Elk
Conservation status
Least Concern
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Artiodactyla Suborder: Ruminantia Family: Cervidae Subfamily: Cervinae Genus: Cervus Species: C. The conservation status of a Species is an indicator of the likelihood of that species remaining extant either in the present day or the near future Least Concern ( LC) is an IUCN category assigned to extant species or lower taxa which have been evaluated but do not qualify for any other category Chordates ( Phylum Chordata) are a group of Animals that includes the Vertebrates together with several closely related Invertebrates Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands The even-toed ungulates form the Mammal order Artiodactyla. They are Ungulates whose weight is borne (if they have more than two toes about The biological suborder Ruminantia includes many of the well-known large grazing or browsing Mammals among them Cattle, goats Sheep, Deer A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. Cervus is a Genus of Deer (family Cervidae) consisting of the following species Cervus affinis - Central Asian Red canadensis
Binomial name
Cervus canadensis (Erxleben, 1777)[1]
Range of Cervus canadensis

The elk, or wapiti (Cervus canadensis), is one of the largest species of deer in the world and one of the largest mammals in North America and eastern Asia. Johann Christian Polycarp Erxleben was a German naturalist from Quedlinburg. In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands In the deer family (Cervidae), only the moose, Alces alces (called an "elk" in Europe) is larger, and Cervus unicolor (the "Sambar" deer) can rival the elk in size. A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. The moose (North America or elk (Europe Alces alces, is the largest extant Species in the Deer family. Wapiti are almost identical to red deer found in Europe, of which they were long believed to be a subspecies; however, mitochondrial DNA evidence from 2004 strongly suggests they are a distinct species. The Red Deer ( Cervus elaphus) is one of the largest Deer species Mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA) is the DNA located in Organelles called mitochondria.

Elk range in forest and forest-edge habitat, feeding on grasses, plants, leaves and bark. Although native to North America and eastern Asia, they have adapted well to countries where they have been introduced, including New Zealand and Argentina. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Their high level of adaptability poses a threat to endemic species and ecosystems where they have been introduced. Endemism is the Ecological state of being unique to a place Endemic species are not naturally found elsewhere

Male elk have large antlers which are shed each year. Antlers are the usually large and complex horn -like appendages of most Deer species mostly worn by males only for some species such as Caribou by both Males engage in ritualized mating behaviors during the rut, including posturing, antler wrestling and bugling, a loud series of screams which establishes dominance over other males and attracts females. The Rut is the period of time when antlered Ungulates mate Ungulates include Deer, Sheep, Elk, Moose, Caribou, The bugle call is one of the most distinctive calls in nature.

Elk are susceptible to a number of infectious diseases, some of which can be transmitted to livestock. An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic Efforts to eliminate infectious diseases from elk populations, largely through vaccination, have had mixed success.

Some cultures revere the elk as a spiritual force. In parts of Asia, antlers and their velvet are used in traditional medicines. Antlers are the usually large and complex horn -like appendages of most Deer species mostly worn by males only for some species such as Caribou by both The term traditional medicine ( Indigenous medicine or folk medicine) describes medical knowledge systems which developed over centuries within various societies Elk are hunted as a game species; the meat is leaner and higher in protein than beef or chicken. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Beef is the Culinary name for Meat from Bovines especially domestic Cattle (cows The chicken ( Gallus gallus, sometimes G gallus domesticus) is a domesticated Fowl which is traditionally believed to have descended from ^[2]

Naming and etymology

Early European explorers in North America, who were familiar with the smaller red deer of Europe, believed that the much larger North American animal looked more like a moose, so they used the common European name for the moose, which is elk. The moose (North America or elk (Europe Alces alces, is the largest extant Species in the Deer family. The name elk is connected with the Latin alces, and with Old Norse elgr, Scandinavian elg, and German Elch,^[3] all of which refer to the animal known in North America as the moose. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. The name wapiti is from the Native American word waapiti, meaning white rump and is of Shawnee origin. Native Americans in the United States are the indigenous peoples from the regions of North America now encompassed by the continental United States The Shawnee language is a Central Algonquian language spoken in parts of central and northeastern Oklahoma by only around 200 Shawnee, making it very ^[4] The elk is also referred to as the maral in Asia, though this is due to confusion with the East European red deer (Cervus elaphus maral), which is a subspecies of European red deer. The Caspian Red Deer, ( Cervus elaphus maral) also known as Maral is the easternmost Subspecies of Red deer that is native to areas between There is a subspecies of elk in Mongolia called the Altai maral (Cervus canadensis sibiricus), which is also known by names such as Altai wapiti, Siberian wapiti, and/or Siberian elk.

