usually cause peritonitis that can be fatal without prompt treatment. Ulcers are healing wounds that develop on the skin mucous membranes or eye Appendicitis (or epityphlitis) is a condition characterized by Inflammation of the appendix. The terms iatrogenesis and iatrogenic artifact refer to adverse effects or complications caused by or resulting from medical treatment or advice Peritonitis is defined as Inflammation of the Peritoneum (the Serous membrane which lines part of the abdominal cavity and some of the Viscera However, E. coli are extremely sensitive to such antibiotics as streptomycin or gentamicin, so treatment with antibiotics is usually effective. In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa Streptomycin is an Antibiotic drug the first of a class of drugs called Aminoglycosides to be discovered and was the first antibiotic remedy for Tuberculosis Gentamicin is an Aminoglycoside Antibiotic, used to treat many types of bacterial infections particularly those caused by Gram-negative This could change since, as noted below, E. coli quickly acquires drug resistance. [16]

Intestinal mucosa-associated E. coli are observed in increased numbers in the inflammatory bowel diseases, Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis. In Medicine, inflammatory bowel disease ( IBD) is a group of inflammatory conditions of the large intestine and Small intestine Crohn's disease is a Disease of the Digestive system which may affect any part of the Gastrointestinal tract from Mouth to Anus Ulcerative colitis ( Colitis ulcerosa, UC) is a form of Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD [17] Invasive strains of E. coli exist in high numbers in the inflamed tissue, and the number of bacteria in the inflamed regions correlates to the severity of the bowel inflammation. [18]

Epidemiology of gastrointestinal infection

Transmission of pathogenic E. coli often occurs via fecal-oral transmission. The fecal-oral route (or alternatively the oral-fecal route or orofecal route) is a way Disease can be passed when fecal particles from one [19][14][20] Common routes of transmission include: unhygienic food preparation,[19] farm contamination due to manure fertilization,[21] irrigation of crops with contaminated greywater or raw sewage,[22] feral pigs on cropland,[23] or direct consumption of sewage-contaminated water. Greywater, also known as sullage, is non-industrial wastewater generated from domestic processes such as dish washing Sewage is the mainly liquid Waste containing some solids produced by humans which typically consists of washing water Feces, Urine, laundry waste and other [24] Dairy and beef cattle are primary reservoirs of E. coli O157:H7,[25] and they can carry it asymptomatically and shed it in their feces. [25] Food products associated with E. coli outbreaks include raw ground beef,[26] raw seed sprouts or spinach,[21] raw milk, unpasteurized juice, and foods contaminated by infected food workers via fecal-oral route. [19]

According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, the fecal-oral cycle of transmission can be disrupted by cooking food properly, preventing cross-contamination, instituting barriers such as gloves for food workers, instituting health care policies so food industry employees seek treatment when they are ill, pasteurization of juice or dairy products and proper hand washing requirements. [19]

Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC), specifically serotype O157:H7, have also been transmitted by flies,[27][28][29] as well as direct contact with farm animals,[30][31] petting zoo animals,[32] and airborne particles found in animal-rearing environments. A petting zoo (often called and/or part of a " children's zoo " features a combination of domestic animals and some wild species that are docile enough to touch [33]

Urinary tract infection

Uropathogenic E. coli (UPEC) is responsible for approximately 90% of urinary tract infections (UTI) seen in individuals with ordinary anatomy. A urinary tract infection ( UTI) is a bacterial Infection that affects any part of the Urinary tract. [13] In ascending infections, fecal bacteria colonize the urethra and spread up the urinary tract to the bladder. In Anatomy, the urethra (from Greek ουρήθρα - ourethra) is a tube which connects the Urinary bladder to the outside of The urinary system (also called Excretory system or the genitourinary system (GUS is the Organ system that produces stores and eliminates Urine. In Anatomy, the urinary bladder is a hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic organ that sits on the Pelvic floor in Mammals It is the Because women have a shorter urethra compared with men, they are 14-times more likely to suffer from an ascending UTI. [13]

