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The English Reformation was the series of events in 16th century England by which the Church of England broke away from the authority of the Pope and the Roman Catholic Church. Anglicanism is a tradition of Christian faith Churches in this tradition either have historical connections to the Church of England or have similar beliefs See also Anglicanism The Anglican Communion is an international association of national Anglican churches The Archbishop of Canterbury is the chief bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the The Lambeth Conferences are decennial assemblies of Bishops of the Anglican Communion convened by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Anglican Communion Primates' Meetings are regular meetings of the Anglican Primates, i The Anglican Consultative Council or ACC is one of the four "Instruments of Communion" of the Anglican Communion. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings As a Christian Ecclesiastical term Catholic —from the Greek adjective, meaning "general" or "universal"—is described The Book of Martyrs, by John Foxe, is an Apocalyptically oriented English Protestant account of the Persecutions of Henry VIII (28 June 1491 &ndash 28 January 1547 was King of England and Lord of Ireland, later King of Ireland and claimant to the Kingdom of Thomas Cromwell 1st Earl of Essex (c 1485 &ndash 28 July 1540) was an English statesman who served as King Henry VIII 's chief minister Richard Hooker (March 1554 – 3 November 1600) was an Anglican priest and an influential theologian. Charles I, (19 November 1600 &ndash 30 January 1649 was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution. Archbishop William Laud (7 October 1573 - 10 January 1645 was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1633 to 1645 In a Catholic sense the term "saint" refers to any person in Heaven&mdashhowever since the 10th century the title "Saint" is only given to persons who have been officially The Book of Common Prayer is the common title of a number of prayer books of the Church of England and used throughout the Anglican Communion. " High Church " relates to Ecclesiology and Liturgy in Anglican theology and practice Low church is a term of distinction in the Church of England or other Anglican churches initially designed to be pejorative Broad Church is a term referring to Latitudinarian Churchmanship in the Church of England, in particular and Anglicanism, in general The Oxford Movement or Tractarianism was an affiliation of High Church Anglicans, most of whom were members of the University of Oxford, who sought The Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion were established in 1563 and are the historic defining statements of Anglican doctrine in relation to the controversies of the The Anglican Homilies (1547 1562 and 1571 are two books of thirty-three sermons developing the Reformed doctrines of the Anglican Communion in greater depth and detail than Anglican doctrine (also called Episcopalian doctrine in some countries is the body of Christian teachings used to guide the religious and moral practices of Anglicans See also Holy Orders The Anglican ministry is both the leadership and agency of Christian service in the Anglican Communion. In keeping with its prevailing self-identity as a Via media or "middle path" of Western Christianity, Anglican sacramental theology expresses Henry VIII (28 June 1491 &ndash 28 January 1547 was King of England and Lord of Ireland, later King of Ireland and claimant to the Kingdom of England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and
These events were part of a wider process, the European Protestant Reformation, a religious and political movement which affected the practice of Christianity across the whole of Europe during this period. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Many factors contributed to the ferment: the decline of feudalism and the rise of nationalism, the rise of the common law, the invention of the printing press and increased circulation of the Bible texts, the transmission of new knowledge and ideas not only amongst scholars but amongst merchants and artisans also; but the story of why and how the different states of Europe adhered to different forms of Protestantism, or remained faithful to Rome or allowed different regions within states to come to different conclusions (as they did) is specific to each state and the causes are not agreed. Feudalism, a term first used in the early modern period (17th century in its most classic sense refers to a Medieval Europe Political system composed The term nationalism can refer to an Ideology, a sentiment, a form of Culture, or a Social movement that focuses on the Nation Common law refers to law and the corresponding legal system developed through decisions of courts and similar tribunals rather than through legislative statutes or executive A printing press is a mechanical device for applying pressure to an inked surface resting upon a medium (such as paper or cloth thereby transferring an image Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. Vatican City, officially the State of the Vatican City (Stato della Città del Vaticano is a Landlocked sovereign City-state whose territory
The English Reformation began as another chapter in the long running dispute with the Catholic Church over the latter's claimed jurisdiction over the English people, though ostensibly based on Henry VIII's desire for an annulment. Henry VIII (28 June 1491 &ndash 28 January 1547 was King of England and Lord of Ireland, later King of Ireland and claimant to the Kingdom of It was, at the outset, more of a political than a theological dispute, but the reality of political differences between Rome and England nonetheless allowed growing theological disputes to come to the fore. [1] The split from Rome made the English monarch head of the English church by "Royal Supremacy", thereby making the Church of England the established church of the nation. The Kings of Wessex, who conquered Kent and Sussex from Mercia in 825 became increasingly dominant over the other kingdoms of England during The first Act of Supremacy granted King Henry VIII of England Royal Supremacy which is still the legal authority of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican The structure and theology of the church was a matter of fierce dispute for generations. It led eventually to civil war, from which the emergent church polity at the end was that of an established church and a number of non-conformist churches whose members at first suffered various civil disabilities, which were removed only over time. The Glorious Revolution, also called the Revolution of 1688, was the overthrow of King James II of England (VII of Scotland in 1688 by a union Catholicism emerged from its underground existence only in the nineteenth century. The Catholic Church in England and Wales is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, the Christian Church in full communion with the Bishop of Rome,
Different opinions have been advanced as to why England adopted a reformed faith, unlike France for instance. Some have advanced the view that there was an inevitability about the triumph of the forces of new knowledge and a new sense of autonomy set over-against superstition and corruption;[2] others that it was a matter of chance: Henry VIII died at the wrong time; Mary had no child;[3] reform did not inevitably mean leaving the Roman Communion[4] for others it was about the power of ideas which required only moderate assistance for people to see old certainties as uncertain;[5] others have written that it was about the power of the state over vibrant, flourishing popular religion;[6] it was a 'cultural revolution'. [7] Some, on the contrary, have argued that, for most ordinary people there was a continuity across the divide, which was as significant as any changes. [8] The recent revival of scholarly interest may indicate that the argument is not yet over.
Contents |
Background
Henry VIII ascended the English throne in 1509 at the age of 17. He made a dynastic marriage with Catherine of Aragon, widow of his brother Arthur, in June 1509, just before his coronation on Midsummers Day. Catherine of Aragon (16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536 also known as Catharine, Katherine or Katharine ( Castilian Infanta Catalina Unlike his father, who was secretive and conservative, the young Henry appeared to be the epitome of chivalry and sociability, seeking out the company of young men like himself; an observant Catholic, he heard up to five masses a day (apart from in the hunting season); of 'powerful but unoriginal mind', he allowed himself to be influenced by his advisors from whom, neither by night or day, was he apart; he was thus susceptible to whoever had his ear. The Mass is the Eucharistic celebration in the Latin liturgical rites of the Roman Catholic Church. [9] Between his young contemporaries and the Lord Chancellor, Cardinal Wolsey, there was thus a state of hostility. So long as Wolsey had his ear, Henry's Catholicism was secure: in 1521 he had defended the Catholic Church from Martin Luther's accusations of heresy in a book he wrote, probably with considerable help from Thomas More, entitled The Defence of the Seven Sacraments, for which he was awarded the title "Defender of the Faith" (Fidei Defensor) by Pope Leo X. Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Sir Thomas More (7 February 1478 – 6 July 1535 from 1935 Saint Thomas More, was an English Lawyer, author and statesman who in his lifetime gained The Defence of the Seven Sacraments (in Latin, Assertio Septem Sacramentorum) is a book written by King Henry VIII of England in "Defender of the Faith" redirects here For the 1984 platinum album of British heavy metal group Judas Priest, see Defenders of the Faith History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and Pope Leo X, born Giovanni de' Medici (December 11 1475 – December 1 1521 was Pope from 1513 to his death However, Wolsey's enemies at court included those who had been influenced by Lutheran ideas[10] among whom was the attractive Anne Boleyn. Anne Boleyn (1501 or 1507 – 19 May 1536 was the Queen of England as the second wife of Henry VIII of England.
