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Endocrinology is a branch of medicine dealing with disorders of the endocrine system and its specific secretions called hormones. The endocrine system is an integrated system of small organs that involve the release of extracellular signaling molecules known as Hormones The endocrine system is instrumental Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus" are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body

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Function of endocrine organs, hormones and receptors

Hormones are molecules that act as signals from one type of cells to another. Most hormones reach their targets via the blood.

All multicellular organisms need coordinating systems to regulate and integrate the function of cells. Two mechanisms perform this function in higher animals: the nervous system and the endocrine system. The endocrine system acts through the release (generally into the blood) of chemical agents and is vital to the proper development and function of organisms. As Hadley notes,[1] the integration of developmental events such as proliferation, growth, and differentiation (including histogenesis and organogenesis) and the coordination of metabolism, respiration, excretion, movement, reproduction, and sensory perception depend on chemical cues, substances synthesised and secreted by specialised cells. Histogenesis is the formation of different tissues from undifferentiated cells. In animal development, organogenesis is the process by which the Ectoderm, Endoderm, and Mesoderm develop into the Internal organs Metabolism is the set of Chemical reactions that occur in living Organisms in order to maintain Life. In Animal physiology, respiration is the transport of Oxygen from the outside air to the cells within tissues and the transport of Carbon dioxide Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced

Endocrinology is concerned with the study of the biosynthesis, storage, chemistry, and physiological function of hormones and with the cells of the endocrine glands and tissues that secrete them. Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus" are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body

The endocrine system consists of several glands, in different parts of the body, that secrete hormones directly into the blood rather than into a duct system. Hormones have many different functions and modes of action; one hormone may have several effects on different target organs, and, conversely, one target organ may be affected by more than one hormone.

In the original 1902 definition by Bayliss and Starling (see below), they specified that, to be classified as a hormone, a chemical must be produced by an organ, be released (in small amounts) into the blood, and be transported by the blood to a distant organ to exert its specific function. This definition holds for most "classical" hormones, but there are also paracrine mechanisms (chemical communication between cells within a tissue or organ), autocrine signals (a chemical that acts on the same cell), and intracrine signals (a chemical that acts within the same cell). Paracrine signaling is a form of Cell signaling in which the target cell is near (" Para " = near the signal-releasing cell Intracrine refers to a Hormone that acts inside a cell. Steroid hormones act through intracellular (mostly nuclear receptors and are thus considered as [2] A neuroendocrine signal is a "classical" hormone that is released into the blood by a neurosecretory neuron (see article on Neuroendocrinology). Neuroendocrine nʊəroʊˈɛndəkrɪn cells are cells that release a hormone into the circulating blood in response to a neural stimulus Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interactions between the Nervous system and the Endocrine system.

Hormones act by binding to specific receptors in the target organ. In Biochemistry, a receptor is a Protein molecule embedded in either the Plasma membrane or Cytoplasm of a cell to which a mobile signaling As Baulieu notes, a receptor has at least two basic constituents:

Between these is a "transduction mechanism" in which hormone binding induces allosteric modification that, in turn, produces the appropriate response.

Chemical classes of hormones

Amine hormones: norepinephrine and triiodothryonine
Amine hormones: norepinephrine and triiodothryonine
Steroid hormones: cortisol and vitamin D3
Steroid hormones: cortisol and vitamin D3

Griffin and Ojeda identify three different classes of hormone based on their chemical composition:[4]

Amines

Amines, such as norepinephrine, epinephrine, and dopamine, are derived from single amino acids, in this case tyrosine. Norepinephrine ( INN) (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline ( BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a Dopamine is a Hormone and Neurotransmitter occurring in a wide variety of animals including both vertebrates and invertebrates Thyroid hormones such as 3,5,3’-triiodothyronine (T3) and 3,5,3’,5’-tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine, T4) make up a subset of this class because they derive from the combination of two iodinated tyrosine amino acid residues. The thyroid is one of the largest Endocrine glands in the body

Peptide and protein

Peptide hormones and protein hormones consist of three (in the case of thyrotropin-releasing hormone) to more than 200 (in the case of follicle-stimulating hormone) amino acid residues and can have molecular weights as large as 30,000. Peptide hormones are a class of peptides that are secreted into the blood stream and have Endocrine functions in living animals Thyrotropin-releasing hormone ( TRH) also called thyrotropin-releasing factor ( TRF) thyroliberin or protirelin, is a tropic Follicle-stimulating hormone ( FSH) is a Hormone synthesized and secreted by Gonadotropes in the Anterior pituitary gland. All hormones secreted by the pituitary gland are peptide hormones, as are leptin from adipocytes, ghrelin from the stomach, and insulin from the pancreas. Leptin (Greek leptos meaning thin is a 16 kDa Ghrelin is a Hormone produced mainly by P/D1 cells lining the fundus of the human Stomach and epsilon cells of the Pancreas that stimulates Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance The pancreas is a Gland organ in the digestive and Endocrine system of Vertebrates.

