Engineering is the discipline and profession of applying scientific knowledge and utilizing natural laws and physical resources in order to design and implement materials, structures, machines, devices, systems, and processes that realize a desired objective and meet specified criteria. In its most general sense discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a Disciple. The term profession is applied to those persons who have specialized and technical skill or knowledge which they apply for a fee to certain tasks that ordinary and unqualified people cannot Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Materials are physical Substances used as inputs to production or Manufacturing. Structure is a fundamental and sometimes Intangible notion covering the Recognition, Observation, nature, and Stability of A machine is any device that uses Energy to perform some activity System (from Latin systēma, in turn from Greek systēma is a set of interacting or interdependent Entities, real or abstract Process engineering refers to engineering which is collaborative and concerned with completing a project as a whole The American Engineers’ Council for Professional Development (ECPD, the predecessor of ABET^[1]) has defined engineering as follows:

“[T]he creative application of scientific principles to design or develop structures, machines, apparatus, or manufacturing processes, or works utilizing them singly or in combination; or to construct or operate the same with full cognizance of their design; or to forecast their behavior under specific operating conditions; all as respects an intended function, economics of operation and safety to life and property. The American Engineers' Council for Professional Development or simply the Engineers' Council for Professional Development also known by the Acronym ECPD ”^[2][3][4]

One who practices engineering is called an engineer, and those licensed to do so may have more formal designations such as Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, or Incorporated Engineer. An engineer is a person professionally engaged in a field of Engineering. Professional Engineer (PE is the term for registered or Licensed Engineers in some countries who are permitted to offer their Professional services directly Incorporated engineer (IEng is a professional qualification in Engineering (obtained after an Engineer's degree) offered through Professional The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of more specialized subdisciplines, each with a more specific emphasis on certain fields of application and particular areas of technology. Engineering is a collective term to describe the application of scientific theory in the design creation and maintenance of technology Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt

History

The Watt steam engine, a major driver in the industrial revolution, underscores the importance of Engineering in modern history. The Watt steam engine was the first type of Steam engine to make use of steam at a pressure just above atmospheric to drive the piston helped by a partial vacuum The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the This model is on display at the main building of the ETSIIM in Madrid, Spain

The concept of engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the pulley, lever, and wheel. A pulley (also called a sheave or block) is a Wheel with a groove between two Flanges around its Circumference A wheel is a circular device that is capable of rotating on its axis facilitating movement or transportation whilst supporting a load ( Mass) or performing labour in machines Each of these inventions is consistent with the modern definition of engineering, exploiting basic mechanical principles to develop useful tools and objects.

The term engineering itself has a much more recent etymology, deriving from the word engineer, which itself dates back to 1325, when an engine’er (literally, one who operates an engine) originally referred to “a constructor of military engines. ”^[5] In this context, now obsolete, an “engine” referred to a military machine, i.  e. , a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult). A catapult is any one of a number of non-handheld mechanical devices used to throw a Projectile a great distance without the aid of an explosive substance—particularly various The word “engine” itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. 1250), meaning “innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. ”^[6]

Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering^[4] entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the older discipline of military engineering (the original meaning of the word “engineering,” now largely obsolete, with notable exceptions that have survived to the present day such as military engineering corps, e. Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built A military engineer is primarily responsible for the design and construction of offensive defensive and logistical structures for Warfare Other duties include the  g. , the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers). The United States Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE) is a federal agency and a major Army command made up of some 34600 Civilian and 650 Military personnel

Ancient Era

The Acropolis and the Parthenon in Greece, the Roman aquaducts, Via Appia and the Colosseum, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, the Pharos of Alexandria, the pyramids in Egypt, Teotihuacán and the cities and pyramids of the Mayan, Inca and Aztec Empires, the Great Wall of China, among many others, stand as a testament to the ingenuity and skill of the ancient civil and military engineers. The Acropolis of Athens is the best known Acropolis (high city The "Sacred Rock" in the world The Parthenon ( Ancient Greek:) is a temple of the Greek goddess Athena, built in the 5th century BC on the Athenian Acropolis Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Ancient Rome was a Civilization that grew out of a small agricultural community founded on the Italian Peninsula as early as the 10th century BC An aqueduct is an artificial channel that is constructed to convey water from one location to another The Appian Way ( Latin and Italian: Via Appia) was the most important ancient Roman road. The Colosseum or Roman Coliseum, originally the Flavian Amphitheatre ( Latin: Amphitheatrum Flavium, Italian Anfiteatro Flavio The lighthouse of Alexandria (or The Pharos of Alexandria, Greek:) was a tower built in the 3rd century BC (between 285 and 247 BC on the Island The Egyptian pyramids are pyramid shaped structures located in Egypt, and were built as a tomb for dead pharaohs This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Teotihuacan is an enormous archaeological site in the Basin of Mexico, containing some of the largest pyramidal structures built in the Pre-Columbian Americas The Maya civilization is a Mesoamerican Civilization, noted for the only known fully developed written language of the Pre-Columbian Americas Aztec is a term used to refer to certain ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the Nahuatl language and who achieved political The Great Wall of China ( or ( is a series of stone and earthen Fortifications in China, built rebuilt and maintained between the 6th century BC and the 16th