Uropathogenic E. coli utilize P fimbriae (pyelonephritis-associated pili) to bind urinary tract endothelial cells and colonize the bladder. Pyelonephritis is an ascending Urinary tract infection that has reached the pyelum ( pelvis) of the Kidney ( nephros in Greek The endothelium is the thin layer of cells that line the interior surface of Blood vessels forming an interface between circulating Blood in the These adhesins specifically bind D-galactose-D-galactose moieties on the P blood group antigen of erythrocytes and uroepithelial cells. An antigen (from antibody-generating) or immunogen is a substance that prompts the generation of Antibodies and can cause an immune response Red blood cells are the most common type of Blood cell and the Vertebrate body's principal means of delivering Oxygen to the body tissues via the Blood [13] Approximately 1% of the human population lacks this receptor, and its presence or absence dictates an individual's susceptibility to E. coli urinary tract infections. Uropathogenic E. coli produce alpha- and beta-hemolysins, which cause lysis of urinary tract cells. Hemolysis is the breakdown of Red blood cells. The ability of bacterial colonies to induce hemolysis when grown on Blood agar is used to classify certain Microorganisms Lysis ( Greek, lysis from lyein = to separate refers to the death of a cell by breaking of the cellular membrane often by viral or osmotic

UPEC can evade the body's innate immune defenses (e. g. the complement system) by invading superficial umbrella cells to form intracellular bacterial communities (IBCs). The complement system is a Biochemical cascade that helps clear Pathogens from an organism [34] They also have the ability to form K antigen, capsular polysaccharides that contribute to biofilm formation. A biofilm is a structured community of Microorganisms encapsulated within a self-developed polymeric matrix and adherent to a living or inert surface Biofilm-producing E. coli are recalcitrant to immune factors and antibiotic therapy and are often responsible for chronic urinary tract infections. Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are Gamma globulin Proteins that are found in Blood or other Bodily In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa [35] K antigen-producing E. coli infections are commonly found in the upper urinary tract. [13]

Descending infections, though relatively rare, occur when E. coli cells enter the upper urinary tract organs (kidneys, bladder or ureters) from the blood stream. The kidneys are complicated organs that have numerous biological roles In Anatomy, the urinary bladder is a hollow muscular, and distensible (or elastic organ that sits on the Pelvic floor in Mammals It is the In human Anatomy, the ureters are muscular ducts that propel Urine from the Kidneys to the Urinary bladder.

Laboratory diagnosis

Enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) and Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) - UTI or GIT infections in infants are caused by EPEC which presents as watery diarrhea, meaning that PMN's will not be observed in the stool neither with methylene blue nor Gram stain. Granulocytes are a category of White blood cells characterised by Methylene blue is a heterocyclic aromatic Chemical compound with Molecular formula: C 16 H 18 Cl[[nitrogen Gram staining (or Gram's method) is an empirical method of differentiating bacterial species into two large groups ( Gram-positive and First off, G - ve, rods, with no particular arrangement are seen in Gram stain. Gram staining (or Gram's method) is an empirical method of differentiating bacterial species into two large groups ( Gram-positive and Then, either MacConkey agar or EMB agar (or both) are inoculated with the stool. Proteus McConkeyjpg|thumb|right|200px|A MacConkey agar plate with an active bacterial culture On MacConkey agar, deep red colonies are produced as the organism is lactose positive, and this utilization will cause the medium's pH to drop leading to darkening of the medium. Lactose (also referred to as milk sugar) is a Sugar which is found most notably in Milk. pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. Growth on Levine EMB agar would show black colonies with greenish-black metallic sheen. This is diagnosic of E. coli. The organism is lysine positive, and grows on TSI slant with a (A/A/g+/H2S-) profile. Lysine (abbreviated as Lys or K) is an α- Amino acid with the Chemical formula HO2CCH(NH2(CH24NH2 The Triple Sugar Iron or TSI test is a microbiological test roughly named for its ability to test microorganism's ability to ferment sugars and to produce hydrogen sulfide Also, IMViC is ++-- for E. The IMViC tests are a group of individual tests used in microbiology lab testing to identify an organism coli; as it's indol positive (red ring) and methyl red positive (bright red), but VP negative (no change-colorless) and citrate negative (no change-green color). Indole is an Aromatic heterocyclic Organic compound. It has a bicyclic structure consisting of a six-membered Benzene ring fused to a five-membered Methyl red, also called CI Acid Red 2, is an indicator dye that turns red in Acidic solutions A citrate can refer either to the Conjugate base of Citric acid, (C3H5O(COO33&minus or to the Esters of citric Serology is done using the SSS-Coagglutination test. Serology is the scientific study of blood serum. In practice the term usually refers to the Diagnostic identification of antibodies in the serum

Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli O157:H7 - isolated either from urine or, more commonly, stool. There exist three protocols for diagnosis:

(a) Diagnosis is carried out as is the case with EPEC and ETEC.