Taxonomy

Cervus genus ancestors of elk first appear in the fossil record 12 million years ago, during the Pliocene in Eurasia, but do not appear in the North American fossil record until the later Pleistocene ice ages when they crossed the Bering land bridge. Cervus is a Genus of Deer (family Cervidae) consisting of the following species Cervus affinis - Central Asian Red A genus (plural genera from Γένος Latin genus "descent family type gender" is a low-level Taxonomic FOSSIL is a standard protocol for allowing serial communication for Telecommunications programs under the DOS Operating system. The Pliocene epoch (spelled Pleiocene in some older texts is the period in the Geologic timescale that extends For the superstate in George Orwell 's novel see Nations of Nineteen Eighty-Four. The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period An ice age is a period of long-term reduction in the Temperature of the Earth 's surface and atmosphere resulting in an expansion of continental Ice sheets The Bering land bridge was a Land bridge roughly 1000 miles (1600 km north to south at its greatest extent which joined present-day Alaska and eastern Siberia ^[5] The extinct Irish Elk (Megaloceros) was not a member of the genus Cervus, but rather the largest member of the wider deer family (Cervidae) known from the fossil record. The Irish Elk or Giant Deer, Megaloceros giganteus was a species of Megaloceros and one of the largest Deer that ever lived A deer is a Ruminant Mammal belonging to the family Cervidae. ^[6]

Until 2004, red deer and elk were considered to be one species, Cervus elaphus, based on fertile hybrids that have been produced in captivity. Recent mitochondrial DNA studies, conducted on hundreds of samples from red deer and elk subspecies as well as other species of the Cervus deer family, strongly suggest that elk, or wapiti, form a distinct species C. canadensis. ^[7] The previous classification had over a dozen subspecies under the C. elaphus species designation; DNA evidence concludes that elk are more closely related to Thorold's deer and even sika deer than they are to the red deer. Thorold's deer has the scientific name Cervus albirostris. It is also known as the white-lipped deer, for the white patches around its muzzle The Sika Deer ( Cervus nippon) is a member of the deer family Cervidae that inhabits much of East Asia. ^[7] Though elk and red deer can produce fertile offspring in captivity, geographic isolation between the species in the wild and differences in mating behaviors indicate that reproduction between them outside a controlled environment would be unlikely. ^[8]

Subspecies

There are numerous subspecies of elk described: six from North America and four from Asia, although some taxonomists consider them different ecotypes or races of the same species (adapted to local environments through minor changes in appearance and behavior). In Zoology, as in other branches of Biology, subspecies is the Taxonomic rank immediately subordinate to a Species. Taxonomy is the practice and science of classification The word comes from the Greek, taxis (meaning 'order' 'arrangement' and, nomos Within a Species, an ecotype is a genetically unique Population that is adapted to its local environment In biology a race is any inbreeding group including taxonomic subgroups such as Subspecies, taxonomically subordinate to a Species and superordinate to a subrace Populations vary as to antler shape and size, body size, coloration and mating behavior. DNA investigations of the Eurasian subspecies revealed that phenotypic variation in antlers, mane and rump patch development are based on "climatic-related lifestyle factors". Deoxyribonucleic acid ( DNA) is a Nucleic acid that contains the genetic instructions used in the development and functioning of all known A phenotype is any observable characteristic of an Organism, such as its morphology, Development, biochemical or physiological properties ^[9]

Audubon's "Eastern Elk" which is now extinct

Of the six subspecies of elk known to have inhabited North America in historical times, four remain, including the Roosevelt (C. John James Audubon ( April 26 1785 – January 27 1851) was an American ornithologist, naturalist, hunter The Roosevelt elk ( Cervus canadensis roosevelti) also known as Olympic elk, is the largest of the four surviving subspecies of Elk in North canadensis roosevelti), Tule (C. canadensis nannodes), Manitoban (C. canadensis manitobensis) and Rocky Mountain (C. canadensis nelsoni). ^[10] The Eastern elk (C. canadensis canadensis) and Merriam's elk (C. canadensis merriami) subspecies have been extinct for at least a century. ^[11][12] Classification of the four surviving North American groups as subspecies is maintained, at least partly, for political purposes to permit individualized conservation and protective measures for each of the surviving populations. ^[13]