The earliest civil engineer known by name is Imhotep. Imhotep (sometimes spelled Immutef, Im-hotep, or Ii-em-Hotep, circa ( fl ^[4] As one of the officials of the Pharaoh, Djosèr, he probably designed and supervised the construction of the Pyramid of Djoser (the Step Pyramid) at Saqqara in Egypt around 2630-2611 BC. Pharaoh is the title given in modern parlance to the ancient Egyptian kings of all periods Netjerikhet or Djoser ( Turin King List "Dsr-it" Manetho "Tosarthros" is the best-known Pharaoh of the Third dynasty The Pyramid of Djoser(Zoser, or step pyramid ( kbhw-ntrw in Egyptian) is an archeological remain in the Saqqara necropolis Egypt Step Pyramids The construction of step pyramids has been an ancient part of several cultures throughout history Saqqara or Sakkara, Saqqarah ( Arabic: سقارة is a vast ancient burial ground in Egypt, featuring the world's oldest standing Step The History of Ancient Egypt spans the period from the early predynastic settlements of the northern Nile Valley to the Roman conquest in 30 The 27th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2700 BC to 2601 BC The 27th century BC is a Century which lasted from the year 2700 BC to 2601 BC ^[7] He may also have been responsible for the first known use of columns in architecture. A column in Structural engineering is a vertical structural element that transmits through compression, the weight of the structure above to other structural The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation

Middle Era

An Iraqi Muslim by the name of al-Jazari helped pave the way for today's' modern machines when sometime in between 1174 and 1200 he built five machines to pump water for the kings of the Turkish Artuqid dynasty and their palaces. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The Artuqid dynasty ( Artuklu in Turkish, sometimes also spelled as Artukid, Ortoqid or Ortokid; Turkish Plural: A palace is a grand residence especially the home of a Head of state or some other high-ranking Public figure. The double-acting reciprocating piston pump was instrumental in the later development of engineering in general because it was the first machine to incorporate both the connecting rod and the crankshaft, thus, converting rotational motion to reciprocating motion. In a reciprocating Piston engine, the connecting rod or conrod connects the Piston to the crank or Crankshaft. The crankshaft, sometimes casually abbreviated to crank, is the part of an Engine which translates reciprocating Linear Rotational motion can occur around more than one axis at once and can involve phenomena such as wobbling and Precession. ^[8]

British Charter Engineer Donald Routledge Hill once wrote:

"It is impossible to over emphasize the importance of al-Jazari's work in the history of engineering, it provides a wealth of instructions for the design, manufacture and assembly of machines. Donald Routledge Hill (1922–1994 was an Engineer and historian of science and technology. "

Even today some toys still use the cam-lever mechanism found in some of al-Jazari's combination lock and automaton. A cam is a projecting part of a rotating Wheel or shaft that strikes a Lever at one or more points on its circular path Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري A combination lock is a type of lock in which a sequence of numbers or symbols is used to open the lock This article is about a self-operating machine For other uses of Automaton see Automaton (disambiguation or Automata (disambiguation. Besides over 50 ingenuis mechanical devices, al-Jazari also developed and made innovations to segmental gears, mechanical controls, escapement mechanisms, clocks, robotics, and protocols for designing and manufacturing methods. Abū al-'Iz Ibn Ismā'īl ibn al-Razāz al-Jazarī ( 1136 - 1206) (أَبُو اَلْعِزِ بْنُ إسْماعِيلِ بْنُ الرِّزاز الجزري In Mechanical watches and Clocks an escapement is a device which converts continuous rotational motion into an oscillating or back and forth motion

Renaissance Era

The first electrical engineer is considered to be William Gilbert, with his 1600 publication of De Magnete, who was the originator of the term "electricity". Electrical engineering, sometimes referred to as electrical and electronic engineering, is a field of Engineering that deals with the study and application of William Gilbert, also known as Gilbard ( Colchester, England, May 24, 1544 &ndash London, England, November 30 De Magnete Magneticisque Corporibus et de Magno Magnete Tellure ( On the Magnet and Magnetic Bodies and on That Great Magnet the Earth) is a scientific ^[9]

The first steam engine was built in 1698 by mechanical engineer Thomas Savery. A steam engine is a Heat engine that performs Mechanical work using Steam as its Working fluid. Mechanical Engineering is an Engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis Design, Manufacturing Thomas Savery (c 1650 - 1715 was an English Inventor, born at Shilstone a Manor house near Modbury, Devon, England. The development of this device gave rise to the industrial revolution in the coming decades, allowing for the beginnings of mass production. The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the Mass production (also called flow production, repetitive flow production, series production, or serial production) is the production of

With the rise of engineering as a profession in the eighteenth century, the term became more narrowly applied to fields in which mathematics and science were applied to these ends. The term profession is applied to those persons who have specialized and technical skill or knowledge which they apply for a fee to certain tasks that ordinary and unqualified people cannot Similarly, in addition to military and civil engineering the fields then known as the mechanic arts became incorporated into engineering. Mechanic arts is an obsolete and archaic term In the 19th century it referred to fields some of which are now known as Engineering.