(b) Gram stain:- G - ve, rods, with no particular arrangement. Gram staining (or Gram's method) is an empirical method of differentiating bacterial species into two large groups ( Gram-positive and Sorbitol-MacConkey agar is a modified MacConkey agar which has sorbitol instead of lactose. MacConkey Sorbitol Agar is a variant of traditional MacConkey agar used in the detection of E Proteus McConkeyjpg|thumb|right|200px|A MacConkey agar plate with an active bacterial culture Sorbitol, also known as glucitol, is a Sugar alcohol that the body metabolises slowly Lactose (also referred to as milk sugar) is a Sugar which is found most notably in Milk. EHEC would produce colorless colonies as it can't utilize sorbitol. TSI slant and IMViC are then performed. Serology detects O157:H7 antigens. Serology is the scientific study of blood serum. In practice the term usually refers to the Diagnostic identification of antibodies in the serum An antigen (from antibody-generating) or immunogen is a substance that prompts the generation of Antibodies and can cause an immune response

(c) Two bottles of verocells are used. One is inoculated with equal portions of a stool extract and antitoxin, while the other has only a stool extract. If the first bottle shows neutralization (no cytopathic effects) while the second doesn't, then the test is considered positive. Cytopathic effect (CPE refers to degenerative changes in cells (especially in Tissue culture) associated with the multiplication of certain Viruses Otherwise, it's not. This is based on the fact that the toxin produced by this strain is neutralized in the presence of its specific antibody, meaning that it won't be able to exert its effects on cells. Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are Gamma globulin Proteins that are found in Blood or other Bodily

Antibiotic therapy and resistance

Main article: Antibiotic resistance

Bacterial infections are usually treated with antibiotics. Antibiotic resistance is the ability of a Microorganism to withstand the effects of Antibiotics. In modern usage an antibiotic is a Chemotherapeutic agent with activity against Microorganisms such as Bacteria, fungi or Protozoa However, the antibiotic sensitivities of different strains of E. coli vary widely. As Gram-negative organisms, E. coli are resistant to many antibiotics that are effective against Gram-positive organisms. Gram-positive bacteria are those that are stained dark blue or violet by Gram staining. Antibiotics which may be used to treat E. coli infection include amoxicillin as well as other semi-synthetic penicillins, many cephalosporins, carbapenems, aztreonam, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, ciprofloxacin, nitrofurantoin and the aminoglycosides. Amoxicillin ( INN) or amoxycillin ( BAN) is a moderate-spectrum bacteriolytic β-lactam antibiotic used to treat Bacterial Infections The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. Carbapenems are a class of Beta-lactam antibiotics with a broad spectrum of antibacterial activity and have a structure which renders them highly resistant to Beta-lactamases Aztreonam (trade name Azactam) is a synthetic monocyclic Beta-lactam Antibiotic (a Monobactam) originally isolated from Co-trimoxazole (abbreviated SXT TMP-SMX TMP-SMZ or TMP-sulfa is an Sulphonamide, Antibacterial combination of Trimethoprim and Sulfamethoxazole Nitrofurantoin is an Antibiotic. It is usually used in treating Urinary tract infection. An aminoglycoside is a molecule composed of a sugar group and an Amino group

Antibiotic resistance is a growing problem. Antibiotic resistance is the ability of a Microorganism to withstand the effects of Antibiotics. Some of this is due to overuse of antibiotics in humans, but some of it is probably due to the use of antibiotics as growth promoters in food of animals. [36] A study published in the journal Science in August 2007 found that the rate of adaptative mutations in E. Science is the Academic journal of the American Association for the Advancement of Science and is considered one of the world's most prestigious Scientific In biology mutations are changes to the Nucleotide sequence of the Genetic material of an organism coli is "on the order of 10–5 per genome per generation, which is 1,000 times as high as previous estimates," a finding which may have significance for the study and management of bacterial antibiotic resistance. In classical genetics the genome of a Diploid Organism including Eukarya refers to a full set of chromosomes or genes in a Gamete, thereby [37]