Four subspecies described in Asia include the Altai Wapiti (C. canadensis sibiricus) and the Tianshan Wapiti (C. canadensis songaricus) . Two distinct subspecies found in China and Korea are the Manchurian (C. China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Korea is a geographic area composed of two sovereign countries a civilization and a former state situated on the Korean Peninsula in East Asia. canadensis xanthopygus) and the Alashan wapitis (C. canadensis alashanicus). The Manchurian wapiti is darker and more reddish in coloration than the other populations. The Alashan wapiti of north central China is the smallest of all subspecies, has the lightest coloration and is the least studied. ^[8] Valerius Geist, who has written on the world's various deer species, holds that there are only three subspecies of elk. Geist maintains the Manchurian and Alashan wapiti but places all other elk into C. canadensis canadensis. ^[13]

Tule Elk at a State of California reserve near Tupman, California. Tupman is a Census-designated place (CDP in Kern County, California, United States.

Recent DNA studies suggest, that there are no more than three or four subspecies of Wapiti. All American forms seem to belong to one subspecies (Cervus canadiensis canadiensis). Even the Siberian elk (Cervus canadiensis sibiricus) are more or less identical to the American forms and therefore may belong to this subspecies, too. However the Manchurian wapiti (Cervus canadiensis xanthopygus) is clearly distinct from the Siberian forms, but not distinguishable from the Alashan Wapiti. The Manchurian wapiti ( Cervus canadensis xanthopygus) is a subspecies of Elk, native to eastern Asia. The Chinese forms MacNeill's Deer and Tibetan red deer belong also to the Wapitis and were not distinguishable from each other. The Sichuan deer ( Cervus wallichi macneilli) also known as MacNeill's deer is a subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer native to Western China The Tibetan red deer ( Cervus affinis affinis) or ( Cervus affinis wallichi) also known as shou is a subspecies of Central Asian Red Deer that So they probably form one single subspecies (Cervus canadiensis kansuensis). ^[7]

Description

The elk is a large animal of the artiodactyle ungulate order, possessing an even number of toes on each foot, similar to those of camels, goats and cattle. The even-toed ungulates form the Mammal order Artiodactyla. They are Ungulates whose weight is borne (if they have more than two toes about Ungulates (meaning roughly "being Hoofed quot or "hoofed animal" are several groups of Mammals most of which use the tips of their toes usually Camels are Even-toed ungulates within the Genus Camelus. The Dromedary, one-humped or Arabian camel has a single hump and the The domestic goat ( Capra aegagrus hircus) is a subspecies of goat Domesticated from the Wild goat of Southwest Asia and Eastern Europe Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family It is a ruminant species, with a four-chambered stomach, and feeds on grasses, plants, leaves and bark. Physiologically a ruminant is a Mammal of the order Artiodactyla that digests plant-based food by initially softening it within the animal's first stomach known During the summer, elk eat almost constantly, consuming between 4 and 7 kg (10 to 15 lb) daily. The pound or pound-mass (abbreviation lb, lbm, or sometimes in the United States #) is a unit of Mass ^[14] In North America, males are called bulls, and females are called cows. In Asia, stag and hind, respectively, are sometimes used instead.

A herd of Roosevelt Elk in Redwood National and State Parks, California. The "Redwood National and State Parks" (RNSP are located in the United States along the coast of northern California. California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean.

Elk are more than twice as heavy as mule deer and have a more reddish hue to their hair coloring, as well as large, buff colored rump patches and smaller tails. The mule deer ( Odocoileus hemionus) is a Deer whose habitat is in the western half of North America. Moose are larger and darker than elk, bulls have distinctively different antlers and moose do not herd. Elk cows average 225 kg (500 lb), stand 1. 3 m (4½ ft) at the shoulder, and are 2 m (6½ ft) from nose to tail. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit Bulls are some 25% larger than cows at maturity, weighing an average of 320 kg (700 lb), standing 1. 5 m (5 ft) at the shoulder and averaging 2. 5 m (8 ft) in length. ^[15] The largest of the subspecies is the Roosevelt elk, found west of the Cascade Range in the U.S. states of California, Oregon and Washington, and in the Canadian province of British Columbia. A US state is any one of the fifty subnational entities of the United States of America that share Sovereignty with the federal government California ( is a US state on the West Coast of the United States, along the Pacific Ocean. Oregon ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Washington ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page British Columbia (ˌbrɪtɨʃ kəˈlʌmbiə ( BC) ( (la Colombie-Britannique C Roosevelt elk have been reintroduced into Alaska, where males have been recorded as weighing up to 600 kg (1,300 lb). Alaska ( Аляска Alyaska) is a state in the United States of America, in the northwest of the North American continent The pound or pound-mass (abbreviation lb, lbm, or sometimes in the United States #) is a unit of Mass ^[16]