Modern Era

Electrical Engineering can trace its origins in the experiments of Alessandro Volta in the 1800s, the experiments of Michael Faraday, Georg Ohm and others and the invention of the electric motor in 1872. Electrical engineering, sometimes referred to as electrical and electronic engineering, is a field of Engineering that deals with the study and application of Count Alessandro Giuseppe Antonio Anastasio Volta was a Lombard physicist known especially for the development of the first electric cell in Michael Faraday, FRS ( September 22 1791 – August 25 1867) was an English Georg Simon Ohm' was a German physicist As a high school teacher Ohm began his research with the recently invented Electrochemical cell, invented by Italian Count An electric motor uses Electrical energy to produce Mechanical energy. The work of James Maxwell and Heinrich Hertz in the late 19th century gave rise to the field of Electronics. James Maxwell may be James Clerk Maxwell (1831 to 1879 physicist James Laidlaw Maxwell (1836 to 1921 missionary to Formosa Heinrich Rudolf Hertz ( February 22, 1857 – January 1, 1894) was a German physicist who clarified and expanded the electromagnetic theory Electronics refers to the flow of charge (moving Electrons through Nonmetal conductors (mainly Semiconductors, whereas electrical The later inventions of the vacuum tube and the transistor further accelerated the development of Electronics to such an extent that electrical and electronics engineers currently outnumber their colleagues of any other Engineering specialty. This article is about the electronic device not an evacuated pipe used for experiments in Free-fall. In Electronics, a transistor is a Semiconductor device commonly used to amplify or switch electronic signals ^[4]

The inventions of Thomas Savery and the Scottish engineer James Watt gave rise to modern Mechanical Engineering. James Watt ( 19 January 1736 &ndash 25 August 1819 Boulton proved to be an excellent businessman and both men eventually made fortunes Mechanical Engineering is an Engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis Design, Manufacturing The development of specialized machines and their maintenance tools during the industrial revolution led to the rapid growth of Mechanical Engineering both in its birthplace Britain and abroad. See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands ^[4]

Even though in its modern form Mechanical engineering originated in Britain, its origins trace back to early antiquity where ingenuous machines were developed both in the civilian and military domains. The Antikythera mechanism, the earliest known model of a mechanical computer in history, and the mechanical inventions of Archimedes, including his death ray, are examples of early mechanical engineering. The Antikythera mechanism (ˌæntɪkɪˈθɪərə an-ti-ki- theer -uh is an ancient mechanical Calculator (also described as the first known " mechanical A mechanical computer is a Computer built from Mechanical components such as Levers and Gears, rather than Electronic components Archimedes of Syracuse ( Greek:) ( c. 287 BC – c 212 BC was a Greek mathematician, Physicist, Engineer Archimedes of Syracuse ( Greek:) ( c. 287 BC – c 212 BC was a Greek mathematician, Physicist, Engineer Archimedes of Syracuse ( Greek:) ( c. 287 BC – c 212 BC was a Greek mathematician, Physicist, Engineer Some of Archimedes' inventions as well as the Antikythera mechanism required sophisticated knowledge of differential gearing or epicyclic gearing, two key principles in machine theory that helped design the gear trains of the Industrial revolution and are still widely used today in diverse fields such as robotics and automotive engineering. This article deals with the concept of a differential in mechanical engineering. Epicyclic gearing or planetary gearing is a Gear system that consists of one or more outer gears or planet gears revolving about a central or A gear train is a set or system of Gears arranged to transfer rotational Torque from one part of a mechanical system to another See also Robot Robotics is the science and technology of Robots and their design manufacture and application Modern automotive engineering is a branch of Vehicle engineering, incorporating elements of mechanical, electrical, electronic, software ^[10]

Chemical Engineering, like its counterpart Mechanical Engineering, developed in the nineteenth century during the Industrial Revolution. Chemical engineering is the branch of Engineering that deals with the application of Physical science (e The Industrial Revolution was a period in the late 18th and early 19th centuries when major changes in agriculture manufacturing and transportation had a profound effect on the ^[4] Industrial scale manufacturing demanded new materials and new processes and by 1880 the need for large scale production of chemicals was such that a new industry was created, dedicated to the development and large scale manufacturing of chemicals in new industrial plants. ^[4] The role of the chemical engineer was the design of these chemical plants and processes. ^[4]

Aeronautical Engineering deals with aircraft design while Aerospace Engineering is a more modern term that expands the reach envelope of the discipline by including spacecraft design. Aerospace engineering is the branch of Engineering behind the design construction and science of Aircraft and Spacecraft. A spacecraft is a Vehicle or machine designed for Spaceflight. ^[11] Its origins can be traced back to the aviation pioneers around the turn of the century from the 19th century to the 20th although the work of Sir George Cayley has recently been dated as being from the last decade of the 18th century. Sir George Cayley 6th Baronet ( December 27, 1773 &ndash December 15, 1857) sometimes known as "the father of Aerodynamics" was Early knowledge of aeronautical engineering was largely empirical with some concepts and skills imported from other branches of engineering. ^[12] Only a decade after the successful flights by the Wright brothers, the 1920s saw extensive development of aeronautical engineering through development of World War I military aircraft. WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft. Please see WikipediaWikiProject Aircraft/page content for recommended layout World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All Meanwhile, research to provide fundamental background science continued by combining theoretical physics with experiments. Theoretical physics employs Mathematical models and Abstractions of Physics in an attempt to explain experimental data taken of the natural world

