An emotion is a mental and physiological state associated with a wide variety of feelings, thoughts, and behaviours. It is a prime determinant of the sense of subjective well-being and appears to play a central role in many human activities. Quality of life is the degree of well-being felt by an individual or group of people As a result of this generality, the subject has been explored in many, if not all of the human sciences and art forms. There is much controversy concerning how emotions are defined and classified.

Contents 1 Etymology 2 Defining Emotion 3 Emotion Classification 4 Theoretical Traditions in Emotion Research 4.1 Somatic Theories of Emotion 4.1.1 The James-Lange Theory 4.1.2 The Perceptual Theory 4.2 Cognitive Theories of Emotion 4.2.1 The Cannon-Bard Theory 4.2.2 The Two Factor Theory 4.2.3 The Component Process Model 5 Disciplinary approaches to Emotions 5.1 Evolutionary Biology of Emotions 5.2 Sociology of Emotions 5.3 Psychotherapy of Emotions 5.4 Computer Science of Emotions 6 Notable theorists of emotions 7 Closely related terms 8 See also 9 Notes 10 References 11 External links

Etymology

The English word 'emotion' is derived from the French words émotion and émouvoir. This is based on the Latin emovere, where e- (variant of ex-) means 'out' and movere means 'move'. ^[1] The related term "motivation" is also derived from movere.

Defining Emotion

To begin, many researchers distinguish feeling and emotion, where feeling refers to the subjective experience of the emotion. The word feeling has several possible definitions The word was first used in the English language to describe the physical sensation of Touch either through experience Some believe that emotions can occur unconsciously, and hence that emotion is a more general phenomenon than its subjective feeling. Feelings may also more narrowly refer to the experience of bodily changes.

A second distinction focuses on the difference between the emotion and the cause of the emotion. For example do we say that thoughts about a loved one cause the emotion of love or that these thoughts are part of the emotion? One way to resolve this issue is to see whether the emotion can occur independently of these thoughts. Thus, thoughts about a particular person or situation could not be part of the emotion of love, since one can experience the same emotion about many other things. Yet could one experience love without some thought or other of a loved person or object? If not, then we may stipulate that thoughts of a loved object are part of the emotion. Some theorists argue that at least some emotions can be caused without any thoughts or indeed 'cognitive activity' at all. They point to very immediate reactions (e. g. LeDoux 1996), as well as the conjectured emotions of infants and animals as justification here. Debate on this point is ongoing but represents a major distinction between what are called 'cognitive' theories of emotions and 'non-cognitive' theories of emotions, where non-cognitive theories regard some other feature of emotions, such as bodily responses to be essential.

A related distinction is between the emotion and the results of the emotion, principally behaviours and emotional expressions. People often behave in certain ways as a direct result of their emotional state, such as crying, fighting or fleeing. Yet again, if one can have the emotion without the corresponding behaviour then we may consider the behaviour not to be essential to the emotion. However some theorists such as Nico Frijda who hold a functionalist approach to emotions point to the idea that emotions have evolved for a particular function, such as to keep the subject safe. Nico Frijda ( Amsterdam, 1 May 1927) is a Dutch psychologist and emeritus professor of the University of Amsterdam Frijda studied If the behaviours associated with an emotion are the determining factor for the very existence of that emotion then goal-directed behaviour should be regarded as essential to the emotion. Yet since we recognise that the behaviour need not necessarily occur, we can stipulate that emotions involve what are called 'action tendencies'. So for instance, fear involves the tendency to flee, which means that the probability that the subject will flee from a given situation is increased when they are undergoing fear.

Emotion Classification

Main article: Emotion classification

There has been considerable debate concerning how emotions should be classified. The means by which we distinguish one Emotion from another is a hotly contested issue in emotion research and Affective science. Firstly, are emotions distinctive discrete states or do they vary more smoothly along one or more underlying dimensions? The circumplex model of James Russell (1979) is an example of the latter, placing emotions along bi-polar dimensions of valence and arousal. ' Valence', as used in psychology especially in discussing Emotions means the intrinsic attractiveness (positive valence or aversiveness (negative valence Another popular option is to divide emotions into basic and complex categories, where some emotions are considered foundational to the existence of others (e. g. Ekman). Paul Ekman (born 1934 is a Psychologist who has been a pioneer in the study of Emotions and their relation to Facial expressions He is considered one of In this respect complex emotions may be regarded as developments upon basic emotions. Such development may occur due to cultural conditioning or association. Alternatively, analogous to the way primary colors combine, primary emotions could blend together to form the full spectrum of human emotional experience. Primary colors are sets of Colors that can be combined to make a useful range ( Gamut) of colors For example interpersonal anger and disgust could blend to form contempt. The model of Robert Plutchik is a well known example here. Robert Plutchik (died April 29 of 2006 at 78 was a psychologist. [1] Some have also argued for the existence of meta-emotions which are emotions about emotions. Meta-emotion refers to second-order Feelings or Emotions about first-order Emotions. ^[2] In general discussion centres around which emotions or dimensions should be considered foundational. Combined views are also available.