Anne arrived at court in 1522, from years in Europe, as maid-of-honour to Queen Catherine, a woman of 'charm, style and wit, and will and savagery which make her a match for Henry'. Catherine of Aragon (16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536 also known as Catharine, Katherine or Katharine ( Castilian Infanta Catalina [11] By the late 1520s, Henry wanted to have his marriage to Catherine annulled. In the Roman Catholic Church, annulment is a canonical procedure according to the Church's Canon Law whereby an ecclesial tribunal judges whether the bond of She had not produced a male heir who survived into adulthood and Henry wanted a son to secure the Tudor dynasty. The Tudor dynasty or House of Tudor was an English royal Dynasty that lasted 118 years from 1485 to 1603 a period known as the Tudor period Before Henry's father Henry VII ascended the throne, England had been beset by civil warfare over rival claims to the English crown and Henry wanted to avoid a similar uncertainty over the succession. The Wars of the Roses (1455–1485 were a series of dynastic Civil wars fought in England between supporters of the Houses of Lancaster and York [12] Catherine's only surviving child was Princess Mary. Mary I (18 February 1516 &ndash 17 November 1558 was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death
Henry claimed that this lack of a male heir was because his marriage was "blighted in the eyes of God". [13] Catherine had been his late brother's wife, and it was therefore against biblical teachings for Henry to have married her (Leviticus 20:21);[14] a special dispensation from Pope Julius II had been needed to allow the wedding in the first place. Arthur Tudor (19 or 20 September 1486 - 2 April 1502 was the first son of King Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York, and therefore heir to the throne Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin Leviticus (from Greek Λευιτικός, "relating to the Levites " Pope Julius II (5 December 1443 &ndash 21 February 1513 born Giuliano Della Rovere, was Pope from 1503 to 1513 [15] Henry argued that this had been wrong and that his marriage had never been valid. In 1527 Henry asked Pope Clement VII to annul the marriage, but the Pope refused. For the Antipope (1378&ndash1394 see Antipope Clement VII. Pope Clement VII ( May 26, 1478 &ndash September Annulment in the Catholic Church See also Annulment (Catholic Church In the Roman Catholic Church, a marriage is considered to be a valid contract According to Canon Law the Pope cannot annul a marriage on the basis of a canonical impediment previously dispensed. Canon Law, the Ecclesiastical law of the Catholic Church, is a fully developed legal system with all the necessary elements courts lawyers judges a fully articulated In the Canon Law of the Catholic Church, a canonical impediment is a legal obstacle that prevents a sacrament from being performed validly and/or licitly In the Canon Law of the Roman Catholic Church, a dispensation is the suspension by competent authority of general rules of law in particular cases Clement also feared the wrath of Catherine's nephew, Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, whose troops earlier that year had sacked Rome and briefly taken the Pope prisoner. The Holy Roman Emperor (Römischer Kaiser or Römisch-Deutscher Kaiser Romanorum Imperator was the elected monarch ruling over the many varying numbers of states Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was [16]
The combination of his 'scruple of conscience' and his captivation by Anne Boleyn made his desire to rid himself of his Queen compelling. [17] The indictment of his chancellor Cardinal Wolsey for praemunire in 1529 (and subsequent death on his way to London to answer a charge of high treason in November 1530),[18] left Henry open to the opposing influences of the supporters of the Queen and those who countenanced the abandonment of the Roman allegiance, for whom an annulment was but an opportunity. Thomas Cardinal Wolsey (c1470–1471 – November 28 or November 29 1530 who was born in Ipswich Suffolk England was an English Statesman and a cardinal Praemunire (an error from Latin præmonere to pre-admonish or forewarn was an offence in English law that took its name from the introductory words of the The Parliament summoned in 1529 to deal with annulment brought together those who wanted reform but who disagreed what form it should take; it became known as the Reformation Parliament. This article is a List of Parliaments of England Devolved English Parliament is about the debate on a devolved parliament for England The English Reformation Parliament was so-called because it was the Parliament, commencing in 1529 that passed and enabled the major pieces of Legislation leading There were Common lawyers who resented the privileges of the clergy to summon laity to their courts;[19] there were those who had been influenced by Lutheran evangelicalism and were hostile to the theology of Rome: Thomas Cromwell was both. Thomas Cromwell 1st Earl of Essex (c 1485 &ndash 28 July 1540) was an English statesman who served as King Henry VIII 's chief minister There were those, like Foxe and Stokesey, who argued for the Royal Supremacy over the English Church. Henry's Chancellor, Thomas More, successor to Wolsey, also wanted reform: he wanted new laws against heresy. Sir Thomas More (7 February 1478 – 6 July 1535 from 1935 Saint Thomas More, was an English Lawyer, author and statesman who in his lifetime gained [20]
01.jpg/180px-Cromwell,Thomas(1EEssex)01.jpg)
Cromwell was a lawyer and a Member of Parliament, an evangelical who saw how Parliament could be used to advance the Royal Supremacy, which Henry wanted, and to further evangelical beliefs and practices which both he and his friends wanted. [21] One of his closest friends was Thomas Cranmer, soon to be Archbishop.
In the matter of the annulment, no progress seemed possible: the Pope seemed more afraid of Emperor Charles V than of Henry. Anne and Cromwell and their allies wished simply to ignore the Pope; but in October 1530 a meeting of clergy and lawyers advised that Parliament could not empower the archbishop to act against the Pope's prohibition. Henry thus resolved to bully the priests. [22] Having brought down Cardinal Wolsey, his Chancellor, he finally resolved to charge the whole English clergy with praemunire in order to secure their agreement to his annulment. Praemunire, which forbade obedience to the authority of foreign rulers had been around since the 1392 Statute of Praemunire, and had been used against individuals in the ordinary course of court proceedings. Now Henry, having first charged the Queen's supporters, Bishops John Fisher, John Clerk, Nicholas West and Henry Standish and archdeacon of Exeter Adam Travers, then decided to proceed against the whole clergy. A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight John Cardinal Fisher (c1469 &ndash 22 June, 1535) from 1935 Saint John Fisher, was an English Catholic bishop cardinal and Nicholas West (1461 &ndash 28 April 1533) English Bishop and Diplomatist was born at Putney, and educated at Eton Henry Standish (c1475-1535 was an English Franciscan, who became Bishop of St A position of archdeacon is a senior position in Anglicanism, Syrian Malabar Nasrani, and in some other Christian denominations above that of most Exeter ( (IPA ˈeksɪtər is a city, district and County town of Devon, England. [23] Henry claimed £100,000 from the Convocation of Canterbury of the Church of England for their pardon, which was granted by the Convocation on 24 January 1531. The Convocation of the English Clergy is a Synodical assembly of the Church of England consisting of bishops and clergy The Province of Canterbury, also called the Southern Province, is one of two Ecclesiastical provinces making up the Church of England. The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican Events 41 - Gaius Caesar (Caligula, known for his eccentricity and cruel Despotism, is Assassinated by his disgruntled The clergy wanted the payment to be spread over five years; Henry refused. The Convocation responded by withdrawing their payment altogether and demanded Henry fulfil certain guarantees before they agreed to give him the money. Henry refused these conditions and agreed only to the five-year period of payment and then added five articles to the payment which Henry wanted the Convocation to accept. These were:
- That the clergy recognise Henry as the 'sole protector and Supreme Head of the Church and clergy of England'[24]
- That the King had spiritual jurisdiction
- That the privileges of the Church were upheld only if they did not detract from the royal prerogative and the laws of the realm
- That the King pardoned the clergy for violating the statute of praemunire, and
- That the laity were also pardoned. In Law, jurisdiction (from the Latin ius iuris meaning "law" and dicere meaning "to speak" is the practical Authority The Royal Prerogative is a body of customary authority privilege and immunity recognised in Common law and sometimes in Civil law jurisdictions possessing a monarchy A pardon is the forgiveness of a crime and the penalty associated with it In religious organizations the laity comprises all persons who are not Clergy.
In Parliament, Bishop John Fisher was Catherine's and the clergy's champion; he had inserted into the first article, the phrase 'as far as the word of God allows'. John Cardinal Fisher (c1469 &ndash 22 June, 1535) from 1935 Saint John Fisher, was an English Catholic bishop cardinal and [25] In Convocation, however, Archbishop Warham requested a discussion but was met by a stunned silence; then Warham said: 'He who is silent seems to consent' to which a clergyman present responded: 'Then we are all silent. William Warham (c 1450 &ndash August 22 1532) Archbishop of Canterbury, belonged to a Hampshire family and was educated at Winchester ' The Convocation granted consent to the King's five articles and the payment on 8 March 1531. Events 1618 - Johannes Kepler discovers the third law of planetary motion. That same year Parliament passed the Act of Pardon.