Antibiotic-resistant E. coli may also pass on the genes responsible for antibiotic resistance to other species of bacteria, such as Staphylococcus aureus. Staphylococcus aureus (ˌstæfɨləˈkɒkəs ˈɔriəs literally "Golden Cluster Seed" and also known as golden staph) is the most common cause of E. coli often carry multidrug resistant plasmids and under stress readily transfer those plasmids to other species. Indeed, E. coli is a frequent member of biofilms, where many species of bacteria exist in close proximity to each other. A biofilm is a structured community of Microorganisms encapsulated within a self-developed polymeric matrix and adherent to a living or inert surface This mixing of species allows E. coli strains that are piliated to accept and transfer plasmids from and to other bacteria. A plasmid is an extra-chromosomal DNA molecule separate from the chromosomal DNA which is capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA Thus E. coli and the other enterobacteria are important reservoirs of transferable antibiotic resistance. The Enterobacteriaceae are a large family of bacteria, including many of the more familiar Pathogens such as Salmonella and Escherichia [38]

Beta-lactamase strains

Resistance to beta-lactam antibiotics has become a particular problem in recent decades, as strains of bacteria that produce extended-spectrum beta-lactamases have become more common. β-lactam antibiotics are a broad class of Antibiotics that include Penicillin derivatives Cephalosporins Monobactams Carbapenems Beta-lactamases are Enzymes ( produced by some bacteria and are responsible for their resistance to Beta-lactam antibiotics like Penicillins [39] These beta-lactamase enzymes make many, if not all, of the penicillins and cephalosporins ineffective as therapy. Penicillin (sometimes abbreviated PCN or pen) is a group of Beta-lactam antibiotics used in the treatment of Bacterial Infections The cephalosporins (ˌsɛfələˈspɔrən/ /ˌkɛfə- are a class of β-lactam antibiotics. Extended-spectrum beta-lactamase–producing E. coli are highly resistant to an array of antibiotics and infections by these strains is difficult to treat. In many instances, only two oral antibiotics and a very limited group of intravenous antibiotics remain effective.

Increased concern about the prevalence of this form of "superbug" in the United Kingdom has led to calls for further monitoring and a UK-wide strategy to deal with infections and the deaths. Antibiotic resistance is the ability of a Microorganism to withstand the effects of Antibiotics. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located [40] Susceptibility testing should guide treatment in all infections in which the organism can be isolated for culture.

Phage therapy

Phage therapy—viruses that specifically target pathogenic bacteria—has been developed over the last 80 years, primarily in the former Soviet Union, where it was used to prevent diarrhea caused by E. Phage therapy is the Therapeutic use of Bacteriophages to treat Pathogenic Bacterial infections The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 coli. [41] Presently, phage therapy for humans is available only at the Phage Therapy Center in the Republic of Georgia and in Poland. Georgia ( საქართველო, Sakartvelo) is a Transcontinental country in the Caucasus region situated at the dividing line between Poland (Polska officially the Republic of Poland [42] However, on January 2 2007, the United States FDA gave Omnilytics approval to apply its E. coli O157:H7 killing phage in a mist, spray or wash on live animals that will be slaughtered for human consumption. [43]

Vaccination

Researchers have actively been working to develop safe, effective vaccines to lower the worldwide incidence of E. A vaccine is a biological preparation which is used to establish or improve immunity to a particular disease coli infection. [44] In March of 2006, a vaccine eliciting an immune response against the E. coli O157:H7 O-specific polysaccharide conjugated to recombinant exotoxin A of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (O157-rEPA) was reported to be safe in children two to five years old. Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a Gram-negative, aerobic, rod-shaped Bacterium with unipolar motility. Previous work had already indicated that it was safe for adults. [45] A phase III clinical trial to verify the large-scale efficacy of the treatment is planned. In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices Efficacy is the capacity to produce a desired size of an effect under Ideal or Optimal conditions [45]

In January 2007 the Canadian bio-pharmaceutical company Bioniche announced it has developed a cattle vaccine which reduces the number of O157:H7 shed in manure by a factor of 1000, to about 1000 pathogenic bacteria per gram of manure. [46][47][48]