Another important means of distinguishing emotions concerns their occurrence in time. Some emotions occur over a period of seconds (e. g. surprise) where others can last years (e. g. love). The latter could be regarded as a long term tendency to have an emotion regarding a certain object rather than an emotion proper (though this is disputed). A distinction is then made between emotion episodes and emotional dispositions. Dispositions are also comparable to character traits, where someone may be said to be generally disposed to experience certain emotions, though about different objects. For example an irritable person is generally disposed to feel irritation more easily or quickly than others.

Finally some theorists (e. g. Klaus Scherer 2005 place emotions within a more general category of 'affective states'. Klaus Scherer (b 1943 is Professor of Psychology and director of the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences in Geneva. Where affective states can also include emotion-related phenomena such as pleasure and pain, motivational states like hunger or curiosity, moods, dispositions and traits.

Theoretical Traditions in Emotion Research

Theories about emotions stretch back at least as far as the Ancient Greek Stoics, as well as Plato and Aristotle. Stoicism, a school of Hellenistic philosophy, was founded in Athens by Zeno of Citium in the early third century BC Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. We also see sophisticated theories in the works of philosophers such as René Descartes^[3], Baruch Spinoza^[4] and David Hume. Baruch or Benedict de Spinoza (ברוך שפינוזה Bento de Espinosa Benedictus de Spinoza ( November 24, 1632 – February 21, David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy More recent theories of emotions tend to be informed by advances in empirical research. Often theories are not mutually exclusive and many researchers incorporate multiple perspectives in their work.

Somatic Theories of Emotion

Somatic theories of emotion claim that bodily responses rather than judgements are essential to emotions. The first modern version of such theories comes from William James in the 1880s. The theory lost favour in the 20th Century, but has regained popularity more recently thanks largely to theorists such as Antonio Damasio, Joseph LeDoux and Robert Zajonc who are able to appeal to neurological evidence. António Rosa Damásio, GOSE, pron. ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (b Joseph E LeDoux (born 1949 a neuroscientist, is the Henry and Lucy Moses Professor of Science and Professor of Neuroscience and Psychology at New Robert B Zajonc (pronounced Zy-unce - like Science with a Z born 1923 is a Polish-born American social Psychologist who is known for his decades of work on a wide

The James-Lange Theory

William James in the article 'What is an Emotion?' (Mind, 9, 1884: 188-205) argued that emotional experience is largely due to the experience of bodily changes. For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation William James (January 11 1842 – August 26 1910 was a pioneering These changes might be visceral, postural, or facially expressive. Danish psychologist Carl Lange also proposed a similar theory at around the same time and thus the resulting position is known as the James-Lange theory. Carl Georg Lange (1834 - 1900 was a Danish Physician and Psychologist. The James-Lange theory refers to a hypothesis on the origin and nature of emotions developed independently by two 19th-century scholars William James and Carl This theory and its derivates state that a changed situation leads to a changed bodily state. As James says 'the perception of bodily changes as they occur IS the emotion. ' James further claims that 'we feel sorry because we cry, angry because we strike, afraid because we tremble, and not that we cry, strike, or tremble, because we are sorry, angry, or fearful, as the case may be. '

This theory is supported by experiments in which by manipulating the bodily state, a desired emotion is induced. Such experiments also have therapeutic implications (e. g. in laughter therapy, dance therapy). Dance therapy, or dance movement therapy is the psychotherapeutic use of movement (and Dance) for emotional Cognitive, Social, behavioural

The James-Lange theory is often misunderstood because it seems counter-intuitive. Most people believe that emotions give rise to emotion-specific actions: i. e. "I'm crying because I'm sad," or "I ran away because I was scared. " The James-Lange theory, conversely, asserts that first we react to a situation (running away and crying happen before the emotion), and then we interpret our actions into an emotional response. In this way, emotions serve to explain and organize our own actions to us.