The breaking of the power of Rome proceeded little by little. In 1532, Cromwell brought before Parliament the Supplication Against the Ordinaries which listed nine grievances against the Church, including abuses of power and Convocation's independent legislative power. The Supplication against the Ordinaries was a petition passed by the House of Commons in 1532. Finally, on 10 May, the King demanded of Convocation that the Church should renounce all authority to make laws and, on 15 May, the Submission of the Clergy was subscribed, which recognised Royal Supremacy over the church so that it could no longer make canon law without royal licence, i. The Submission of the Clergy was a process by which the Church of England gave up their power to formulate church laws without the King 's licence and assent The first Act of Supremacy granted King Henry VIII of England Royal Supremacy which is still the legal authority of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom Canon law is internal ecclesiastical law governing the Roman Catholic Church, the Eastern Orthodox churches and the Anglican Communion of churches e. without the permission of the King; thus completely emasculating it as a law-making body. (This would subsequently be passed by the Parliament in 1534 and again in 1536. ) The day after this More resigned as Chancellor, leaving Cromwell as Henry's chief minister. (Cromwell never became Chancellor; his power came - and was lost - through his informal relations with Henry. )
Thereafter there followed a series of Acts of Parliament. The Act in Conditional Restraint of Annates which proposed that the clergy should pay no more than 5% of their first year's revenue (annates) to Rome proved at first controversial, and required Henry's presence in the House of Lords three times and the browbeating of the Commons. [26] The Act in Restraint of Appeals which was drafted by Cromwell, apart from outlawing appeals to Rome on ecclesiastical matters, declared that 'this realm of England is an Empire, and so hath been accepted in the world, governed by one Supreme Head and King having the dignity and royal estate of the Imperial Crown of the same, unto whom a body politic compact of all sorts and degrees of people divided in terms and by names of Spirituality and Temporalty, be bounden and owe to bear next to God a natural and humble obedience. The Statute in Restraint of Appeals – Short title Ecclesiastical Appeals Act 1532 – (citation 24 Henry VIII ',[27] thus declaring England an independent country in every respect. Geoffrey Elton has called this Act an "essential ingredient" of the "Tudor revolution" in that it expounded a theory of national sovereignty. Sir Geoffrey Rudolph Elton ( 17 August 1921 &ndash 3 December 1994) was a British Historian of the Tudor period. Sovereignty is the exclusive Right to control a Government, a country, a people or oneself [28] The Act in Absolute Restraint of Annates outlawed all annates to Rome, and also ordered that if cathedrals refused the King's nomination for bishop, they would be liable to punishment by praemunire. The Act Concerning Ecclesiastical Appointments and Absolute Restraint of Annates – Short title Appointment Of Bishops Act 1533 ( 25 Henry VIII c This article is about the history and organisation of the cathedral Finally in 1534 the Act of Supremacy made Henry "supreme head in earth of the Church of England" and disregarded any "usage, custom, foreign laws, foreign authority [or] prescription". The first Act of Supremacy granted King Henry VIII of England Royal Supremacy which is still the legal authority of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom In Law, custom can be described as the established patterns of behavior that can be objectively verified within a particular social setting [29]
Meanwhile, having taken Anne to France on a pre-nuptial honeymoon, Henry was married to her in Westminster Abbey in January 1533. This was made easier by the death of Archbishop Warham, a stalwart opponent of an annulment, after which Henry appointed Thomas Cranmer as his successor as Archbishop of Canterbury; Cranmer was prepared to grant the annulment[30] of the marriage to Catherine as Henry required. The Archbishop of Canterbury is the chief bishop and principal leader of the Church of England, the symbolic head of the worldwide Anglican Communion and the Anne gave birth to a daughter, Princess Elizabeth, three months after the marriage. The Pope responded to the marriage by excommunicating both Henry and Cranmer from the Roman Catholic Church. Excommunication is a religious Censure used to deprive or suspend membership in a religious community
Consequently in the same year the Act of First Fruits and Tenths transferred the taxes on ecclesiastical income from the Pope to the Crown. The Peter's Pence Act outlawed the annual payment by landowners of one penny to the Pope. The Act Concerning Peter's Pence and Dispensations – Short title Ecclesiastical Licences Act 1533 – ( 25 Henry VIII c Peter's Pence is the practice of lay members of the Roman Catholic Church providing financial support to the Holy See. This Act also reiterated that England had "no superior under God, but only your Grace" and that Henry's "imperial crown" had been diminished by "the unreasonable and uncharitable usurpations and exactions" of the Pope. His Grace or Her Grace was the style used to address the King or Queen of Scotland up to the Act of Union of [31]
In case any of this should be resisted Parliament passed the Treasons Act 1534 which made it high treason punishable by death to deny Royal Supremacy. Treasons Act 1534 (citation 26 Henry VIII c 13) was an Act passed by the English Parliament during the reign of King Henry VIII of England See also Treason, High treason in the United Kingdom High treason is criminal disloyalty to one's country Capital punishment, the death penalty or execution, is the Killing of a person by judicial process as Punishment. Finally in 1536 Parliament passed the Act against the Pope's Authority which removed the last part of papal authority still legal; this was Rome's power in England to decide disputes concerning Scripture. An Act extinguishing the authority of the bishop of Rome ( 28 Henry VIII c
Theological radicalism
The break with Rome was not, by itself, a Reformation. [1] That was to come from the dissemination of ideas. The views of Martin Luther the German reformer and his school were widely known and disputed in England. Martin Luther (November 10 1483 February 18 1546 was a German Monk, theologian, university professor Father of Protestantism, and church reformer [32] Theological radicalism had always been around. In England its major manifestation was Lollardy, a movement deriving from the writings of John Wycliffe, the fourteenth century Bible translator, which stressed the primacy of Scripture. Lollardy was the political and religious movement of the Lollards from the mid- 14th century to the English Reformation. John Wycliffe (ˈwɪklɪf also spelled Wyclif, Wycliff, Wiclef, Wicliffe, or Wickliffe) (mid-1320s – 31 December But, after the execution of Sir John Oldcastle, leader of the Lollard rebellion of 1415, they never again had access to the levers of power and by the fifteenth century were much reduced in numbers and influence. Sir John Oldcastle (d December 14, 1417) English Lollard leader was son of Sir Richard Oldcastle of Almeley in northwest There were still many Lollards about, especially in London and the Thames Valley, in Essex and Kent, Coventry, Bristol and even in the north, who would be receptive to the new ideas when they came,[33] who looked for a reform in the lifestyle of the clergy; who held the Word to be the more necessary sacrament, the Eucharist but a memorial: but they were not party to the actions of the government. [34] Other ideas, critical of the papal supremacy were held, not only by Lollards, but by those who wished to assert the supremacy of the secular state as against the church[35] but also by conciliarists such as Thomas More and, initially, Cranmer. Other Catholic reformists, like John Colet, Dean of St Paul's, warned that heretics were not nearly so great a danger to the faith as the wicked and indolent lives of the clergy. John Colet (January 1467 &ndash 10 September 1519) was an English churchman and Educational pioneer
The impact of Luther's thinking was of a different order. See also Anglicanism The Anglican Communion is an international association of national Anglican churches The Catholic Church in England and Wales is part of the worldwide Catholic Church, the Christian Church in full communion with the Bishop of Rome, The Church of England commemorates many of the same Saints as those in the Roman Catholic calendar of saints, mostly on the same days but also commemorates various Scotland is traditionally a Christian nation with around 65% claiming to be Christian at the 2001 census. Celtic Christianity, or Insular Christianity (sometimes called the Celtic Church or the British Church) broadly refers to the Early Medieval Irish and Scottish missionaries (Iro-Scottish Hiberno-Scottish were instrumental in the spread of Christianity in Anglo-Saxon England and the Wales is traditionally a Christian country with around 70% claiming to be Christian Joseph of Arimathea was according to the Gospels, the man who donated his own prepared tomb for the burial of Jesus after Jesus' Crucifixion Glastonbury is a small town in Somerset, England, situated at a Dry point on the Somerset Levels, south of Bristol. Roman Britain refers to those parts of the island of Great Britain controlled by the Roman Empire between AD 43 and 410 The history of Ireland begins with the first known settlement in Ireland around 8000 BC when Hunter-gatherers arrived from Great Britain and continental Celtic Christianity, or Insular Christianity (sometimes called the Celtic Church or the British Church) broadly refers to the Early Medieval The term " Celtic Rite " is generally but rather indefinitely applied to the various rites used in Great Britain, Ireland, perhaps in Brittany Traditional story Ninian is first mentioned by Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People (book III chapter 4 Saint Brendan of Clonfert or Bréanainn of Clonfert (c 484 &ndash c WikipediaPersondata --> See Columba (disambiguation and St Columb for other uses Not to be confused with St Columba, also Irish and partly his contemporary St Finnian or St Uinniau of Moville (495 - 589 was a Christian Missionary who became a legendary figure in medieval Ireland. Saint Patrick (Patricius Irish: Naomh Pádraig) was a Roman Britain -born Christian Missionary and is the Patron saint Blessed Margaret Ball (1515 &ndash 1584 was born Margaret Birmingham near Skryne in County Meath, and died of deprivation in the dungeons of Dublin Saint Charles of Mount Argus was a well known Passionist priest in 19th century Ireland. Traditional story Ninian is first mentioned by Bede, in his Ecclesiastical History of the English People (book III chapter 4 Saint David ( c. 500–589 ('Dewi Sant' was a church official later regarded as a Saint and as the Patron saint of Wales. Saint Dubricius (also known in his native Welsh as Dyfrig and in corrupt Norman-French as Devereux) (c Saint Teilo (also Eliud) was a leader of the Celtic Christian church in Wales during the 6th century The history of