The first PhD in engineering (technically, applied science and engineering) awarded in the United States went to Willard Gibbs at Yale University in 1863; it was also the second PhD awarded in science in the U. "PhD" redirects here for other uses see PhD (disambiguation. Josiah Willard Gibbs ( February 11, 1839 &ndash April 28, 1903) was an American theoretical Physicist, Chemist S. ^[13]

In 1990, with the rise of computer technology, the first search engine was built by computer engineer Alan Emtage. A computer is a Machine that manipulates data according to a list of instructions. Computer engineering (or Computer Systems Engineering) encompasses broad areas of both Electrical engineering and Computer science. Alan Emtage (born November 27, 1964) conceived of and implemented the first version of Archie, a pre-Web internet search engine for locating material in

Main Branches of Engineering

Main article: List of engineering branches

Engineering, much like science, is a broad discipline which is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. Aerospace Engineering - The design of Aircraft, Spacecraft and related topics These disciplines concern themselves with differing areas of engineering work. Although initially an engineer will be trained in a specific discipline, throughout an engineer's career the engineer may become multi-disciplined, having worked in several of the outlined areas. Historically the main Branches of Engineering are categorized as follows:^[11][14]

• Aerospace Engineering - The design of aircraft, spacecraft and related topics. Aerospace engineering is the branch of Engineering behind the design construction and science of Aircraft and Spacecraft. A spacecraft is a Vehicle or machine designed for Spaceflight.
• Chemical Engineering - The conversion of raw materials into usable commodities. Chemical engineering is the branch of Engineering that deals with the application of Physical science (e
• Civil Engineering - The design and construction of public and private works, such as infrastructure, bridges and buildings. Civil engineering is a professional engineering discipline that deals with the design construction and maintenance of the physical and naturally built Infrastructure typically refers to the technical structures that support a society such as Roads Water supply, Wastewater, Power grids A bridge is a Structure built to span a Gorge, Valley, Road, railroad track, River, Body of water
• Electrical Engineering - The design of electrical systems, such as transformers, as well as electronic goods. Electrical engineering, sometimes referred to as electrical and electronic engineering, is a field of Engineering that deals with the study and application of A transformer is a device that transfers Electrical energy from one circuit to another through inductively coupled Electrical conductors
• Mechanical Engineering - The design of physical or mechanical systems, such as engines, powertrains, kinematic chains and vibration isolation equipment. Mechanical Engineering is an Engineering discipline that involves the application of principles of physics for analysis Design, Manufacturing The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a For the UK engine manufacturer see Powertrain Ltd. In a Motor vehicle, the term drivetrain, powertrain or powerplant A kinematic chain is the assembly of several Kinematic pairs connecting Rigid body segments Vibration isolation is the process of isolating an object such as a piece of equipment from the source of Vibrations Passive isolation Passive vibration

With the rapid advancement of Technology many new fields are gaining prominence and new branches are developing such as Computer Engineering, Software Engineering, Nanotechnology, Molecular engineering, Mechatronics etc. High tech is Technology that is at the cutting edge —the most advanced technology currently available Computer engineering (or Computer Systems Engineering) encompasses broad areas of both Electrical engineering and Computer science. Software engineering is the application of a systematic disciplined quantifiable approach to the development operation and maintenance of Software. Nanotechnology, sometimes shortened to nanotech, refers to a field of Applied science whose theme is the control of matter on an Atomic and Molecular Molecular engineering is any means of manufacturing Molecules It may be used to create on an extremely small scale most typically one at a time new molecules which may not Mechatronics (or Mecha nical and Elec' tronics' Engineering) is the combination of Mechanical engineering, Electronic engineering These new specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches such as Mechanical Engineering and Mechatronics and Electrical and Computer Engineering.

For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas of the application of sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry and mathematics.

Methodology

Design of a turbine requires collaboration from engineers from many fields

Engineers apply the sciences of physics and mathematics to find suitable solutions to problems or to make improvements to the status quo. A turbine is a rotary Engine that extracts Energy from a Fluid flow If multiple options exist, engineers weigh different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best matches the requirements. The crucial and unique task of the engineer is to identify, understand, and interpret the constraints on a design in order to produce a successful result. It is usually not enough to build a technically successful product; it must also meet further requirements. Constraints may include available resources, physical, imaginative or technical limitations, flexibility for future modifications and additions, and other factors, such as requirements for cost, safety, marketability, productibility, and serviceability. Safety engineering is an applied science strongly related to Systems engineering and the subset System Safety Engineering In Software engineering and Hardware engineering, serviceability (also known as supportability, is one of the - Ilities or aspects By understanding the constraints, engineers derive specifications for the limits within which a viable object or system may be produced and operated.