The Perceptual Theory

A recent hybrid of the somatic and cognitive theories of emotion is the perceptual theory. This theory is neo-Jamesian in arguing that bodily responses are central to emotions, yet it emphasises the meaningfulness of emotions or the idea that emotions are about something, as is recognised by cognitive theories. The novel claim of this theory is that conceptually based cognition is unnecessary for such meaning. Rather the bodily changes themselves perceive the meaningful content of the emotion as a result of being causally triggered by certain situations. In this respect emotions are held to be analogous to faculties such as vision or touch, which provide information about the relation between the subject and the world in various ways. A sophisticated defense of this view is found in philosopher Jesse Prinz's book Gut Reactions (2004), though we also find forerunners in the work of Peter Goldie and Ronald de Sousa. Peter Goldie is a British academic philosopher with interests in ethics and aesthetics Ronald Bon de Sousa Pernes (born 1940 is an Emeritus Professor at the Department of Philosophy of the University of Toronto which he joined in 1966

Cognitive Theories of Emotion

There are a number of theories of emotions that argue that cognitive activity in the form of judgements, evaluations, or thoughts are necessary in order for an emotion to occur. This, it is argued is necessary to capture the fact that emotions are about something or have intentionality. The term intentionality is often simplistically summarised as "aboutness" Such cognitive activity may be conscious or unconscious and may or may not take the form of conceptual processing. An influential theory here is that of Richard Lazarus (1991). Richard S Lazarus (born March 3 1922 in New York died November 24 2002 was a psychologist who began rising to prominence in the 1960's when behaviorists like B A prominent philosophical exponent is Robert Solomon (e. Robert C Solomon ( September 14, 1942 &ndash January 2, 2007) was a professor of Continental philosophy at the University of g. The Passions, Emotions and the Meaning of Life, 1993). The theory proposed by Nico Frijda where appraisal leads to action tendencies is another example. Nico Frijda ( Amsterdam, 1 May 1927) is a Dutch psychologist and emeritus professor of the University of Amsterdam Frijda studied

The Cannon-Bard Theory

Main article: Cannon-Bard theory

Walter Cannon argued against the dominance of the James-Lange theory regarding the physiological aspects of emotions in the second edition of Bodily Changes in Pain, Hunger, Fear and Rage. The Cannon-Bard theory is a psychological theory developed by physiologists Walter Cannon and Philip Bard which suggests that people feel emotions first and then act upon them Walter Bradford Cannon ( October 19, 1871 &ndash October 19, 1945) was an American Physiologist, Professor and chairman Where James argued that emotional behaviour often precedes or defines the emotion, Cannon and Bard argued that the emotion arises first and then stimulates typical behaviour.

The Two Factor Theory

Another cognitive theory is the Singer-Schachter theory. The Two Factor Theory of Emotion is a Social psychology theory that views emotion as having two components (factors physiological arousal and cognition This is based on experiments purportedly showing that subjects can have different emotional reactions despite being placed into the same physiological state with an injection of adrenaline. Subjects were observed to express either anger or amusement depending on whether another person in the situation displayed that emotion. Hence the combination of the appraisal of the situation (cognitive) and whether participants received adrenaline or a placebo together determined the response. This experiment has been criticised in Jesse Prinz (2004) Gut Reactions.

The Component Process Model

A recent version of the cognitive theory comes from Klaus Scherer which regards emotions more broadly as the synchronisation of many different bodily and cognitive components. Klaus Scherer (b 1943 is Professor of Psychology and director of the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences in Geneva. Emotions are identified with the overall process whereby low level cognitive appraisals, in particular the processing of relevance, trigger bodily reactions, behaviours, feelings,and actions.

Disciplinary approaches to Emotions

Many different disciplines have produced work on the emotions. These include psychology, neuroscience, sociology, psychiatry, anthropology, ethology, archaeology, economics, criminology, law, political science, history, geography, education, philosophy, linguistics and literature. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Affective neuroscience is the study of the neural mechanisms of Emotion. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Anthropology (/ˌænθɹəˈpɒlədʒi/ from Greek grc ἄνθρωπος anthrōpos, "human" -λογία -logia) is the study of Ethology ( from Greek ἦθος ethos, "character" and λόγος logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of Animal Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Economics is the social science that studies the production distribution, and consumption of goods and services. Schools of thought In the mid-18th century criminology arose as social philosophers gave thought to crime and concepts of law Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society Political science is a branch of Social sciences that deals with the theory and practice of Politics and the description and analysis of Political systems History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena Education encompasses both the Teaching and Learning of Knowledge, proper conduct, and technical competency Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Linguistics is the scientific study of Language, encompassing a number of sub-fields Literature is the Art of written works Literally translated the word means "acquaintance with letters" (from Latin littera letter