Christianity in England from the Roman departure to the Norman Conquest is often told as one of conflict between the Celtic Christianity The Wars of the Three Kingdoms (sometimes known as the Wars of the Three Nations) formed an intertwined series of conflicts that took place in Scotland, The Dissolution of the Monasteries, sometimes referred to as the Suppression of the Monasteries, was the formal process between 1536 and 1541 by which Henry VIII disbanded Christianity in Medieval Scotland pertains to the Christian Religion in Scotland in the Middle Ages. Parts of the Bible were translated into Welsh before the 15th century but the first complete translation was the manuscript of Celydd Sfan and while no exact date William Salesbury also Salusbury (c 1520 - c 1584 was the leading Welsh scholar of the Renaissance and the principal translator of the 1567 Welsh The Scottish Reformation was Scotland 's formal break with the Roman Catholic Church in 1560 and the events surrounding this George Wishart (c 1513 &ndash 1 March 1546) was a Scottish religious reformer and Protestant Martyr. John Knox (c 1510 – 24 November 1572 was a Scottish clergyman and leader of the Protestant Reformation who is considered the founder of the Presbyterian Jenny Geddes (c 1600 &ndash c 1660 was a Scottish market-trader in Edinburgh, who is alleged to have thrown her stool at the head of the minister in The Book of Common Order is the name of several directories for public worship William Morgan (1545 &ndash September 10, 1604) was Bishop of Llandaff and of St Asaph, and the translator of the first version of the whole This article is an expansion of a section entitled '''History''' from within the main article Church of England The history The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. This article is an expansion of a section entitled '''History''' from within the main article Church of England The history This article is an expansion of a section entitled '''History''' from within the main article Church of England The history Catholic Emancipation (Fuascailt na gCaitliceach or Catholic Relief, was a process in Great Britain and Ireland in the late 18th century and early 19th This article is an expansion of a section entitled '''History''' from within the main article Church of England The history Plantations in 16th and 17th century Ireland were established throughout the country by the confiscation of lands occupied by Gaelic clans and Hiberno-Norman dynasties Catholic Emancipation (Fuascailt na gCaitliceach or Catholic Relief, was a process in Great Britain and Ireland in the late 18th century and early 19th The Irish Church Disestablishment Act 1869 is an Act of the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed during William Gladstone 's administration Scotland is traditionally a Christian nation with around 65% claiming to be Christian at the 2001 census. The Welsh Methodist revival of the 18th century was one of the most significant religious and social movements in the history of Wales. The Welsh Revival (1904–1905 was the largest full scale Christian Revival of Wales of the 20th century. The Church in Wales (Yr Eglwys yng Nghymru is a member Church of the Anglican Communion, consisting of six Dioceses in Wales. The main plank of his thinking, 'justification by faith' alone rather than by good works, threatened the whole basis of the Catholic penitential system with its endowed masses and prayers for the dead as well as its doctrine of purgatory. See also Intermediate state Limbo|Heaven|Sheol|Hades in Christianity|Hell in Christianity Purgatory, in the original sense is the condition or process of purification Neither pious acts, nor prayers nor masses, on this view, can secure the grace of God; only faith. Moreover, printing, which had become widespread at the end of the previous century, meant that vernacular Bibles could be produced in quantity; a further English translation, by William Tyndale was banned but it was impossible to prevent copies from being smuggled and widely read; the Church could no longer effectively dictate its interpretation. Tyndale redirects here For the English family see Tyndall. For other uses see Tyndale (disambiguation. A group in Cambridge, which met at the White Horse tavern from the mid 1520s, and became known as "Little Germany" soon became influential: its members included Robert Barnes, Hugh Latimer, John Frith and Thomas Bilney, all eventually to be burned as heretics; but not Thomas Cranmer, then a cautious and critical student of Luther's ideas. Little Germany can refer to Little Germany New York, also known as Kleindeutschland, a German neighborhood in New York that was wiped out in the Robert Barnes may refer to Robert Barnes (martyr Bootsie Barnes, real name Robert Barnes jazz musician Robert Barnes (cricketer Latimer's belief in Christ's return Hugh Latimer said "It may come in my days old as I am or in my children's days the saints shall be taken up to meet Christ in the air For the Australian Rugby League player see John Frith (rugby league. Education Bilney was born in or after 1495 at or near Norwich. [36] Cranmer's change of mind, borne partly by his membership of the team negotiating for the annulment, finally came through his stay with Osiander in Nuremberg in 1532 (whose niece he secretly married). [37] Even then the position was complicated by the fact that the Lutherans were not in favour of the annulment. Cranmer (and Henry) felt obliged to seek assistance from Strassburg and Basel, which brought him into contact with the more radical ideas associated with Zwingli. Huldrych (or Ulrich) Zwingli (1 January 1484 &ndash 11 October 1531 was a leader of the Reformation in Switzerland. [38]
Cromwell's programme, assisted by Anne Boleyn's influence over episcopal appointments, was not merely against the clergy and the power of Rome. He persuaded Henry that safety from political alliances that Rome might attempt to bring together lay in negotiations with the German Lutheran princes. [39] There also seemed to be a possibility that Charles V, the Holy Roman Emperor, might act to avenge his rejected aunt (Queen Catherine) and enforce the Pope's excommunication. It never came to anything but it brought to England Lutheran ideas: three sacraments only - baptism, eucharist and penance - which Henry was prepared to countenance in order to keep open the possibility of an alliance. More noticeable, and objectionable to many, were the Injunctions, first of 1536 and then 1538. The programme began with the abolition of many feastdays, 'the occasion of vice and idleness' which, particularly at harvest time, had an immediate effect on village life. [40] The offerings to images were discouraged, as were pilgrimages - these injunctions took place while monasteries were being dissolved. In some places images were burned on the grounds that they were objects of superstitious devotion, candles lit before images were prohibited, Bibles in both English and Latin were to be bought. [41] Thus did the Reformation begin to affect the towns and villages of England and, in many places, they did not like it. [42]
Dissolution of the Monasteries
In 1534, Cromwell initiated a Visitation of the Monasteries ostensibly to examine their character, in fact, to value their assets with a view to expropriation. The Dissolution of the Monasteries, sometimes referred to as the Suppression of the Monasteries, was the formal process between 1536 and 1541 by which Henry VIII disbanded The Dissolution of the Monasteries, sometimes referred to as the Suppression of the Monasteries, was the formal process between 1536 and 1541 by which Henry VIII disbanded Suppression of monasteries in order to raise funds was not unknown previously. Cromwell had done the same thing on the instructions of Cardinal Wolsey to raise funds for two proposed colleges at Ipswich and Oxford years before. Now the Visitation allowed for an inventory of what the monasteries possessed and the visiting commissioners claimed to have uncovered sexual immorality and financial impropriety amongst the monks and nuns which became the ostensible justification for their suppression. MONK is a Monte Carlo software package for simulating nuclear processes particularly for the purpose of determining the neutron multiplication factor or k-effective A Nun is a Woman who has taken special vows committing her to a religious life The Church owned between one-fifth and one-third of the land in all England; Cromwell realised that he could bind the gentry and nobility to Royal Supremacy by selling to them the huge amount of Church lands, and that any reversion back to pre-Royal Supremacy would entail upsetting many of the powerful people in the realm. [43] For these various reasons the Dissolution of the Monasteries was begun in 1536 with the smaller houses, those valued at less than £200 a year; the revenue was used by Henry to help build coastal defences (see Device Forts) against expected invasion, and all their land was given to the Crown or sold to the aristocracy. The Dissolution of the Monasteries, sometimes referred to as the Suppression of the Monasteries, was the formal process between 1536 and 1541 by which Henry VIII disbanded The Device Forts are a series of Artillery Fortifications built in England by Henry VIII. Whereas the royal supremacy had raised few eyebrows, the attack on abbeys and priories affected lay people. [44] Mobs attacked those sent to break up monastic buildings; the suppression commissioners were attacked by local people in a number of places. In the North of England there were a series of uprisings by Catholics against the dissolutions in late 1536 and early 1537. Northern England, The North, The North of England or (less commonly The North Country refers to the parts of England north of an ill-defined line In the autumn of 1536 there was a great muster, reckoned to be up to 40,000 in number, at Horncastle in Lincolnshire which was, with difficulty, dispersed by the nervous gentry. They had attempted without success to negotiate with the king by petition. The Pilgrimage of Grace was a more serious matter. The Pilgrimage of Grace was a popular rising in York, Yorkshire during 1536 in protest against England 's break with Rome and Revolt spread through Yorkshire and the rebels gathered at York. Robert Aske, their leader, negotiated the restoration of sixteen of the twenty six northern monasteries, which had actually been dissolved. However, the promises made to them, by the Duke of Norfolk, were ignored on the king's orders; Norfolk was instructed to put the rebellion down. Forty seven of the Lincolnshire rebels were executed and 132 from the northern pilgrimage. [45] Further rebellions took place in Cornwall in early 1537 and in Walsingham in Norfolk which received like treatment.
It took Cromwell four years to complete the process; in 1539 he moved to the dissolution of the larger monasteries which had escaped earlier. Many houses gave up voluntarily, though some sought exemption by payment. When their houses were closed down some monks sought transfer to larger houses; those who were persuaded to leave their orders became, many of them, secular priests. A few, including eighteen Carthusians, refused and were killed to the last man. The Carthusian Order, also called the Order of St Bruno, is a Roman Catholic religious order of enclosed monastics.