Role in biotechnology

Because of its long history of laboratory culture and ease of manipulation, E. coli also plays an important role in modern biological engineering and industrial microbiology. Biological Engineering (including Biological systems engineering and Bioengineering) is a form of Biotechnology that uses broad-based Industrial microbiology or microbial biotechnology encompasses the use of Microorganisms in the manufacture of food or industrial products [49] The work of Stanley Norman Cohen and Herbert Boyer in E. Stanley Norman Cohen is an American geneticist. Originally from Perth Amboy New Jersey, Cohen is a graduate of Rutgers University, WikipediaPersondata --> Herbert W Boyer (born 1936 is a recipient of the 1990 National Medal of Science, and co-recipient of the 1996 coli, using plasmids and restriction enzymes to create recombinant DNA, became a foundation of biotechnology. A plasmid is an extra-chromosomal DNA molecule separate from the chromosomal DNA which is capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA A restriction enzyme (or restriction Endonuclease) is an Enzyme that cuts double-stranded DNA at specific recognition Nucleotide Recombinant DNA is a form of synthetic DNA that is engineered through the combination or insertion of one or more DNA strands thereby combining DNA sequences [50]

Considered a very versatile host for the production of heterologous proteins,[51] researchers can introduce genes into the microbes using plasmids, allowing for the mass production of proteins in industrial fermentation processes. In Medicine a heterologous transplant means 'between species' or 'from one species to another' Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Fermentation has many important uses in industry Though the word fermentation can have stricter definitions when speaking of it in industrial fermentation it more loosely Genetic systems have also been developed which allow the production of recombinant proteins using E. Recombinant DNA is a form of synthetic DNA that is engineered through the combination or insertion of one or more DNA strands thereby combining DNA sequences coli. One of the first useful applications of recombinant DNA technology was the manipulation of E. Recombinant DNA is a form of synthetic DNA that is engineered through the combination or insertion of one or more DNA strands thereby combining DNA sequences coli to produce human insulin. Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance [52] Modified E. coli have been used in vaccine development, bioremediation, and production of immobilised enzymes. A vaccine is a biological preparation which is used to establish or improve immunity to a particular disease Bioremediation can be defined as any process that uses Microorganisms Fungi, green plants or their Enzymes to return the natural environment altered Enzymes are Biomolecules that catalyze ( ie increase the rates of Chemical reactions Almost all enzymes are Proteins [51] E. coli cannot, however, be used to produce some of the more large, complex proteins which contain multiple disulfide bonds and, in particular, unpaired thiols, or proteins that also require post-translational modification for activity. In Chemistry, a disulfide bond is a single Covalent bond derived from the coupling of Thiol groups In Organic chemistry, a thiol is a compound that contains the functional group composed of a Sulfur atom and a Hydrogen atom (-SH Posttranslational modification (PTM is the chemical modification of a Protein after its translation. [49]

Model organism

E. coli is frequently used as a model organism in microbiology studies. A model organism is a Species that is extensively studied to understand particular biological Phenomena, with the expectation that discoveries made Microbiology (from Greek grc μῑκρος mīkros, "small" grc βίος bios, " Life " and grc -λογία Cultivated strains (e. g. E. coli K12) are well-adapted to the laboratory environment, and, unlike wild type strains, have lost their ability to thrive in the intestine. Wild type, sometimes written wildtype or wild-type, is the typical form of an organism strain gene or characteristic as it occurs in nature Many lab strains lose their ability to form biofilms. A biofilm is a structured community of Microorganisms encapsulated within a self-developed polymeric matrix and adherent to a living or inert surface [53][54] These features protect wild type strains from antibodies and other chemical attacks, but require a large expenditure of energy and material resources. Antibodies (also known as immunoglobulins, abbreviated Ig) are Gamma globulin Proteins that are found in Blood or other Bodily

In 1946, Joshua Lederberg and Edward Tatum first described the phenomenon known as bacterial conjugation using E. Joshua Lederberg ( May 23, 1925 &ndash February 2, 2008) was an American molecular biologist known for his work in Edward Lawrie Tatum ( December 14, 1909 &ndash November 5, 1975) was an American geneticist. Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through direct cell-to-cell contact coli as a model bacterium,[55] and it remains the primary model to study conjugation. E. coli was an integral part of the first experiments to understand phage genetics,[56] and early researchers, such as Seymour Benzer, used E. This article is about a biological infectious particle for other uses see Phage (disambiguation. Seymour Benzer ( October 15, 1921 &ndash November 30, 2007) was an accomplished American Physicist, Molecular biologist coli and phage T4 to understand the topography of gene structure. [57] Prior to Benzer's research, it was not known whether the gene was a linear structure, or if it had a branching pattern.

See also

References

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