Evolutionary Biology of Emotions

Perspectives on emotions from evolution theory were initiated in the late 19th century with Charles Darwin's book The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life ^[5] Darwin's original thesis was that emotions evolved via natural selection and therefore have cross-culturally universal counterparts. Furthermore animals undergo emotions comparable to our own (see Emotion in animals). Emotion in animals considers the question of whether certain species of non-human Animals feel emotions in the sense that humans understand it Evidence of universality in the human case has been provided by Paul Ekman's seminal research on facial expression. Paul Ekman (born 1934 is a Psychologist who has been a pioneer in the study of Emotions and their relation to Facial expressions He is considered one of Other research in this area focuses on physical displays of emotion including body language of animals and humans (see Affect display). See also Emotion In Psychology, affect display or affective display is a subject's externally displayed affect. The increased potential in neuroimaging has also allowed investigation into evolutionarily ancient parts of the brain. Neuroimaging includes the use of various techniques to either directly or indirectly image the structure, function/ Pharmacology of the Brain Important neurological advances were made from this perspectives in the 1990s by, for example, Joseph LeDoux and Antonio Damasio. Joseph E LeDoux (born 1949 a neuroscientist, is the Henry and Lucy Moses Professor of Science and Professor of Neuroscience and Psychology at New António Rosa Damásio, GOSE, pron. ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (b

American evolutionary biologist, Robert Trivers, argues that moral emotions are based on the principal of reciprocal altruism. Robert L Trivers, (born 19 February 1943, ˈtrɪvɚz is an American Evolutionary biologist In Evolutionary biology and Evolutionary psychology, reciprocal altruism is a form of Altruism in which one organism provides a benefit to another without The notion of group selection is of particular relevance:

• Sympathy prompts a person to offer the first favor, particularly to someone in need for whom it would go the furthest. In Evolutionary biology, group selection refers to the idea that Alleles can become fixed or spread in a population because of the benefits they bestow on groups regardless
• Anger protects a person against cheaters who accept a favor without reciprocating, by making him to punish the ingrate or sever the relationship
• Gratitude impels a beneficiary to reward those who helped him in the past
• Guilt prompts a cheater in danger of being found out to repair the relationship by redressing the misdeed and advertising that he will behave better in the future.

Sociology of Emotions

Main article: Sociology of Emotions

We try to regulate our emotions to fit in with the norms of the situation, based on many - sometimes conflicting - demands upon us which originate from various entities studied by sociology on a micro level -- such as social roles and 'feeling rules' the everyday social interactions and situations are shaped by -- and, on a macro level, by social institutions, discourses, ideologies etc. Emotions are on one hand constitutive of embedded in and on the other hand manipulated or instrumentalized by entities that are studied by sociology on a micro level such as social roles and norms For example, (post-)modern marriage is, on one hand, based on the emotion of love and on the other hand the very emotion is to be worked on and regulated by it.

The sociology of emotions also focuses on general attitude changes in a population. Breckler and Wiggins (1992 define Attitudes as “mental and neural representations organized through experience exerting a directive or dynamic influence on behavior” (p Emotional appeals are commonly found in advertising, health campaigns and political messages. Recent examples include no-smoking health campaigns and political campaign advertising emphasizing the fear of terrorism.

Psychotherapy of Emotions

Depending on the particular school's general emphasis either on cognitive component of emotion, physical energy discharging, or on symbolic movement and facial expression components of emotion, different schools of psychotherapy approach human emotions differently. Psychotherapy is an Interpersonal, relational intervention used by trained psychotherapists to aid clients in problems of living While, for example, the school of Re-evaluation Counseling propose that distressing emotions are to be relieved by “discharging” them - hence crying, laughing, sweating, shaking, and trembling. Re-evaluation Counseling, or RC is the best-known and largest organization for Co-Counseling. ^[6] Other more cognitively oriented schools approach them via their cognitive components, such as Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy ( REBT) is a comprehensive active-directive philosophically and empirically based psychotherapy which focuses Yet other approach emotions via symbolic movement and facial expression components (like in contemporary Gestalt therapy^[7]). Gestalt therapy is an existential and experiential Psychotherapy that focuses on the individual's experience in the present moment the therapist-client relationship the environmental

Computer Science of Emotions

Main article: Affective computing

A flurry of recent work in computer science, engineering, psychology and neuroscience is aimed at developing devices that recognize human affect display and modelling emotions generally (Fellous, Armony & LeDoux, 2002). Affective Computing is also the title of a textbook on the subject by Rosalind Picard.