Only the males have antlers, which start growing in the spring and are shed each winter. The largest antlers may be 1. 2 m (4 ft) long and weigh 18 kg (40 lb). ^[17] Antlers are made of bone which can grow at a rate of 2. 5 cm (1 inch) per day. A centimetre ( American spelling: centimeter, symbol cm) is a unit of Length in the Metric system, equal to one hundredth Inches redirects here To see the Les Savy Fav album see Inches. While actively growing, the antlers are covered with and protected by a soft layer of highly vascularised skin known as velvet. Antlers are the usually large and complex horn -like appendages of most Deer species mostly worn by males only for some species such as Caribou by both The velvet is shed in the summer when the antlers have fully developed. Bull elk may have eight or more tines on each antler; however, the number of tines has little to do with the age or maturity of a particular animal. The Siberian and North American elk carry the largest antlers while the Altai wapiti have the smallest. ^[8] The formation and retention of antlers is testosterone-driven. Testosterone is a Steroid hormone from the Androgen group In mammals testosterone is primarily secreted in the testes of males and the Ovaries ^[18] After the breeding season in late fall, the level of pheromones released during estrus declines in the environment and the testosterone levels of males drop as a consequence. A pheromone (from Greek φέρω phero "to bear" + ‘ορμόνη " Hormone " is a Chemical that triggers a natural Oestrus is also the biological genus name of the gadfly. The estrous cycle (also oestrous cycle; derived from Latin This drop in testosterone leads to the shedding of antlers, usually in the early winter.

During the fall, elk grow a thiner coat of hair, which helps to insulate them during the winter. Males, females and calves of Siberian and North American elk all grow thin neck manes; female and young Manchurian and Alashan wapitis do not. ^[13] By early summer, the light winter coat has been shed, and elk are known to rub against trees and other objects to help remove hair from their bodies. All elk have small and clearly defined rump patches with short tails. They have different coloration based on the seasons and types of habitats, with gray or lighter coloration prevalent in the winter and a more reddish, darker coat in the summer. Subspecies living in arid climates tend to have lighter colored coats than do those living in forests. ^[19] Most have lighter yellow-brown to orange-brown coats in contrast to dark brown hair on the head, neck, and legs during the summer. Forest-adapted Manchurian and Alashan wapitis have darker reddish-brown coats with less contrast between the body coat and the rest of the body during the summer months. ^[8] Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and they lose their spots by the end of summer. Adult Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older. This characteristic has also been observed in the forest-adapted European red deer. ^[8]

Distribution

Bull elk bugling during the rut

Modern subspecies are descended from elk that once inhabited Beringia, a steppe region between Asia and North America that connected the two continents during the Pleistocene. The Bering land bridge was a Land bridge roughly 1000 miles (1600 km north to south at its greatest extent which joined present-day Alaska and eastern Siberia In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period Beringia provided a migratory route for numerous mammal species, including brown bear, caribou, and moose, as well as humans. The Brown Bear ( Ursus arctos) is an Omnivorous Mammal of the family Ursidae, distributed across much of northern Eurasia and ^[20] As the Pleistocene came to an end, ocean levels began to rise; elk migrated southwards into Asia and North America. In North America they adapted to almost all ecosystems except for tundra, true deserts, and the gulf coast of the U.S. The elk of southern Siberia and central Asia were once more widespread but today are restricted to the mountain ranges west of Lake Baikal including the Sayan and Altai Mountains of Mongolia and the Tianshan region that borders Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, and China's Xinjiang Province. In physical Geography, tundra is an area where the Tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons The Gulf Coast region of the United States comprises the coasts of states which border the Gulf of Mexico. Siberia (Сиби́рь Sibir) is the name given to the vast region constituting almost all of Northern Asia and for the most part currently serving Lake Baikal (о́зеро Байка́л Ozero Baykal, ˈozʲɪrə bʌjˈkɑl Байгал нуур Baygal nuur) is in Southern Siberia in Russia The Sayan Mountains (Саяны Sayany; Kokmen Mountains during the period of the Göktürks) are a Mountain range in southern The Altai Mountains (Алтай Altay; Алтай 阿尔泰山脉 are a Mountain range in central Asia, where Russia, Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East The Tian Shan (天山 Pinyin: Tiān Shān "celestial mountains" also commonly spelled Tien Shan, is a Mountain range located in Central Kyrgyzstan (ˈkɻ̩gɪztɑn (AmE or /'kɝgəztan/ (BrE Kyrgyz: Кыргызстан; Russian: Киргизия or Киргизстан or Кыргызстан Kazakhstan, also Kazakstan ( Қазақстан, Qazaqstan, qɑzɑqˈstɑn Казахстан, Kazakhstán,) officially the Xinjiang ( Uyghur: شىنجاڭ Shinjang;; Postal map spelling: Sinkiang; Turkish: Sincan, Sincan Uygur Özerk ^[21] The habitat of Siberian elk in Asia is similar to that of the Rocky Mountain subspecies in North America.