Steroid

Steroid hormones are converted from their parent compound, cholesterol. Steroid hormones are Steroids which act as Hormones Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind Cholesterol is a Lipid found in the Cell membranes and transported in the Blood plasma of all Animals It is an essential component of mammalian Mammalian steroid hormones can be grouped into five groups by the receptors to which they bind: glucocorticoids, mineralocorticoids, androgens, estrogens, and progestagens. Glucocorticoids (GC are a class of Steroid hormones characterised by an ability to bind with the glucocorticoid receptor ( GR) and trigger similar effects Mineralocorticoids are a class of Steroid hormones characterised by their similarity to Aldosterone and their influence on salt and water balance Androgen is the generic term for any natural or synthetic compound usually a Steroid Hormone, that stimulates or controls the development and maintenance of masculine Estrogens (US otherwise oestrogens or œstrogens) are a group of Steroid compounds named for their importance in the Estrous cycle, Progestagens (also spelled progestogens or gestagens) are Hormones that produce effects similar to those of Progesterone, the only natural progestagen

History and key discoveries of endocrinology

The study of endocrinology began when Berthold noted that castrated cockerels did not develop combs and wattles or exhibit overtly male behaviour. Arnold Adolph Berthold or Arnold Adolf Berthold (1803 - 1861 was a German physiologist and zoologist. [5] He found that replacement of testes back into the abdominal cavity of the same bird or another castrated bird resulted in normal behavioural and morphological development, and he concluded (erroneously) that the testes secreted a substance that "conditioned" the blood that, in turn, acted on the body of the cockerel. In fact, one of two other things could have been true: that the testes modified or activated a constituent of the blood or that the testes removed an inhibitory factor from the blood. It was not proven that the testes released a substance that engenders male characteristics until it was shown that the extract of testes could replace their function in castrated animals. Pure, crystalline testosterone was isolated in 1935. Testosterone is a Steroid hormone from the Androgen group In mammals testosterone is primarily secreted in the testes of males and the Ovaries [6]

Although most of the relevant tissues and endocrine glands had been identified by early anatomists, a more humoral approach to understanding biological function and disease was favoured by classical thinkers such as Aristotle, Hippocrates, Lucretius, Celsus, and Galen, according to Freeman et al,[7] and these theories held sway until the advent of germ theory, physiology, and organ basis of pathology in the 19th century. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Hippocrates of Cos II or Hippokrates of Kos ( ca. 460 BC – ca Titus Lucretius Carus (ca 99 BC- ca 55 BC was a Roman Poet and Philosopher. Celsus ( Greek:) was a 2nd century Greek philosopher and opponent of Christianity. Galen ( Greek: Γαληνός Galēnos; Latin: Claudius Galenus, Aelius Galenus, Claudius Aelius Galenus, or The germ theory, also called the pathogenic theory of medicine, is a Theory that proposes that Microorganisms are the cause of many Diseases.

In medieval Persia, Avicenna (980-1037) provided a detailed account on diabetes mellitus in The Canon of Medicine (c. See Also Persian Empire History of Iran and Greater Iran (also referred to as the " Iranian Cultural Continent TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian 1025), "describing the abnormal appetite and the collapse of sexual functions and he documented the sweet taste of diabetic urine. " Like Aretaeus of Cappadocia before him, Avicenna recognized a primary and secondary diabetes. Aretaeus ( is one of the most celebrated of the ancient Greek Physicians of whose life however few particulars are known He also described diabetic gangrene, and treated diabetes using a mixture of lupine, trigonella (fenugreek), and zedoary seed, which produces a considerable reduction in the excretion of sugar, a treatment which is still prescribed in modern times. Please do not add warnings to this page about the pictures Wikipedia is not censored for taste and has a guideline preventing such warnings - WikipediaNo disclaimers in articles Lupin, often spelled lupine in North America, is the common name for members of the Genus Lupinus in the legume family Trigonella is a large genus from the family Fabaceae, with about 130 species Fenugreek ( Trigonella foenum-graecum) is a plant in the family Fabaceae. Zedoary ( Curcuma zedoaria, known as kacōramu in Telugu) is the name for a perennial Herb and member of the genus Curcuma Linn Avicenna also "described diabetes insipidus very precisely for the first time", though it was later Johann Peter Frank (1745-1821) who first differentiated between diabetes mellitus and diabetes insipidus. Johann Peter Frank (1745 - 1821 was a German physician and Hygienist who was a native of Rodalben. [8]