Notable theorists of emotions

• Magda Arnold
• Antonio Damasio
• Paul Ekman
• Nico Frijda
• Peter Goldie
• William James
• Carl Lange
• Richard Lazarus
• Joseph LeDoux
• Jesse Prinz
• Robert Plutchik
• Klaus Scherer
• Robert Solomon
• Ronald de Sousa
• Robert Zajonc
• James A. Magda B Arnold (1903-2002 was an American Psychologist; first contemporary theorist to develop Appraisal theory of emotions which moved the direction of emotion António Rosa Damásio, GOSE, pron. ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (ɐ̃'tɔniu dɐ'maziu (b Paul Ekman (born 1934 is a Psychologist who has been a pioneer in the study of Emotions and their relation to Facial expressions He is considered one of Nico Frijda ( Amsterdam, 1 May 1927) is a Dutch psychologist and emeritus professor of the University of Amsterdam Frijda studied Peter Goldie is a British academic philosopher with interests in ethics and aesthetics For other people named William James see William James (disambiguation William James (January 11 1842 – August 26 1910 was a pioneering Carl Georg Lange (1834 - 1900 was a Danish Physician and Psychologist. Richard S Lazarus (born March 3 1922 in New York died November 24 2002 was a psychologist who began rising to prominence in the 1960's when behaviorists like B Joseph E LeDoux (born 1949 a neuroscientist, is the Henry and Lucy Moses Professor of Science and Professor of Neuroscience and Psychology at New Jesse J Prinz is currently a professor of Philosophy at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Robert Plutchik (died April 29 of 2006 at 78 was a psychologist. Klaus Scherer (b 1943 is Professor of Psychology and director of the Swiss Center for Affective Sciences in Geneva. Robert C Solomon ( September 14, 1942 &ndash January 2, 2007) was a professor of Continental philosophy at the University of Ronald Bon de Sousa Pernes (born 1940 is an Emeritus Professor at the Department of Philosophy of the University of Toronto which he joined in 1966 Robert B Zajonc (pronounced Zy-unce - like Science with a Z born 1923 is a Polish-born American social Psychologist who is known for his decades of work on a wide Russell

Closely related terms

• Affect, a synonym for emotion; in psychology and psychiatry, the term "affect" is used when the emotional experience has been qualified (e. g. , intense, labile, or appropriate affect) or quantified (e. g. , a high score on a scale that measures positive emotion).
• Affect display, external display of emotion (e. See also Emotion In Psychology, affect display or affective display is a subject's externally displayed affect. g. , facial expression, body posture, voice quality).
• Disposition, referring to a durable differentiating characteristic of a person, a tendency to react to certain classes of situations with a certain emotion;
• Feeling, which usually refers to the subjective, phenomenological aspect of emotion (e. A disposition is a habit, a preparation a state of readiness or a tendency to act in a specified way The word feeling has several possible definitions The word was first used in the English language to describe the physical sensation of Touch either through experience In psychology phenomenology is used to refer to Subjective Experiences or their study g. , the internal experience of anxiety, sadness, love, pride, and so forth);
• Mood, which refers to an emotional state of duration intermediate between an emotion and a disposition (e. A mood is a relatively long lasting affective or emotional state g. , depressed, euphoric, neutral, or irritable mood).
• Motivation, a state which generates actions. Motivation is the reason or reasons for engaging in a particular behavior especially Human behavior as studied in Philosophy, Conflict, Economics Similar to desire.
• Valence, The distinction of emotions into positive or negative categories. ' Valence', as used in psychology especially in discussing Emotions means the intrinsic attractiveness (positive valence or aversiveness (negative valence

See also

• Aesthetic emotions
• Affect display
• Affective computing
• Affective neuroscience
• Affective science
• Attitude change
• Discrete emotions theory
• Empathy
• Emotion in animals
• Emotions and culture
• Emotional competence
• Emotional contagion
• Emotional expression
• Emotional intelligence
• Sociology of Emotions
• Stoicism

Notes

References

External links

• Swiss Centre for Affective Sciences.
• Facial Emotion Expression Lab.
• The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Emotions (fairly technical).
• Emotions and Disease, an exhibition developed by the History of Medicine Division of the National Library of Medicine.
• Emotions, a well-organized collection of links on emotion by Michael Speer
• An emotion research page at Salk Institute, maintained by Jean-Marc Fellous and Eva Hudlicka
• The affective computing portal
• Socially intelligent agents page
• The Psychology of Emotions, Feelings and Thoughts, Free Online Book
• The portal of the Humaine Association, follow-up to the Humaine Network of Excellence on Emotions

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