Problem solving

Engineers use their knowledge of science, mathematics, and appropriate experience to find suitable solutions to a problem. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and "A priori" redirects here For other uses see A priori. Engineering is considered a branch of applied mathematics and science. Creating an appropriate mathematical model of a problem allows them to analyze it (sometimes definitively), and to test potential solutions. Note The term model has a different meaning in Model theory, a branch of Mathematical logic. Usually multiple reasonable solutions exist, so engineers must evaluate the different design choices on their merits and choose the solution that best meets their requirements. In Engineering, a design choice is a possible solution to a problem Genrich Altshuller, after gathering statistics on a large number of patents, suggested that compromises are at the heart of "low-level" engineering designs, while at a higher level the best design is one which eliminates the core contradiction causing the problem. Genrikh Saulovich Altshuller (Ге́нрих Сау́лович Альтшу́ллер ˈgʲɛ A patent is a set of Exclusive rights granted by a State to an inventor or his assignee for a fixed period of time in exchange for a disclosure of an In Arguments compromise is a concept of finding Agreement through Communication, through a mutual Acceptance of terms—often involving variations Level of Invention (or Degree of Inventiveness, or Level of solution, or Rank of solution, or Rank of invention) is a relative degree

Engineers typically attempt to predict how well their designs will perform to their specifications prior to full-scale production. They use, among other things: prototypes, scale models, simulations, destructive tests, nondestructive tests, and stress tests. A prototype is an original type form or instance of something serving as a typical example basis or standard for other things of the same category A scale model is a representation or copy of an object that is larger or smaller than the actual size of the object. Simulation is the imitation of some real thing state of affairs or process In destructive testing, tests are carried out to the specimen's failure in order to understand a specimen's structural performance or material behaviour under different loads Nondestructive testing ( NDT) also called nondestructive examination ( NDE) and nondestructive inspection ( NDI) is testing that does Testing ensures that products will perform as expected. Engineers as professionals take seriously their responsibility to produce designs that will perform as expected and will not cause unintended harm to the public at large. Engineers typically include a factor of safety in their designs to reduce the risk of unexpected failure. Factor of safety ( FoS) can mean either the fraction of structural capability over that required or a Multiplier applied to the maximum expected load ( Force However, the greater the safety factor, the less efficient the design may be.

Computer use

A computer simulation of high velocity air flow around the Space Shuttle during re-entry. NASA 's Space Shuttle, officially called the Space Transportation System ( STS) is the Spacecraft currently used by the United States

As with all modern scientific and technological endeavors, computers and software play an increasingly important role. As well as the typical business application software there are a number of computer aided applications (CAx) specifically for engineering. Application software is a subclass of Computer software that employs the capabilities of a computer directly and thoroughly to a task that the user wishes to perform CAx is a summary term for various kinds of computer-aided technologies Computers can be used to generate models of fundamental physical processes, which can be solved using numerical methods. Numerical analysis is the study of Algorithms for the problems of continuous mathematics (as distinguished from Discrete mathematics)

One of the most widely used tools in the profession is computer-aided design (CAD) software which enables engineers to create 3D models, 2D drawings, and schematics of their designs. CAD together with Digital mockup (DMU) and CAE software such as finite element method analysis allows engineers to create models of designs that can be analyzed without having to make expensive and time-consuming physical prototypes. Digital MockUp or DMU is a concept that allows the description if a product usually in 3D for its entire life cycle Computer-aided engineering (often referred to as CAE) is the use of information technology for supporting engineers in tasks such as analysis simulation design manufacture The finite element method (FEM (sometimes referred to as finite element analysis) is a numerical technique for finding approximate solutions of Partial differential These allow products and components to be checked for flaws; assess fit and assembly; study ergonomics; and to analyze static and dynamic characteristics of systems such as stresses, temperatures, electromagnetic emissions, electrical currents and voltages, digital logic levels, fluid flows, and kinematics. Access and distribution of all this information is generally organized with the use of Product Data Management software. Product data management ( PDM) is the business function within Product lifecycle management that is responsible for the creation management and publication of ^[15]

There are also many tools to support specific engineering tasks such as Computer-aided manufacture (CAM) software to generate CNC machining instructions; Manufacturing Process Management software for production engineering; EDA for printed circuit board (PCB) and circuit schematics for electronic engineers; MRO applications for maintenance management; and AEC software for civil engineering. Computer-aided manufacturing ( CAM) is the use of computer-based software tools that assist engineers and machinists in manufacturing or prototyping product components The abbreviation CNC stands for computer numerical control, and refers specifically to a computer "controller" that reads G-code Manufacturing Process Management (MPM is a collection of technology and methods used in the Manufacturing and ERP/MRP defines when it is to be made MPM defines how Electronic design automation ( EDA) is the category of tools for designing and producing electronic systems ranging from A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support and electrically connect Electronic components using conductive pathways or traces A schematic is a diagram that represents the elements of a System using abstract graphic Symbols rather than realistic pictures Maintenance repair and operations or maintenance repair and overhaul (MRO is fixing any sort of mechanical or Electrical device should it

In recent years the use of computer software to aid the development of goods has collectively come to be known as Product Lifecycle Management (PLM). Product lifecycle management ( PLM) is the process of managing the entire lifecycle of a product from its conception through design and manufacture to service ^[16]

Engineering in a social context

Engineering is a subject that ranges from large collaborations to small individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are beholden to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono engineering and open design engineering. Pro bono publico (usually shortened to pro bono) is a Phrase derived from Latin meaning "for the public good Open design is the application of Open source methods to the creation of physical products machines and systems