Reformation reversed
The abolition of papal authority made way not for orderly change but for dissension and violence; reckless acts of iconoclasm, wanton destruction, disputes within communities which led to violence, and radical challenge to all forms of faith were daily reported to Cromwell, something which he tried to hide from the King. Iconoclasm, Greek for "image-breaking" is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious Icons and other symbols or monuments [46] Once Henry knew what was afoot, he acted. [47] Thus at the end of 1538, a proclamation was issued, among other things, forbidding free discussion of the Sacrament[48] and forbidding clerical marriage, on pain of death. Henry personally presided at the trial of John Lambert in November 1538 for denying the real presence; at the same time, he shared in the drafting of a proclamation giving Anabaptists and sacramentaries ten days to get out of the country. The Real Presence is the term various Christian traditions use to express their belief that in the Eucharist, Jesus Christ is really present in what was In 1539 Parliament passed the Six Articles reaffirming Catholic practices such as transubstantiation, clerical celibacy and the importance of confession to a priest and prescribed penalties if anyone denied them. The Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion were established in 1563 and are the historic defining statements of Anglican doctrine in relation to the controversies of the See also Eucharist (Catholic Church On the related belief that Christ is present in the Eucharist in body blood soul and divinity see Real Presence. Clerical celibacy is the practice in various religious traditions, in which Clergy, Monastics and those (of either sex in religious orders adopt a The confession of one's Sins is a religious practice important to many faiths e A priest or priestess is a person having the authority or power to administer religious rites in particular rites of sacrifice to and propitiation of a deity or deities Henry himself observed the Easter Triduum in that year with some display[49] On June 28, 1540 Cromwell, his long time advisor and loyal servant, was executed. Easter Triduum, Holy Triduum, or Paschal Triduum is a term used by some Christian churches particularly the Roman Catholic Church, the Events 1098 - Fighters of the First Crusade defeat Kerbogha of Mosul. Different reasons were advanced: that Cromwell would not enforce the Act of Six Articles, that he had supported Barnes, Latimer and other heretics, and that he was responsible for Henry's marriage to Anne of Cleves, his fourth wife. Anne of Cleves Queen of England (22 September 1515&ndash16 July 1557 ( German: Anna von Jülich-Kleve-Berg) was the fourth wife of Henry VIII Many other arrests under the Act followed. Cranmer, it is said, lay low. [50]
In the same year Henry began his attack upon the free availability of the Bible. Previously, in 1536, Cromwell had instructed each parish to acquire 'one book of the whole Bible of the largest volume in English' by Easter 1539. This instruction has been largely ignored so a new version the Great Bible largely William Tyndale's English translation of the Hebrew and Greek Scriptures was authorised in August 1537. The Great Bible was the first authorized edition of the Bible in English authorized by King Henry VIII of England to be read aloud in the church services of the Tyndale redirects here For the English family see Tyndall. For other uses see Tyndale (disambiguation. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly But by 1539 Henry announced his desire to have it 'corrected' (which Cranmer referred to the universities to undertake). Many parishes were, in any case, reluctant to set up English bibles; now the mood of conservatism, which expressed itself in the fear that Bible reading led to heresy, allowed those which had been put in place to be removed. [51] By the Act for the Advancement of True Religion 1543, Henry restricted the reading of Bible to men and women of noble birth. The Act for the Advancement of True Religion ( 34 & 35 Henry VIII c He expressed his fears to Parliament in 1545 that 'the Word of God, is disputed, rhymed, sung and jangled in every ale-house and tavern, contrary to the true meaning and doctrine of the same'. (It has nevertheless been claimed that no European people was more profoundly influenced by the vernacular Scriptures than the English. )[52]
By 1546 the conservatives, the Duke of Norfolk, Wriothesly, Gardiner and Tunstall were in the ascendency and were, by the king's will, to be members of the regency council, on his death. But by the time he died in 1547, Edward Seymour, Earl of Hertford, brother of Jane Seymour, Henry's third wife, (and therefore uncle to the future Edward VI) managed, by a number of alliances with influential Protestants such as Lisle, to gain control over the Privy Council and persuaded Henry to change his will and to replace them as his executors by his supporters. Jane Seymour (1508– 24 October 1537) was Queen Consort of England and the third wife of Henry VIII. Lord John Dudley (1501 &ndash 22 August, 1553) was a Tudor general admiral and politician who de facto ruled England in the latter half of King [53]
Edward's Reformation
When Henry died in 1547, his nine year old son, Edward VI, inherited the throne. Edward VI (12 October 1537 &ndash 6 July 1553 became King of England and Ireland on 28 January 1547 and was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine Edward himself was a precocious child, who had been brought up as a Protestant, but was of little account politically. Seymour was made Lord Protector. } Edward Seymour 1st Duke of Somerset (c 1506 &ndash 22nd January 1552 was Lord Protector of England in the period between the death of Henry VIII in He was commissionered as virtual regent with near sovereign powers. Now made Duke of Somerset, he proceeded at first hesitantly, partly because his powers were not unchallenged. The Duke of Somerset is a title in the peerage of England that has been created several times When he acted it was because he saw the political advantage. [54] The 1547 Injunctions against images were a more tightly drawn version of those of 1538 but they were much more fiercely enforced, at first informally, and then, by instruction. All images in churches were to be dismantled; stained glass, shrines, statues were defaced or destroyed; roods and often their lofts and screens were cut down, bells were taken down; vestments were prohibited and either burned or sold; church plate was to be melted down or sold[55] and the requirement of the clergy to be celibate was lifted; processions were banned; ashes and palms were prohibited. For the Blackford Oakes novel see Stained Glass (novel The term stained glass refers either to the material of coloured Glass or to the art A shrine, from the Latin scrinium (‘box’ also used as a desk like the French bureau) was originally a container usually made of precious materials used A statue is a Sculpture in the round representing a person or persons an animal or an event normally full-length as opposed to a bust, and at least close to life-size ROOD jong in de SP ( Dutch for RED young in the SP) is a Dutch youth wing linked to the Socialist Party. Vestments are liturgical garments and articles associated primarily with the Christian religions especially the Latin Rite and other Roman Catholics Clerical celibacy is the practice in various religious traditions, in which Clergy, Monastics and those (of either sex in religious orders adopt a [56] Chantries, means by which the saying of masses for the dead were endowed, were abolished completely. How well this was received is disputed: A. G. Dickens contends that people had 'ceased to believe in intercessory masses for souls in purgatory';[57] others, such as Eamon Duffy, argue that the demolition of chantry chapels and the removal of images coincided with the activity of royal visitors. [58] The evidence is often ambiguous[59] In 1549 Cranmer introduced a Book of Common Prayer in English. The Book of Common Prayer is the common title of a number of prayer books of the Church of England and used throughout the Anglican Communion. In 1550, stone altars were exchanged for wooden communion tables, a very public break with the past, as it changed the look and focus of church interiors. [60]
Less visible, but still influential, was the new ordinal which provided for Protestant pastors rather than Catholic priests, an admittedly conservative adaptation of Bucer's draft;[61] its Preface explicitly mentions the historic succession but, it has been described as 'another case of Cranmer's opportunist adoption of mediaeval forms for new purposes'. [62] In 1551, the episcopate was remodelled by the appointment of Protestants to the bench. This removed the obstacle to change which was the refusal of some bishops to enforce the regulations.
Henceforth, the Reformation proceeded apace. In 1552 the prayer book, which the conservative Bishop Stephen Gardiner had approved from his prison cell as being "patient of a Catholic interpretation", was replaced by a second much more radical prayer book which altered the shape of the service, so as to remove any sense of sacrifice. For the British architect see Stephen Gardiner (architect. Stephen Gardiner (c Edward's Parliament also repealed his father's Six Articles.
The enforcement of the new liturgy did not always take place without a fight. Conformity was the order of the day, but in East Anglia and in Devon there were rebellions,[63] as also in Cornwall, to which many parishes sent their young men; they were brutally put down. The Prayer Book Rebellion, Western Rising or Western Rebellion was a popular revolt in Cornwall and Devon, in 1549 In other places the causes of the rebellions were less easy to pin down[64] but by July throughout southern England, there was 'quavering quiet' which burst out into 'stirs' in many places, the worst of which was the so-called Kett's Rebellion in Norwich. And apart from these more spectacular pieces of resistance, in some places chantry priests continued to say prayers and landowners to pay them to do so; opposition to the removal of images was widespread. (So much so that when during the Commonwealth, William Dowsing (1596-1679) was commissioned to the task of image breaking in Suffolk, his task, as he records it, was enormous. William Dowsing (1596 - 1668 was an English iconoclast who operated at the time of the English Civil War. )[65] In Kent and the south east, compliance was mostly willing and for many, the sale of vestments and plate was an opportunity to make money (but it was also true that in London and Kent Reformation ideas had permeated more deeply into popular thinking). The effect of the resistance was to topple Somerset, as Lord Protector so that in 1549 it was feared by some that the Reformation would cease. The prayer book was the tipping point. But Lisle, now made Earl of Warwick, was made Lord President of the Privy Council and, ever the opportunist (he was to die a public Catholic), saw the further implementation of the reforming policy as a means of defeating his rivals. [66]
Outwardly, the destruction and removals for sale had changed the church forever. In fact, many churches had concealed their vestments and their silver,[67] and had buried their stone altars and there were many disputes between the government and parishes over church property. Thus, when Edward died in July 1553 and the Duke of Northumberland attempted to have the Protestant Lady Jane Grey made Queen, the unpopularity of the confiscations gave Mary the opportunity to have herself proclaimed Queen, first in Suffolk, and then in London to the acclamation of the crowds. Lady Jane Grey (1536/1537&ndash 12 February 1554) also referred to as Queen Jane, a greatniece of Henry VIII of England, was a claimant
Catholic Restoration
From 1553, under the reign of Henry's Roman Catholic daughter, Mary I, the Reformation legislation was repealed and Mary sought to achieve the reunion with Rome. Mary I (18 February 1516 &ndash 17 November 1558 was Queen of England and Queen of Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death Her first Act of Parliament was to retroactively validate Henry's marriage to her mother and so legitimise her claim to the throne. Achieving her objective was however, not straightforward. The Pope was only prepared to accept reunion when church property disputes had been settled, which, in practice, meant allowing those who had bought former church property to keep it. 'Only when English landowners had secured their claims did Julius III's representative arrive in November 1554 to reconcile the realm'. [68] Thus did Cardinal Pole arrive to become Archbishop of Canterbury in Cranmer's place. Mary could have had Cranmer, imprisoned as he was, tried and executed for treason - he had supported the claims of Lady Jane Grey - but she had resolved to have him tried for heresy. His recantations of his Protestantism would have been a major coup for her. Unhappily for her, he unexpectedly withdrew his recantations at the last minute as he was to be burned at the stake, thus ruining her government's propaganda victory.