Throughout their range, they live in forest and in forest edge habitat, similar to other deer species. A forest is an area with a high density of Trees There are many definitions of a forest based on various criteria In mountainous regions, they often dwell at higher elevations in summer, migrating down slope for winter. A mountain is a Landform that extends above the surrounding Terrain in a limited area with a peak The highly adaptable elk also inhabit semi-deserts in North America, such as the Great Basin. The Great Basin is a large arid region of the western United States. Manchurian and Alashan wapiti are primarily forest dwellers and their smaller antler sizes is a likely adaptation to a forest environment.

Introductions

Bull elk on a captive range in Nebraska. Nebraska ( is a state located on the Great Plains of the Midwestern United States and These elk, originally from Rocky Mountain herds, exhibit modified behavior due to having been held in captivity, under less selective pressure

The Rocky Mountain elk subspecies has been reintroduced by hunter-conservation organizations in the Appalachian region of the eastern U. Any cause that reduces reproductive success in a proportion of a population potentially exerts Evolutionary pressure or selection pressure. Appalachia is a term used to describe a region in the eastern United States that stretches from southern New York state to northern Alabama, S. , where the now extinct Eastern elk once lived^[22] After elk were reintroduced in the states of Kentucky, North Carolina and Tennessee, they migrated into the neighboring states of Virginia and West Virginia, and have established permanent populations there. A US state is any one of the fifty subnational entities of the United States of America that share Sovereignty with the federal government The Commonwealth of Kentucky ( is a state located in the East Central United States of America. North Carolina ( is a state located on the Atlantic Seaboard in the southeastern United States Tennessee ( is a state located in the Southern United States. The Commonwealth of Virginia ( is an American state West Virginia ( is a state in the Appalachian Upland South, and Mid-Atlantic regions of the United States, bordered by ^[23] Elk have also been reintroduced to a number of other states, including Pennsylvania, Michigan and Wisconsin. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ( often colloquially referred to as PA (its abbreviation by natives and Northeasterners is a state located in the Northeastern Michigan ( is a Midwestern state of the United States of America. Wisconsin ( or wɪˈskɑnsɨn (French Ouisconsin) is one of the fifty United States of America, located in the north central part of the United States As of 1989, population figures for the Rocky Mountain subspecies were 782,500, and estimated numbers for all North American subspecies exceeded 1 million. ^[24] Prior to the European colonization of North America, there were an estimated 10 million elk on the continent. ^[15] Worldwide population of elk, counting those on farms and in the wild, is approximately 2 million.

Outside their native habitat, elk and other deer species were introduced in areas that previously had few if any large native ungulates. Brought to these countries for hunting and ranching for meat, hides and antler velvet, they have proven highly adaptable and have often had an adverse impact on local ecosystems. Elk and red deer were introduced to Argentina and Chile in the early 20th century. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Argentina topics. Chile, officially the Republic of Chile ( Spanish:) is a country in South America occupying a long and narrow Coastal strip wedged between the ^[25] There they are now considered an invasive species, encroaching on Argentinian ecosystems where they compete for food with the indigenous Chilean Huemul and other herbivores. Introduced species|Weed Invasive species is a phrase with several definitions The South Andean Deer ( Hippocamelus bisulcus) or Huemul, is an endangered species of Deer native to the mountains of Argentina and Chile ^[26] This negative impact on native animal species has led the IUCN to identify the elk as one of the world's 100 worst invaders. ^[27] Both elk and red deer have also been introduced to Ireland and Australia. Ireland (pronounced /ˈaɾlənd/ Éire) is the third largest island in Europe, and the twentieth-largest island in the world For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. ^[28][29]

The introduction of deer to New Zealand began in the middle of the 19th century, and current populations are primarily European red deer, with only 15 percent being elk. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island ^[30] These deer have had an adverse impact on forest regeneration of some plant species, as they consume more palatable species which are replaced with those that are less favored by the elk. The long term impact will be an alteration of the types of plants and trees found, and in other animal and plant species dependent upon them. ^[31] As in Chile and Argentina, the IUCN has declared that red deer and elk populations in New Zealand are an invasive species. ^[27] There are over 250 individuals in captivity.