By its very nature engineering is bound up with society and human behavior. Every product or construction used by modern society will have been influenced by engineering design. Engineering design is a very powerful tool to make changes to environment, society and economies, and its application brings with it a great responsibility, as represented by many of the Engineering Institutions codes of practice and ethics. An engineering society is a Professional organization for engineers of various disciplines. Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life Whereas medical ethics is a well-established field with considerable consensus, engineering ethics is far less developed, and engineering projects can be subject to considerable controversy. Just a few examples of this from different engineering disciplines are the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and use of Sports Utility Vehicles and the extraction of oil. A nuclear weapon is an explosive device that derives its destructive force from Nuclear reactions either fission or a combination of fission and fusion. Zh-yue三峽大壩 The Three Gorges Dam ( is a hydroelectric River Dam that spans the Yangtze River in Sandouping, A sport utility vehicle ( SUV) is a generic marketing description for a rugged automotive vehicle similar to a Station wagon but built on a light-truck chassis Fuel oil is a fraction obtained from Petroleum Distillation, either as a distillate or a residue There is a growing trend amongst western engineering companies to enact serious Corporate and Social Responsibility policies, but many companies do not have these. Corporate social responsibility (CSR also called corporate responsibility corporate citizenship responsible business and corporate social opportunity is a concept whereby Organizations

Engineering is a key driver of human development. ^[17] Sub-Saharan Africa in particular has a very small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid. The attainment of many of the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development. ^[18] All overseas development and relief NGOs make considerable use of engineers to apply solutions in disaster and development scenarios. A number of charitable organizations aim to use engineering directly for the good of mankind:

• Engineers Without Borders
• Engineers Against Poverty
• Registered Engineers for Disaster Relief
• Engineers for a Sustainable World

Cultural presence

Engineering is a well respected profession. For example, in Canada it ranks as one of the public's most trusted professions. ^[19]

Sometimes engineering has been seen as a somewhat dry, uninteresting field in popular culture, and has also been thought to be the domain of nerds. Popular culture (or pop culture) is the Culture — patterns of human activity and the symbolic structures that give such activities significance and importance — Nerd is a term often bearing a derogatory connotation or Stereotype, that refers to a person who passionately pursues Intellectual activities Esoteric For example, the cartoon character Dilbert is an engineer. Dilbert (first published April 16, 1989) is an American Comic strip written and drawn by Scott Adams. One difficulty in increasing public awareness of the profession is that average people, in the typical run of ordinary life, do not ever have any personal dealings with engineers, even though they benefit from their work every day. By contrast, it is common to visit a doctor at least once a year, the chartered accountant at tax time, and, occasionally, even a lawyer.

This has not always been so - most British school children in the 1950s were brought up with stirring tales of 'the Victorian Engineers', chief amongst whom were the Brunels, the Stephensons, Telford and their contemporaries. Isambard Kingdom Brunel, FRS (9 April 1806 &ndash 15 September 1859 (ˈɪzəmbɑrd ˈkɪŋdəm brʊˈnɛl was a British Engineer. George Stephenson ( 9 June 1781 &ndash 12 August 1848) was an English Civil engineer and mechanical engineer Thomas Telford (9 August 1757 - 2 September 1834 was born in Westerkirk, Scotland.

In science fiction engineers are often portrayed as highly knowledgeable and respectable individuals who understand the overwhelming future technologies often portrayed in the genre. The Star Trek characters Montgomery Scott, Geordi La Forge, Miles O'Brien, B'Elanna Torres, and Charles Tucker are famous examples. Montgomery Scott, or "Scotty", is a character in the original Star Trek series and the films which followed Geordi redirects here for a similarly named regional culture in England see Geordie. Miles Edward O'Brien, played by Colm Meaney, is a main character in Star Trek Deep Space Nine. B'Elanna Torres, played by Roxann Dawson, is a character in Star Trek Voyager. Charles "Trip" Tucker III (short for “Triple” since he is the third generation of his family to be named Charles Tucker played by Connor Trinneer,

Occasionally, engineers may be recognized by the "Iron Ring"--a stainless steel or iron ring worn on the little finger of the dominant hand. The Iron Ring is a symbolic ring worn by many Canadian engineers Obtaining the ring is an optional endeavour – the ring is not a prerequisite for practicing This tradition began in 1925 in Canada for the Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer as a symbol of pride and obligation for the engineering profession. The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer (or Kipling Ritual, or Iron Ring Ceremony) is a Ritual dating from 1922 for Students about to graduate Some years later in 1972 this practice was adopted by several colleges in the United States. Members of the US Order of the Engineer accept this ring as a pledge to uphold the proud history of engineering. The Order of the Engineer is an association for graduate and Professional engineers in the United States that emphasizes pride and responsibility in the engineering

A Professional Engineer's name may be followed by the post-nominal letters PE or P. Professional Engineer (PE is the term for registered or Licensed Engineers in some countries who are permitted to offer their Professional services directly Post-nominal letters, also called " post-nominal initials " or " post-nominal titles " are letters placed after the name of a person to indicate that Eng in North America. In much of Europe a professional engineer is denoted by the letters IR, while in the UK and much of the Commonwealth the term Chartered Engineer applies and is denoted by the letters CEng.