If Mary was to secure England for Catholicism, she needed an heir. On the advice of the Holy Roman Emperor she married his son, Phillip II of Spain; she needed to prevent her Protestant half-sister Elizabeth from inheriting the Crown and thus returning England to Protestantism. Charles V (24 February 1500 &ndash 21 September 1558 was Philip II (Felipe II de España Filipe I ( May 21, 1527 &ndash September 13 1598) was King of Spain from 1556 until 1598 There was opposition, and even a rebellion in Kent (led by Sir Thomas Wyatt); even though it was provided that Phillip would never inherit the kingdom if there was no heir, received no estates and had no coronation. Wyatt's Rebellion was a popular uprising in England in 1554 named for Thomas Wyatt the younger, one of its leaders [69] He was there to provide an heir. But she never became pregnant; her apparent pregnancy was, in fact, the beginnings of stomach cancer. Ironically, another blow fell. Pope Julius died and his successor, Paul IV declared war on Phillip and recalled Pole to Rome to have him tried as a heretic. Mary refused to let him go. The support which she might have expected from a grateful Pope was thus denied her.
After 1555, the initial reconciling tone of the regime began to harden. The medieval heresy laws were restored. The so-called Marian Persecutions of Protestants ensued and 283 Protestants were burnt at the stake for heresy. The Marian Persecutions refers to the persecutions of Religious Reformers Protestants and other Dissenters for their beliefs during the reign of Mary I of England Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief This resulted in the Queen becoming known as 'Bloody Mary', due to the influence of John Foxe, one of the Protestants who fled Marian England. John Foxe (1517 &ndash April 18, 1587) martyrologist is remembered as the author of what is popularly known as Foxe's Book of Martyrs The name Marian Exiles is given to English Calvinist Protestants who fled to the continent during the reign of Mary I. Foxe's Book of Martyrs recorded the executions in such detail that it became Mary's epitaph; Convocation subsequently ordered that Foxe's book should be placed in every cathedral in the land. The Book of Martyrs, by John Foxe, is an Apocalyptically oriented English Protestant account of the Persecutions of The Convocation of the English Clergy is a Synodical assembly of the Church of England consisting of bishops and clergy In fact, while those who were executed after the revolts of 1536, and the St. David's Down rebellion of 1549, and the unknown number of monks who died for refusing to submit, may not have been tried for heresy, they certainly exceeded that number by some amount. Even so, the heroism of some of the martyrs was an example to those who witnessed them, so that in some places it was the burnings that set people against the regime. [70]
There was a slow consolidation in Catholic strength in her latter years. The reconciled Catholic, Edmund Bonner, Bishop of London, produced a catechism and a collection of homilies; the printing press was widely put into use in the production of primers and other devotional materials; recruitment to the English clergy began to rise after almost a decade; repairs to churches long neglected were put in hand. Edmund Bonner (also Edmund Boner) (c 1500 &ndash September 5, 1569) Bishop of London, was an English Bishop. In the parishes 'restoration and repair continued, new bells were bought, and churches' ales produced their bucolic profits'. [71] Commissioners visited to ensure that altars were restored, roods rebuilt and vestments and plate purchased. Moreover, Pole was determined to do more than remake the past. His insistence was on scripture, teaching and education and on improving the moral standards of the clergy. It is difficult to determine how far Catholic devotion, with its belief in the saints and in purgatory, had even been broken; certainties, especially those which drew upon men's purses, had been shaken - benefactions to the church did not return significantly; trust in clergy who had been prepared to change their minds and were now willing to leave their new wives - as they were required to do - was bound to have weakened. Few monasteries were reinstated; nor were chantries and gilds in any number. It has been said that parish religion was marked by 'religious and cultural sterility,[72] though some have observed enthusiasm, marred only by the poor harvests which produced poverty and want. [73] What was needed was time. Thus, such was the mood that Protestants secretly ministering to underground congregations, such as Thomas Bentham, were planning for a long haul, a ministry of survival. Thomas Bentham (1513-1578 Bishop of Coventry was a Protestant minister one of the Marian exiles, who continued secretly ministering to an underground congregation in London [74] Mary's death in December 1558, childless and without her having made provision for a Catholic to succeed her, undid that consolidation.
Elizabethan Settlement
When Mary died childless in 1558, Elizabeth inherited the throne. The Elizabethan Religious Settlement was Elizabeth I ’s response to the religious divisions created over the reigns of Henry VIII, Edward VI and Mary One of the most important concerns during Elizabeth’s early reign was religion. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Communion with the Roman Catholic Church had been reinstated under Mary, but was again severed by Elizabeth. She relied primarily on her chief advisors, Sir William Cecil, as her Secretary of State, and Sir Nicholas Bacon, as the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal, for direction on the matter. Secretary of State is a commonly used title for a Government Official. Nicholas Bacon may refer to Nicholas Bacon (courtier, (1510 – 1579 English politician during the reign of Queen Elizabeth I Lord Keeper of the Great Seal The Lord Keeper of the Great Seal of England, and later of Great Britain, was formerly an officer of the English Crown charged with physical custody of the Great
Parliament was summoned in 1559 to consider the Reformation Bill and to create a new church. The Parliament of England was the Legislature of the Kingdom of England. The Reformation Bill defined the Communion as a consubstantial celebration as opposed to a transubstantial celebration, included abuse of the pope in the litany, and ordered that ministers should not wear the surplice or other Catholic vestments. The Mass is the Eucharistic celebration in the Latin liturgical rites of the Roman Catholic Church. Homoousian (from the Greek όμοιοs meaning same and ουσία meaning essence or being is a technical theological term used in discussion of the See also Eucharist (Catholic Church On the related belief that Christ is present in the Eucharist in body blood soul and divinity see Real Presence. History See also History of the Papacy Catholics recognize the Pope as a successor to Saint Peter, who Jesus named as the "shepherd" and A litany, in Christian worship, is a form of Prayer used in Church services and Processions and consisting of a number of petitions Priest or seminarian with censorjpg|thumb|Seminarian vested in a pleated Roman-style surplice with lace inserts holding a Thurible. It allowed ministers to marry, banned images from churches, and confirmed Elizabeth as Supreme Head of the Church of England. The Church of England is the officially established Christian church in England, the Mother Church of the worldwide Anglican The Bill met heavy resistance in the House of Lords, as Roman Catholic bishops as well as the lay peers voted against it. The House of Lords is the second house of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and is also commonly referred to as "the Lords" A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight They reworked much of the Bill, changed the litany to allow for a transubstantial belief in the Communion and refused to grant Elizabeth the title of Supreme Head of the Church. Parliament was prorogued over Easter, and when it resumed, the government entered two new bills into the Houses — the Act of Supremacy and the Act of Uniformity. A parliamentary session is a period of time where the Legislature in a Parliamentary government is sitting The Act of Supremacy 1559 (1 Eliz c 1 was an Act of the Parliament of England, passed under the auspices of Queen Elizabeth I of England. The Act of Uniformity in 1559 set the order of Prayer to be used in the English Book of Common Prayer.
Act of Supremacy
The Act of Supremacy validated ten Acts that Mary had repealed and confirmed Elizabeth as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. Supreme Governor was a suitably equivocal title that made Elizabeth head of the Church without ever saying she was. This was important because many felt that a woman could not rule the church. Elizabeth's changes were more wholesale than those of her half-brother, Edward VI. Edward VI (12 October 1537 &ndash 6 July 1553 became King of England and Ireland on 28 January 1547 and was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine All but one of the bishops lost their posts, a hundred fellows of Oxford colleges were deprived; many dignitaries resigned rather than take the oath. Anthony Kitchin (died 31 October 1566) also known as Anthony Dunstone was a mid-16th century Abbot of Eynsham Abbey and The bishops who were removed from the ecclesiastical bench were replaced by appointees who would agree to the reforms.
On the question of images, her initial reaction was to allow crucifixes and candlesticks and the restoration of roods, but some of the new bishops whom she had elevated protested. Iconoclasm, Greek for "image-breaking" is the deliberate destruction within a culture of the culture's own religious Icons and other symbols or monuments In 1560 Edmund Grindal, one of the Marian exiles now made Bishop of London, was allowed to enforce the demolition of rood lofts in London and in 1561 the Queen herself ordered the demolition of all lofts. Edmund Grindal (c 1519 &ndash 6 July, 1583) was an English church leader who successively held the posts of Bishop of London, Archbishop The Bishop of London is the Ordinary of the Church of England Diocese of London in the Province of Canterbury. [75] Thereafter, the determination to prevent any further restoration was evidenced by the more thoroughgoing destruction of roods, vestments, stone altars, dooms, statues and other ornaments. ROOD jong in de SP ( Dutch for RED young in the SP) is a Dutch youth wing linked to the Socialist Party. Vestments are liturgical garments and articles associated primarily with the Christian religions especially the Latin Rite and other Roman Catholics The queen also appointed a new Privy Council, removing many Roman Catholic counsellors by doing so. A privy council is a body that advises the Head of state of a nation on how to exercise their executive authority, typically but not always in the context of a Under Elizabeth, factionalism in the Council and conflicts at court greatly diminished. The Act of Supremacy had passed without difficulty.
Act of Uniformity 1559
However, the Act of Uniformity 1559 which forced people to attend Sunday service in an Anglican church, at which a new version of the Book of Common Prayer was to be used, was passed by only three votes. The Act of Uniformity in 1559 set the order of Prayer to be used in the English Book of Common Prayer. The Book of Common Prayer is the common title of a number of prayer books of the Church of England and used throughout the Anglican Communion. [76] The Bill of Uniformity was more cautious than the initial Reformation Bill. It revoked the harsh laws proposed against Roman Catholics, it removed the abuse of the pope from the litany and kept the wording that allowed for both consubstantial and transubstantial belief in the Communion.