In the 12th century, al-Jurjani, another Persian physician, provided the first description of Graves' disease after noting the association of goitre and exophthalmos in his Thesaurus of the Shah of Khwarazm, the major medical dictionary of its time. Zayn al-Din Sayyed Isma‘il ibn al-Husayn al-Jorjani, also spelled al-Jurjani and Gorgani, was a 12th century royal Islamic physician from Gorgan Graves' disease is a Thyroid disorder characterized by goiter, Exophthalmos, "orange-peel" skin and Hyperthyroidism. A goitre ( BrE) or goiter ( AmE) ( Latin struma) also called a bronchocele, is a swelling in the neck (just below the Exophthalmos is a bulging of the Eye anteriorly out of the orbit. [9][10] Al-Jurjani also established an association between goitre and palpitation. A palpitation (medical term ectopic heart beat) is an abnormal awareness of the beating of the Heart, whether it is too slow too fast irregular [11] The disease was later named after Irish doctor Robert James Graves,[12] who described a case of goiter with exophthalmos in 1835. The German Karl Adolph von Basedow also independently reported the same constellation of symptoms in 1840, while earlier reports of the disease were also published by the Italians Giuseppe Flajani and Antonio Giuseppe Testa, in 1802 and 1810 respectively,[13] and by the English physician Caleb Hillier Parry (a friend of Edward Jenner) in the late 18th century. Karl Adolph von Basedow ( March 28, 1799 – April 11, 1854) was a German Physician most famous for reporting the symptoms Edward Jenner, FRS, ( May 17 1749 – January 26 1823) was an English scientist who studied his natural surroundings in Berkeley [14]

In 1902 Bayliss and Starling performed an experiment in which they observed that acid instilled into the duodenum caused the pancreas to begin secretion, even after they had removed all nervous connections between the two. In Anatomy of the Digestive system, the duodenum is a hollow jointed tube about 25-30 cm (10-12 in long connecting the Stomach to the Jejunum The pancreas is a Gland organ in the digestive and Endocrine system of Vertebrates. [15] The same response could be produced by injecting extract of jejunum mucosa into jugular vein, showing that some factor in the mucosa was responsible. They named this substance "secretin" and coined the term hormone for chemicals that act in this way. Secretin is a Peptide hormone produced in the S cells of the Duodenum in the Crypts of Lieberkühn.

Von Mering and Minkowski made the observation in 1889 that removing the pancreas surgically led to an increase in blood sugar, followed by a coma and eventual death—symptoms of diabetes mellitus. The pancreas is a Gland organ in the digestive and Endocrine system of Vertebrates. Blood sugar, used in a physiological context is a misnomer and misleading Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc In 1922, Banting and Best realized that homogenizing the pancreas and injecting the derived extract reversed this condition. [16] The hormone responsible, insulin, was not discovered until Frederick Sanger sequenced it in 1953. Insulin is a Hormone with intensive effects on both metabolism and several other body systems (eg vascular compliance

Neurohormones were first identified by Otto Loewi in 1921. A neurohormone is any Hormone produced by neurosecretory cells usually in the Brain. Otto Loewi ( June 3, 1873 &ndash December 25, 1961) was a German pharmacologist whose discovery of Acetylcholine [17] He incubated a frog's heart (innervated with its vagus nerve attached) in a saline bath, and left in the solution for some time. The vagus nerve (ˈveɪˌgəs (VĀ-gəs (also called pneumogastric nerve or cranial nerve X) is the tenth of twelve paired Cranial nerves, and is the The solution was then used to bathe a non-innervated second heart. If the vagus nerve on the first heart was stimulated, negative inotropic (beat amplitude) and chronotropic (beat rate) activity were seen in both hearts. An inotrope (ˈaɪnətroʊp is an agent that alters the force or energy of Muscular contractions Negatively inotropic agents weaken the force of muscular contractions Chronotropic effects (from chrono-, meaning time are those that change the Heart rate. This did not occur in either heart if the vagus nerve was stimulated. The vagus nerve was adding something to the saline solution. The effect could be blocked using atropine, a known inhibitor to heart vagal nerve stimulation. Clearly, something was being secreted by the vagus nerve and affecting the heart. The "vagusstuff" (as Loewi called it) causing the myotropic effects was later identified to be acetylcholine and norepinephrine. The Chemical compound acetylcholine (often abbreviated ACh) is a Neurotransmitter in both the Peripheral nervous system (PNS and Central Norepinephrine ( INN) (abbreviated norepi or NE) or noradrenaline ( BAN) (abbreviated NA or NAd) is a Loewi won the Nobel Prize for his discovery.