Legislation

In most Western countries, certain engineering tasks, such as the design of bridges, electric power plants, and chemical plants, must be approved by a Professional Engineer or a Chartered Engineer or an Incorporated Engineer. Professional Engineer (PE is the term for registered or Licensed Engineers in some countries who are permitted to offer their Professional services directly Incorporated engineer (IEng is a professional qualification in Engineering (obtained after an Engineer's degree) offered through Professional

Laws protecting public health and safety mandate that a professional must provide guidance gained through education and experience. This article is about people called professionals For the Movie, see The Professional or Leon. Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency In the United States, each state tests and licenses Professional Engineers. Professional Engineer (PE is the term for registered or Licensed Engineers in some countries who are permitted to offer their Professional services directly In much of Europe and the Commonwealth professional accreditation is provided by Engineering Institutions, such as the Institution of Civil Engineers from the UK. An engineering society is a Professional organization for engineers of various disciplines. Founded on 2 January 1818, the Institution of Civil Engineers (ICE is an independent Professional association, based in central London, The engineering institutions of the UK are some of the oldest in the world, and provide accreditation to many engineers around the world. In Canada the profession in each province is governed by its own engineering association. For instance, in the Province of British Columbia an engineering graduate with 4 or more years of experience in an engineering-related field will need to be registered by the Association for Professional Engineers and Geoscientists [(APEGBC)][1] in order to become a Professional Engineer and be granted the professional designation of P. Eng.

The federal US government, however, supervises aviation through the Federal Aviation Regulations administrated by the Dept. of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration. Designated Engineering Representatives approve data for aircraft design and repairs on behalf of the Federal Aviation Administration.

Even with strict testing and licensure, engineering disasters still occur. Therefore, the Professional Engineer, Chartered Engineer, or Incorporated Engineer adheres to a strict code of ethics. Professional Engineer (PE is the term for registered or Licensed Engineers in some countries who are permitted to offer their Professional services directly Incorporated engineer (IEng is a professional qualification in Engineering (obtained after an Engineer's degree) offered through Professional Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life Each engineering discipline and professional society maintains a code of ethics, which the members pledge to uphold.

Refer also to the Washington accord for international accreditation details of professional engineering degrees. The Washington Accord is an international accreditation agreement for professional Engineering Academic degrees between the bodies responsible for accreditation in

Relationships with other disciplines

Science

Scientists study the world as it is; engineers create the world that has never been.

—Theodore von Kármán

There exists an overlap between the sciences and engineering practice; in engineering, one applies science. Both areas of endeavor rely on accurate observation of materials and phenomena. Materials are physical Substances used as inputs to production or Manufacturing. Both use mathematics and classification criteria to analyze and communicate observations. Scientists are expected to interpret their observations and to make expert recommendations for practical action based on those interpretations. Scientists may also have to complete engineering tasks, such as designing experimental apparatus or building prototypes. Conversely, in the process of developing technology engineers sometimes find themselves exploring new phenomena, thus becoming, for the moment, scientists.

In the book What Engineers Know and How They Know It,^[20] Walter Vincenti asserts that engineering research has a character different from that of scientific research. First, it often deals with areas in which the basic physics and/or chemistry are well understood, but the problems themselves are too complex to solve in an exact manner. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Examples are the use of numerical approximations to the Navier-Stokes equations to describe aerodynamic flow over an aircraft, or the use of Miner's rule to calculate fatigue damage. The Navier–Stokes equations, named after Claude-Louis Navier and George Gabriel Stokes, describe the motion of viscous Fluid substances such Second, engineering research employs many semi-empirical methods that are foreign to pure scientific research, one example being the method of parameter variation. In Mathematics, variation of parameters also known as variation of constants, is a general method to solve inhomogeneous linear Ordinary

As stated by Fung et al. in the revision to the classic engineering text, Foundations of Solid Mechanics, ^[21]

"Engineering is quite different from science. Scientists try to understand nature. Engineers try to make things that do not exist in nature. Engineers stress invention. To embody an invention the engineer must put his idea in concrete terms, and design something that people can use. That something can be a device, a gadget, a material, a method, a computing program, an innovative experiment, a new solution to a problem, or an improvement on what is existing. Since a design has to be concrete, it must have its geometry, dimensions, and characteristic numbers. Almost all engineers working on new designs find that they do not have all the needed information. Most often, they are limited by insufficient scientific knowledge. Thus they study mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology and mechanics. Often they have to add to the sciences relevant to their profession. Thus engineering sciences are born. "

Medicine and biology

Leonardo DaVinci, seen here in a self-portrait, has been described as the epitome of the artist/engineer. Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer ^[22] He is also known for his studies on human anatomy and physiognomy