After Parliament was dismissed, Elizabeth, along with Cecil, drafted what are known as the Royal Injunctions. These were additions to the settlement and largely stressed continuity with the Catholic past — ministers were ordered to wear the surplice. Wafers, as opposed to ordinary baker's bread, were to be used as the bread at Communion. There had been opposition to the settlement in the shires, which for the most part were largely Roman Catholic, so the changes were made in order to allow for acceptance to the Settlement. What succeeded more than anything else was the sheer length of Elizabeth's reign; while Mary had been able to impose her programme for a mere five years, Elizabeth had more than forty. Those who delayed, 'looking for a new day' when restoration would again be commanded, were defeated by the passing of years. [77]
Puritans and Roman Catholics
On the one hand her reign saw the emergence of Puritanism. A Puritan of 16th and 17th century England was an associate of any number of religious groups advocating for more "purity" of Worship and Doctrine, Elizabethan Puritanism encompassed those Protestants who, whilst they agreed that there should be one national church, felt that the church had been but partially reformed. Puritanism ranged from hostility to the content of the Prayer Book and "popish" ceremony to a desire for church governance to be radically reformed. Ecclesiastical polity is the operational and governance structure of a Church or Christian denomination. Grindal was made Archbishop of Canterbury in 1575 and chose to oppose even the Queen in his desire to forward the Puritans' agenda. 'Bear with me, I beseech you Madam, if I choose rather to offend your earthly majesty than to offend the heavenly majesty of God', he ended a 6,000 word reproach to her. [78] He was placed under house arrest for his trouble and though he was not deprived, his death, blind and in bad health in 1583 put an end to the hopes of his supporters. His successor, Archbishop Whitgift more reflected the Queen's determination to discipline those who were unprepared to accept her settlement. John Whitgift (c 1530 &ndash February 29, 1604) was Archbishop of Canterbury from 1583 to his death A conformist, he imposed a degree of obedience on the clergy which apparently alarmed even the Queen's ministers, such as Lord Burghley. The Puritan cause was not helped even by its friends. The pseudonymous 'Martin Marprelate' tracts, which attacked conformist clergy with in a libellous humorous tone,[79] outraged senior Puritan clergy and set the government on an unsuccessful attempt to run the writer to earth. Martin Marprelate was the name used by the anonymous Author or authors of the Marprelate tracts. Incidentally, the defeat of the Armada in 1588 made it more difficult for Puritans to resist the conclusion that since God 'blew with his wind and they were scattered' he could not be too offended by the religious establishment in the land. [80]
On the other side there were of course, still huge numbers of Catholics, some of whom conformed, bending with the times, hoping that there would be a fresh reverse; vestments were still hidden, golden candlesticks bequeathed, chalices kept. The Mass was still celebrated in some places[81] alongside the new Communion service. It was, of course more difficult than hitherto. Both Roman Catholic priests and laity lived a double life, apparently conforming, but avoiding taking the oath of conformity. It was only as time passed that recusancy, refusal to attend Protestant services, became more common. The Jesuits and seminary priests, trained in Douai and Rome to make good the losses of English priests, encouraged this. By the 1570s an underground church was growing fast, as the Church of England became more Protestant and less bearable for Catholics. Catholics were still a sizeable minority. [82] Only one public attempt to restore the old religion took place, the revolt of the northern earls, the Rising of the North in 1569. The Rising of the North or Revolt of the Northern Earls was an unsuccessful uprising against Elizabeth I of England in 1569 by Catholics of It was a botched attempt: in spite of tumultuous crowds who greeted them in Durham, the rebellion did not spread, the assistance they sought was not forthcoming, their communication with allies at Court were poor; they came nowhere near to setting free Mary Stuart from her imprisonment in Tutbury, whose presence might have rallied support. [83] The Catholic Church's refusal to countenance occasional attendance at Protestant Services and the excommunication of Elizabeth by Pope Pius V in 1570, presented the choice to Catholics more starkly, and the arrival of the seminary priests, while it was a lifeline to many Catholics, brought further trouble. Elizabeth's ministers took steps to stem the tide: fines for refusal to attend church were raised from 12d. per service to £20 a month, fifty times an artisan's wage; it was now treason to be absolved from schism and reconciled to Rome; the execution of priests began - the first in 1577, four in 1581, eleven in 1582, two in 1583, six in 1584: fifty three by 1590; (seventy more between 1601 and 1680). [84] It became treasonable for a Catholic priest ordained abroad to enter the country. The choice lay between treason and damnation.
There is, of course always some distance between legislation and its enforcement. The governmental attacks on recusancy were mostly upon the gentry. Few recusants were actually fined, often at reduced rates; the persecution eased; priests came to recognise that they should not refuse communion to occasional conformists. [85] The persecutions did not extinguish the faith, but they tested it sorely. The huge number of Catholics in East Anglia and the north in the 1560s disappeared into the general population in part because recusant priests largely served the great Catholic houses, who alone could hide them. [86] Without the mass and pastoral care, yeomen, artisans and husbandmen fell into conformism. Catholicism, supported by foreign priests, came to be seen as un-English.
Legacy
By the time of Elizabeth's death, there had also emerged a third party, 'perfectly hostile' to Puritans, but not adherent to Rome. The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. It preferred the revised Book of Common Prayer of 1559, from which had been removed some of the matters offensive to Catholics. The Book of Common Prayer is the common title of a number of prayer books of the Church of England and used throughout the Anglican Communion. [87] The recusants had been removed from the centre of the stage. A new dispute was between the Puritans, who wished to see an end of the prayer book and episcopacy and this third party, the considerable body of people who looked kindly on the Elizabethan Settlement, who rejected 'prophesyings', whose spirituality had been nourished by the Prayer Book and who preferred the governance of bishops. [88] It was between these two groups that, after Elizabeth's death in 1603, a new, more savage episode of the Reformation was in the process of gestation. During the reigns of the Stuart kings, James I and Charles I, the battle lines were to become more defined, leading ultimately to the English Civil War, the first on English soil to engulf parts of the civilian population. James VI and I (19 June 1566 – 27 March 1625 was King of Scotland as James VI, and King of England and King of Ireland as James Charles I, (19 November 1600 &ndash 30 January 1649 was King of England, Scotland and Ireland from 27 March 1625 until his execution. The English Civil War (1642-1651 was a series of armed conflicts and political machinations between Parliamentarians and Royalists. The war was only partly about religion, but the abolition of prayer book and episcopacy by a Puritan Parliament was an element in the causes of the conflict. As Diarmaid MacCulloch has noted, the legacy of these tumultuous events can be recognised, throughout the Commonwealth (1649-1660) and the Restoration which followed it and beyond. Diarmaid Ninian John MacCulloch (born 31 October 1951, in Kent, England) is Professor of the History of the Church in the University of The Commonwealth of England was the Republican government which ruled first England (including Wales) and then Ireland and Scotland The English Restoration, or simply The Restoration began in 1660 when the English monarchy, Scottish monarchy and Irish monarchy were restored This third party was to become the core of the restored Church of England, but at the price for further division. At the Restoration in 1660 Anglicans, as they came to be called,[89] were to be but part of the religious scene, which was to include various kinds of Non-Conformity, among which would eventually be numbered Roman Catholicism.
Notes
- ^ a b Cf. "The Reformation must not be confused with the changes introduced into the Church of England during the 'Reformation Parliament' of 1529-36, which were of a political rather than a religious nature, designed to unite the secular and religious sources of authority within a single sovereign power: the Anglican Church did not until later make any substantial change in doctrine". Roger Scruton, A Dictionary of Political Thought (Macmillan, 1996), p. 470.
- ^ A. G. Dickens, The English Reformation (1964)
- ^ Christopher Haig English Reformations p. 14 (Oxford 1994)
- ^ Susan Brigden New Worlds, Lost Worlds (Allen Lane 2000)
- ^ D. MacCulloch Reformation (Allen Lane 2003) Introduction p. xxiii;
- ^ Eamon Duffy,The Stripping of the Altars p. 1 (Yale 1992)
- ^ Graham-Dixon,A History of British Art (BBC 1996) p. 16
- ^ Christopher Marsh Popular Religion in Sixteenth Century England (Macmillan 1998) p. 214ff
- ^ Susan Brigden, New Worlds, Lost Worlds (Allen Lane 2000) p. 109f. He 'believed he that he could keep his own secrets. . . but he was often deceived and he deceived himself': (ibid. ) p. 103
- ^ Brigden (ibid) p. 111
- ^ Brigden (ibid)p. 111. Her music book contained an illustration of a falcon pecking at a pomegranate: the falcon was her badge, the pomegranate, that of Granada, Catherine's badge.
- ^ Robert Lacey, The Life and Times of Henry VIII, (Book Club Associates, 1972), p70
- ^ Roderick Phillips, Untying the Knot: A Short History of Divorce (Cambridge University Press, 1991), p20
- ^ John Fisher mischievously pointed out that, according to Deuteronomy, a man should marry his deceased brother's widow, rather than be prohibited from doing so; see also St. Mark 12:18ff.
- ^ Robert Lacey, The Life and Times of Henry VIII, (Book Club Associates, 1972), p17
- ^ T. A. Morris, Europe and England in the Sixteenth Century, (Routledge 1998), p166
- ^ Brigden (Ibid) p. 114
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 92f
- ^ Haigh (ibid)p. 73
- ^ Brigden (ibid)p. 116
- ^ MacCulloch (ibid. ) p. 200
- ^ Haig (ibid) p. 106)
- ^ T. A. Morris, Europe and England in the Sixteenth century, (Routledge, 1998), pg 172.