Recent work in endocrinology focuses on the molecular mechanisms responsible for triggering the effects of hormones. The first example of such work being done was in 1962 by Earl Sutherland. Sutherland investigated whether hormones enter cells to evoke action, or stayed outside of cells. He studied norepinephrine, which acts on the liver to convert glycogen into glucose via the activation of the phosphorylase enzyme. Glycogen is a Polysaccharide of Glucose (Glc which functions as the secondary short term energy storage in Animal cells Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Phosphorylase is a family of allosteric Enzymes that catalyze the production of Glucose-1-phosphate from a polyglucose such as Glycogen He homogenized the liver into a membrane fraction and soluble fraction (phosphorylase is soluble), added norepinephrine to the membrane fraction, extracted its soluble products, and added them to the first soluble fraction. Phosphorylase activated, indicating that norepinephrine's target receptor was on the cell membrane, not located intracellularly. He later identified the compound as cyclic AMP (cAMP) and with his discovery created the concept of second-messenger-mediated pathways. Cyclic adenosine monophosphate ( cAMP, cyclic AMP or 3'-5'-cyclic Adenosine monophosphate) is a Second messenger that is important in many biological He, like Loewi, won the Nobel Prize for his groundbreaking work in endocrinology. [18]

Endocrinology as a profession

Although every organ system secretes and responds to hormones (including the brain, lungs, heart, intestine, skin, and the kidney), the clinical specialty of endocrinology focuses primarily on the endocrine organs, meaning the organs whose primary function is hormone secretion. The brain is the center of the Nervous system in animals All Vertebrates and the majority of Invertebrates have a brain lung is the essential Respiration organ in air-breathing Animals including most Tetrapods a few Fish and a few Snails The most primitive The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic In Anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the Stomach to the Anus and in humans and other mammals consists The skin is the outer covering of living tissue of an animal (or plant The kidneys are complicated organs that have numerous biological roles These organs include the pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, ovaries, testes, and pancreas. The pituitary gland, or hypophysis, is an Endocrine gland about the size of a Pea. The thyroid is one of the largest Endocrine glands in the body In Mammals the adrenal glands (also known as suprarenal glands) are the triangle-shaped Endocrine glands that sit on top of the Kidneys their "Ovaria" redirects here This is also a proposed section and a Synonym of Solanum. The testicle (from Latin testiculus, diminutive of testis, meaning "witness" virility plural testes) is the male The pancreas is a Gland organ in the digestive and Endocrine system of Vertebrates.

An endocrinologist is a doctor who specializes in treating disorders of the endocrine system, such as diabetes, hyperthyroidism, and many others (see list of diseases below). A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc Hyperthyroidism is the term for overactive tissue within the Thyroid gland resulting in overproduction and thus an excess of circulating free thyroid hormones Thyroxine

Work

The medical specialty of endocrinology involves the diagnostic evaluation of a wide variety of symptoms and variations and the long-term management of disorders of deficiency or excess of one or more hormones.

The diagnosis and treatment of endocrine diseases are guided by laboratory tests to a greater extent than for most specialties. A laboratory (informally lab) is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which scientific Research, Experiments and Many diseases are investigated through excitation/stimulation or inhibition/suppression testing. This might involve injection with a stimulating agent to test the function of an endocrine organ. Blood is then sampled to assess the changes of the relevant hormones or metabolites. An endocrinologist needs extensive knowledge of clinical chemistry and biochemistry to understand the uses and limitations of the investigations. Clinical chemistry (also known as clinical biochemistry, chemical pathology or pure blood chemistry) is the area of Pathology that is generally Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as