The study of the human body, albeit from different directions and for different purposes, is an important common link between medicine and some engineering disciplines. Human anatomy, which with physiology and biochemistry is a complementary basic medical science is primarily the scientific study of the morphology of the adult Human body Physiognomy ( Gk physis, nature and gnomon, judge interpreter is the assessment of a person's character or personality from their outer appearance especially Medicine aims to sustain, enhance and even replace functions of the human body, if necessary, through the use of technology. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the The human body is the entire physical and mental structure of a Human Organism. Technology is a broad concept that deals with a Species ' usage and knowledge of Tools and Crafts and how it affects a species' ability to control and adapt Modern medicine can replace several of the body's functions through the use of artificial organs and can significantly alter the function of the human body through artificial devices such as, for example, brain implants and pacemakers. Brain implants, often referred to as neural implants, are technological devices that connect directly to a biological subject's Brain - usually placed on the For other uses see Pacemaker (disambiguation A pacemaker (or artificial pacemaker, so as not to be confused with the heart's natural pacemaker ^[23][24] The fields of Bionics and medical Bionics are dedicated to the study of synthetic implants pertaining to natural systems. Bionics (also known as biomimetics, biognosis, Biomimicry, or bionical creativity engineering) is the application of biological Conversely, some engineering disciplines view the human body as a biological machine worth studying, and are dedicated to emulating many of its functions by replacing biology with technology. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles This has led to fields such as artificial intelligence, neural networks, fuzzy logic, and robotics. Traditionally the term neural network had been used to refer to a network or circuit of biological neurons. Fuzzy logic is a form of Multi-valued logic derived from Fuzzy set theory to deal with Reasoning that is approximate rather than precise A robot is a mechanical or Virtual Artificial agent In practice it is usually an electro-mechanical system which by its appearance or movements There are also substantial interdisciplinary interactions between engineering and medicine. ^[25][26]

Both fields provide solutions to real world problems. This often requires moving forward before phenomena are completely understood in a more rigorous scientific sense and therefore experimentation and empirical knowledge is an integral part of both. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Medicine, in part, studies the function of the human body. The human body, as a biological machine, has many functions that can be modeled using Engineering methods. ^[27] The heart for example functions much like a pump,^[28] the skeleton is like a linked structure with levers,^[29] the brain produces electrical signals etc. In the fields of communications, Signal processing, and in Electrical engineering more generally a signal is any time-varying or spatial-varying quantity ^[30] These similarities as well as the increasing importance and application of Engineering principles in Medicine, led to the development of the field of biomedical engineering that utilizes concepts developed in both disciplines. Biomedical engineering ( BME) is the application of engineering principles and techniques to the medical field

Newly emerging branches of science, such as Systems biology, are adapting analytical tools traditionally used for engineering, such as systems modeling and computational analysis, to the description of biological systems. Systems biology is a biology-based inter-disciplinary study field that focuses on the systematic study of complex interactions in biological systems, thus using a new perspective ^[27]

Art

There are connections between engineering and art;^[31] they are direct in some fields, for example, architecture, landscape architecture and industrial design (even to the extent that these disciplines may sometimes be included in a University's Faculty of Engineering); and indirect in others. The term architecture (from Greek αρχιτεκτονικήarchitektoniki) can be used to mean a process a profession or documentation Landscape architecture involves the investigation and designed response to the landscape Industrial design is an Applied art whereby the Aesthetics and Usability of mass-produced products may be improved for marketability and A faculty is a division within a University. The concept of a university with different faculties for different subjects dates back to Al-Azhar University, which had ^{[31][32][33][34]} The Art Institute of Chicago, for instance, held an exhibition about the art of NASA's aerospace design. The Art Institute of Chicago is one of America's premier Fine art museums The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program ^[35] Robert Maillart's bridge design is perceived by some to have been deliberately artistic. Robert Maillart ( February 6, 1872 - April 5, 1940) was a Swiss Civil engineer who revolutionized Reinforced concrete ^[36] At the University of South Florida, an engineering professor, through a grant with the National Science Foundation, has developed a course that connects art and engineering. The University of South Florida ( USF) known within its system as USF Tampa, is a public research University system located in Tampa, Florida The National Science Foundation (NSF is a United States Government agency that supports fundamental Research and Education in all the non-medical ^[37][32] Among famous historical figures Leonardo Da Vinci is a well known Renaissance artist and engineer, and a prime example of the nexus between art and engineering. Leonardo di ser Piero da Vinci ( April 15 1452 – May 2 1519 was an Italian Polymath, having been a scientist Mathematician, Engineer The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Art refers to a diverse range of Human activities creations and expressions that are appealing to the Senses or Emotions of a human individual ^[22][38]

Other fields

In Political science the term engineering has been borrowed for the study of the subjects of Social engineering and Political engineering, which deal with forming political and social structures using engineering methodology coupled with political science principles. Political science is a branch of Social sciences that deals with the theory and practice of Politics and the description and analysis of Political systems Political engineering is a concept in Political science that deals with the designing of political institutions in a society Political structure is a term frequently used in Political science. Social structure is a term frequently used in Sociology and Social theory — yet rarely defined or clearly conceptualised (Abercrombie et al Political science is a branch of Social sciences that deals with the theory and practice of Politics and the description and analysis of Political systems .

See also

Main lists: List of basic engineering topics and Alphabetical list of engineering topics

References

Further reading

External links

• National Society of Professional Engineers article on Licensure and Qualifications for the Practice of Engineering
• American Society for Engineering Education (ASEE)
• The US Library of Congress Engineering in History bibliography
• ICES-The Institute for Complex Engineered Systems [2]
• History of engineering bibliography at University of Minnesota
• National Center for Research on Earthquake Engineering