- ^ Tanner Tudor Constitutional Documents (CUP) p17 gives this as ' their singular protector, only and supreme lord, and, as far as the law of Christ allows, even Supreme Head'
- ^ Brigden (ibid. ) p. 118; Tanner (ibid. )
- ^ After prolonged debate in Commons, it was clear that unanimity could not be reached over the Bill, so Henry ordered a division and commanded those who were in favour of his success and the welfare of the realm to one side of the House and those who opposed him and the Bill to the other. A majority was thus obtained.
- ^ G. R. Elton, The Tudor Constitution: Second Edition (Cambridge University Press, 1982), p. 353.
- ^ G. R. Elton, England Under the Tudors (Routledge, 1991), p. 160.
- ^ Elton, Tudor Constitution, pp. 364-5
- ^ Cranmer, in a letter, describes it as a divorce, but it was clearly not a dissolution of a marriage in the modern sense but the annulment of a marriage which was said to be defective on the grounds of affinity - Catherine was his deceased brother's widow
- ^ Stanford E. Lehmberg, The Reformation Parliament, 1529-1536 (Cambridge University Press, 1970)
- ^ eg. Diarmaid MacCulloch Thomas Cranmer (Yale 1996) p. 26f.
- ^ Dickens A. G. , Lollards and Protestants in the Diocese of York 1509-1558 (London 1959)
- ^ Brigden (ibid. ) p. 86f; see also the Preface to Stripping the Altars by Eamon Duffy,(Yale 2001 2nd Ed. )
- ^ cf. the writings of the fourteenth century scholar Marsiglio of Padua and which were known to Cromwell
- ^ Haigh (ibid. Marsilius of Padua ( Italian Marsilio or Marsiglio da Padova; c ) p. 58; MacCulloch Thomas Cranmer (ibid. ) p. 26f. Cranmer was still, in 1529, on good terms with Stephen Gardiner, later Bishop of Winchester,who was to become his arch enemy before his death: Cranmer p. For the British architect see Stephen Gardiner (architect. Stephen Gardiner (c 45
- ^ Cranmer p. 69
- ^ Martin Bucer of Strassburg was to be one of Cranmer's great mentors in the production of the second prayer book and Simon Grynaeus of Basel, his introduction to Swiss Calvinistic thought: Cranmer (ibid. ) p. 60f
- ^ Henry was no innocent: he sought influence in European affairs and, in pursuance of it, his relationship with the French was ambivalent and essentially treacherous: Brigden (ibid) p. 107
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 129
- ^ This requirement was quietly ignored by bishops for a year or more Haigh (ibid).
- ^ Eamon Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars(ibid. ) p. 491; see also the story of Roger Martyn in Christopher Haig English Reformations(Ibid) Prologue
- ^ Elton, England under the Tudors, Third Edition (Routledge, 1991 p. 142
- ^ Haig (ibid) p143f
- ^ Haig (ibid. ) p. 148
- ^ Brigden (ibid) p. 132
- ^ Henry's motives may not have been entirely religious. According to Diarmaid MacCulloch, he may have feared diplomatic isolation; the Lutherans,on the one hand, were seeking financial help rather than making offers; on the other, some show of Catholic sentiment might help his cause with the Emperor. Thomas Cranmer (Yale 1996) p. 240
- ^ Tyndale wrote to John Frith 'Of the presence of Christ's body in the sacrament, meddle as little as you can; that there appear no division among us'
- ^ Cranmer (ibid) p. 241
- ^ Brigden (ibid. ) p. 135
- ^ Haigh(ibid) p. 157f
- ^ Dickens, A. G. Reformation and Society (Thames and Hudson 1966) p. 103
- ^ MacCulloch argues that it was the king ('this monstrous egoist') who changed his mind, heavily influenced by his chaplain, the Archbishop; Cranmer certainly believed that had Henry lived he would have pursued a radical iconoclastic policy- Cranmer (ibid. ) p. 356-7; on the other hand, the same will which removed the conservatives Gardiner, Norfolk and Surrey from the Regency Council,sought intercession from Mary and the saints and insisted on the reality of Christ's presence in the Eucharist - Haig (ibid. ) p. 167
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 169
- ^ Among many examples, in Haddenham, Cambridgeshire a chalice, parten and processional cross were sold and the proceeds devoted to flood defences; in Rayleigh, a wealthy parish, £10 worth of plate was sold, in order to pay for the cost of the required reforms: the need to buy a parish chest, bible and communion table: Duffy (ibid) p. Haddenham is a village and Civil parish in Cambridgeshire, England. 483f
- ^ Duffy (ibid) p. 461
- ^ The English Reformation(2nd Ed. 1989) p. 235
- ^ Duffy (ibid) p. 481
- ^ In Ludlow in Shropshire the parishioners complied with the orders to remove the rood and other images in 1547, and in same year spent money on making up the canopy to be carried over the Blessed Sacrament on the feast of Corpus Christi: Duffy (ibid) p. 481
- ^ Duffy (ibid) p. 472
- ^ Cranmer (ibid. )p. 461; Bucer had provided for only one service for all three orders.
- ^ (ibid)
- ^ Cf. The Voices from Morebath Eamon Duffy (Yale 2001) p. 127ff. The vicar of Morebath in Devon recorded the doings of the parish during the whole period, noting the compliant destruction of items previously paid for by sacrificial fundraising, and the singular resistance over the new prayer book. The parish paid for five men to join the rebellion as St. David's Down outside Exeter
- ^ Susan Brigden cites economic causes relating to enclosure legislation New Worlds, Lost Worlds ibid. ) p. 185; MacCulloch calls the risings 'baffling'.
- ^ Graham-Dixon, Andrew (ibid) p. 38
- ^ Haig (ibid) p. 176
- ^ Some of them were simply reclaimed by the gentry who had, in fact, lent them to the church; at Long Melford, Sir John Clopton, a patron of the church, bought up many of the images, probably to preserve them: Duffy (ibid) p. 490
- ^ MacCulloch 'Reformation(ibid. ) p281
- ^ MacCulloch Reformation (ibid. ) p. 281
- ^ 'The Birth of a Protestant Town: the Process of Reformation in Tudor Colchester 1530-80', Mark Byford in The Reformation in English Towns 1500-1640 ed. Collinson and Craig (Macmillan 1998)
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 234
- ^ Dickens A. G. The English Reformation (1989 ed. ) p. 309ff
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 214
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 235
- ^ She herself retained a cross and candlesticks in her own chapel: Haigh (ibid) p. 244
- ^ Haigh (ibid. ) p. 237-241. No bishops voted in favour, two were prevented from voting at all, and two other ecclesiastics were absent. The majority were all laymen : J GuyTudor England(OUP1988) p. 262
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 245
- ^ MacCulloch Reformation(ibid) p. 384
- ^ 'John Cant' (Whitgift) was accused of sodomitical relations with the Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge: MacCulloch Reformation(ibid. ) p. 387
- ^ MacCulloch (ibid) p. 384ff
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 253
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 267
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 256; Haigh argues that the initial impetus for the rebellion was scarcely religious at all, but political; what swelled support, however, was a rejection of the Prayer Book and a desire to restore the Mass.
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 262f; '. . . England judicially murdered more Roman Catholics than any other country in Europe: MacCulloch (ibid. ) p. 392
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 264
- ^ Haigh (ibid) p. 265
- ^ Proctor F. and Frere W. H. , A New History of the Book of Common Prayer (Macmillan 1965) p. 91ff.
- ^ Judith Maltby, Prayer book and People in Elizabethan and Early Stuart England (Cambridge 1998)
- ^ Maltby (ibid)p. 235
References
- A. G. Dickens, The English Reformation (London) (2nd Ed. Arthur Geoffrey Dickens ( 6 July[[ 910]] &ndash 31 July 2001) was an English Academic and Author. 1989)
- Eamon Duffy, The Stripping of the Altars (Yale, 1992). Eamon Duffy is an Irish Professor of the History of Christianity at the University of Cambridge, and former President of Magdalene The Stripping of the Altars Traditional Religion in England 1400–1580 is a work of history written by Eamon Duffy and published in 1992 by Yale University Press
- Eamon Duffy, Voices from Morebath (Yale 2001)
- G. R. Elton, England Under the Tudors: Third Edition (Routledge, 1991). Sir Geoffrey Rudolph Elton ( 17 August 1921 &ndash 3 December 1994) was a British Historian of the Tudor period.
- G. R. Elton, The Tudor Constitution: Second Edition (Cambridge University Press, 1982).
- Christopher Haigh, English Reformations (Oxford, 1993).
- Stanford Lehmberg, The Reformation Parliament, 1529 - 1536 (Cambridge University Press, 1970).
- Roderick Phillips, Untying the Knot: A Short History of Divorce (Cambridge University Press, 1991).
- Roger Scruton, A Dictionary of Political Thought (Macmillan, 1996)
- Ed. Roger Vernon Scruton (born 27 February 1944) is an English Conservative Philosopher. Patrick Collinson and John Craig The Reformation in English Towns 1500-1640 (Macmillan 1998)
- Susan Brigden New Worlds, Lost Worlds (Allen Lane 2000)
- Diarmaid MacCulloch Reformation (Allen Lane 2003)
- Diarmaid MacCulloch Thomas Cranmer (Yale 1996)
- Judith Maltby, Prayer book and People in Elizabethan and Early Stuart England (Cambridge 1998)
See also
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