A second important aspect of the practice of endocrinology is distinguishing human variation from disease. Atypical patterns of physical development and abnormal test results must be assessed as indicative of disease or not. Diagnostic imaging of endocrine organs may reveal incidental findings called incidentalomas, which may or may not represent disease. Medical imaging refers to the techniques and processes used to create Images of the human body (or parts thereof for clinical purposes ( Medical procedures seeking to In Medicine, an incidentaloma is a Tumor ( -oma) found by coincidence ( incidental) without clinical Symptoms or suspicion

Endocrinology involves caring for the person as well as the disease. Most endocrine disorders are chronic diseases that need life-long care. In Medicine, a chronic disease is a Disease that is long-lasting or recurrent Some of the most common endocrine diseases include diabetes mellitus, hypothyroidism and the metabolic syndrome. Diabetes mellitus (ˌdaɪəˈbiːtiːz or /ˌdaɪəˈbiːtəs/ /məˈlaɪtəs/ or /ˈmɛlətəs/ often referred to simply as diabetes ( Ancient Greek: grc Hypothyroidism is the disease state in humans and animals caused by insufficient production of Thyroid hormone by the Thyroid gland. Care of diabetes, obesity and other chronic diseases necessitates understanding the patient at the personal and social level as well as the molecular, and the physician–patient relationship can be an important therapeutic process.

Apart from treating patients, many endocrinologists are involved in clinical science and medical research, teaching, and hospital management and topiary. Clinical science is the practical study of medical principles or investigations using controlled procedures to evaluate results Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted In Education, a teacher is one who helps Students or pupils often in a School, as well as in a Family, religious or Topiary is the art of creating Sculptures in the medium of clipped Trees, Shrubs and Sub-shrubs The word derives from the Latin

Training

There are roughly 7,000 to 80,000 endocrinologists in the United States. Endocrinologists are specialists of internal medicine or pediatrics. Internal medicine is the medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis management and nonsurgical treatment of unusual or serious diseases Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of Medicine that deals with the medical care of Infants Children and Adolescents Reproductive endocrinologists deal primarily with problems of fertility and menstrual function—often training first in obstetrics. Fertility is the natural capability of giving life As a measure "Fertility Rate" is the number of children born per couple person or population Most qualify as an internist, pediatrician, or gynecologist for a few years before specializing, depending on the local training system. Internal medicine is the medical specialty concerned with the diagnosis management and nonsurgical treatment of unusual or serious diseases Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of Medicine that deals with the medical care of Infants Children and Adolescents Gynaecology or gynecology (see spelling differences) refers to the surgical specialty dealing with health of the female reproductive system ( Uterus In the U. S. and Canada, training for board certification in internal medicine, pediatrics, or gynecology after medical school is called residency. Pediatrics (also spelled paediatrics) is the branch of Medicine that deals with the medical care of Infants Children and Adolescents Gynaecology or gynecology (see spelling differences) refers to the surgical specialty dealing with health of the female reproductive system ( Uterus Further formal training to subspecialize in adult, pediatric, or reproductive endocrinology is called a fellowship. Pediatric Endocrinology ( British: Paediatric is a medical subspecialty dealing with variations of physical Growth and sexual development in childhood Typical training for a North American endocrinologist involves 4 years of college, 4 years of medical school, 3 years of residency, and 3 years of fellowship. Adult endocrinologists are board certified by the American Board of Internal Medicine (ABIM) in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism. The American Board of Internal Medicine ( ABIM) is a Non-profit, independent Physician organization in the U

Professional organizations

In North America the principal professional organizations of endocrinologists include The Endocrine Society,[19] the American Association of Clinical Endocrinologists,[20] the American Diabetes Association,[21] the Lawson Wilkins Pediatric Endocrine Society,[22] and the American Thyroid Association. [23]

In the United Kingdom, the Society for Endocrinology[24] and the British Society for Paediatric Endocrinology and Diabetes[25] are the main professional organisations. The European Society for Paediatric Endocrinology[26] is the largest international professional association dedicated solely to paediatric endocrinology. There are numerous similar associations around the world.

Patient education

Because endocrinology encompasses so many conditions and diseases, there are many organizations that provide education to patients and the public. The Hormone Foundation is the public education affiliate of The Endocrine Society and provides information on all endocrine-related conditions. The Hormone Foundation, established in 1997 by The Endocrine Society as its public education affiliate serves as a resource for physicians patients and the public by The Endocrine Society is a professional international medical organization in the field of Endocrinology and Metabolism, founded in 1916 as The Association for the Other educational organizations that focus on one or more endocrine-related conditions include the American Diabetes Association, National Osteoporosis Foundation, Human Growth Foundation, American Menopause Foundation, Inc. The American Diabetes Association, or the ADA is an American health organization providing Diabetes research information and advocacy The National Osteoporosis Foundation (NOF is an American voluntary health organization dedicated to Osteoporosis and Bone health , and Thyroid Foundation of America.

Diseases

See main article at Endocrine diseases

A disease due to a disorder of the endocrine system is often called a "hormone imbalance", but is technically known as an endocrinopathy or endocrinosis. Among the hundreds of endocrine diseases (or endocrinological diseases) are Adrenal disorders Adrenal insufficiency

See also

References

  1. ^ Hadley ME. Pediatric Endocrinology ( British: Paediatric is a medical subspecialty dealing with variations of physical Growth and sexual development in childhood Neuroendocrinology is the study of the interactions between the Nervous system and the Endocrine system. Hormones (from Greek ὁρμή - "impetus" are chemicals released by cells that affect cells in other parts of the body Endocrinology 5th ed. London: Prentice –Hall International (UK) Ltd, 2000.
  2. ^ Nussey S, Whitehead S. Endocrinology: An integrated approach. Oxford: BIOS Scientific Publishers Ltd. , 2001.
  3. ^ Baulieu EE. Hormones: From molecules to disease Baulieu, E-E. and Kelly, P. A. , (eds) Paris: Hermann, 1990.
  4. ^ Griffin JE, Ojeda SR. Textbook of Endocrine Physiology 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2000.
  5. ^ Berthold AA. Transplantation der Hoden Arch. Anat. Phsiol. Wiss. Med. 1849;16:42-6.
  6. ^ David K, Dingemanse E, Freud J et al. Uber krystallinisches mannliches Hormon aus Hoden (Testosteron) wirksamer als aus harn oder aus Cholesterin bereitetes Androsteron. Hoppe Seylers Z Physiol Chem 1935;233:281.
  7. ^ Freeman ER, Bloom DA, McGuire JE. A Brief History of Testosterone. J Urol 2001;165:371-373.
  8. ^ Nabipour, I. (2003), “Clinical Endocrinology in the Islamic Civilization in Iran”, International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 1: 43-45 [44-5] 
  9. ^ Basedow's syndrome or disease at Who Named It - the history and naming of the disease
  10. ^ Ljunggren, J. Who Named It? is an English-language dictionary of medical eponyms and the People associated with their identification G. (August 10, 1983), “Who was the man behind the syndrome: Ismail al-Jurjani, Testa, Flagani, Parry, Graves or Basedow? Use the term hyperthyreosis instead”, Lakartidningen 80 (32-33): 2902 
  11. ^ Nabipour, I. (2003), “Clinical Endocrinology in the Islamic Civilization in Iran”, International Journal of Endocrinology and Metabolism 1: 43-45 [45] 
  12. ^ Robert James Graves at Who Named It
  13. ^ Giuseppe Flajani at Who Named It
  14. ^ Hull G (1998). Who Named It? is an English-language dictionary of medical eponyms and the People associated with their identification Who Named It? is an English-language dictionary of medical eponyms and the People associated with their identification "Caleb Hillier Parry 1755-1822: a notable provincial physician". Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine 91 (6): 335–8. PMID 9771526.  
  15. ^ Bayliss WM, Starling EH. The mechanism of pancreatic secretion. J Physiol 1902;28:325–352.
  16. ^ Bliss, M. J. J. R. Macleod and the discovery of insulin. Quart. J. Exp. Physiol. Wiss. Med. 1989;16:42-6.
  17. ^ Loewi, O. Uebertragbarkeit der Herznervenwirkung. Pfluger's Arch. ges Physiol. 1921;189:239-42.
  18. ^ Sutherland, E. Studies on the mechanisms of hormone action. Science 1972;177:401-8.
  19. ^ Endo-society.org
  20. ^ AACE.com
  21. ^ Diabetes.org
  22. ^ lwpes.org
  23. ^ Thyroid.org
  24. ^ endocrinology.org
  25. ^ bsped.org.uk
  26. ^ Eurospe.org

External links

Societies and associations

Medical Subject Headings ( MeSH) is a huge Controlled vocabulary (or metadata system for the purpose of indexing journal articles and books

Dictionary

endocrinology

-noun

  1. (physiology) The study of the endocrine glands of the human body, the hormones produced by them, and their related disorders
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