Behavior

American elk bugling spectrogram,
— Play audio (OGG format, 25kB),
— Play audio (wav format).

Adult elk usually stay in single-sex groups for most of the year. During the mating period known as the rut, mature bulls compete for the attentions of the cows and will try to defend females in their harem. The Rut is the period of time when antlered Ungulates mate Ungulates include Deer, Sheep, Elk, Moose, Caribou, Polygyny (which comes from neo- Greek: πολύ poly "many" + γυνή gyny "woman" is a specific form of Polygamy, Rival bulls challenge opponents by bellowing and by paralleling each other, walking back and forth. This allows potential combatants to assess the others antlers, body size and fighting prowess. If neither bull backs down, they engage in antler wrestling, and bulls sometimes sustain serious injuries. Bulls also dig holes in the ground, in which they urinate and roll their body. The urine soaks into their hair and gives them a distinct smell which attracts cows. ^[32]

Dominant bulls follow groups of cows during the rut, from August into early winter. A bull will defend his harem of 20 cows or more from competing bulls and predators. ^[33] Only mature bulls have large harems and breeding success peaks at about eight years of age. Bulls between two to four years and over 11 years of age rarely have harems, and spend most of the rut on the periphery of larger harems. Young and old bulls that do acquire a harem hold it later in the breeding season than do bulls in their prime. A bull with a harem rarely feeds and he may lose up to 20 percent of his body weight. Bulls that enter the rut in poor condition are less likely to make it through to the peak conception period or have the strength to survive the rigors of the oncoming winter. ^[32]

Bulls have a loud vocalization consisting of screams known as bugling, which can be heard for miles. Bugling is often associated with an adaptation to open environments such as parklands, meadows, and savannas, where sound can travel great distances. Females are attracted to the males that bugle more often and have the loudest call. ^[34] Bugling is most common early and late in the day and is one of the most distinctive sounds in nature, akin to the howl of the gray wolf. The grey wolf or gray wolf ( Canis lupus) also known as the timber wolf or simply wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora

Reproduction and lifecycle

Female nursing young.

Female elk have a short estrus cycle of only a day or two and matings usually involve a dozen or more attempts. Oestrus is also the biological genus name of the gadfly. The estrous cycle (also oestrous cycle; derived from Latin By the fall of their second year, females can produce one and, very rarely, two offspring, though reproduction is most common when cows weigh at least 200 kg (450 lb). ^[35] The gestation period is 240 to 262 days and the offspring weigh between 15 and 16 kg (33 to 35 lb). Gestation is the carrying of an Embryo or Fetus inside a Female Viviparous Animal. When the females are near to giving birth, they tend to isolate themselves from the main herd, and will remain isolated until the calf is large enough to escape predators. ^[36] Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and they lose their spots by the end of summer. Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older. After two weeks, calves are able to join the herd and are fully weaned at two months of age. ^[37] Elk calves weigh as much as an adult white-tailed deer by the time they are six months old. The White-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) also known as the Virginia deer, or simply as the whitetail, is a medium-sized Deer found throughout ^[38] The offspring will remain with their mothers for almost a year, leaving about the time that the next season's offspring are produced. ^[34] The gestation period is the same for all subspecies.

Elk live 20 years or more in captivity but average 10 to 13 years in the wild. In some subspecies that suffer less predation, they may live an average of 15 years in the wild. ^[39]

Protection from predators

Male elk retain their antlers for more than half the year and are less likely to group with other males when they have antlers. Antlers provide a means of defense, as does a strong front-leg kick, which is performed by either sex if provoked. Once the antlers have been shed, bulls tend to form bachelor groups which allow them to work cooperatively at fending off predators. Herds tend to employ one or more scouts while the remaining members eat and rest. ^[34]

An elk in Wyoming

After the rut, females form large herds of up to 50 individuals. Newborn calves are kept close by a series of vocalizations; larger nurseries have an ongoing and constant chatter during the daytime hours. When approached by predators, the largest and most robust females may make a stand, using their front legs to kick at their attackers. Guttural grunts and posturing effectively deter all but the most determined predators. Wolf and coyote packs and the solitary cougar are the most likely predators, although brown and black bears also prey on elk. The grey wolf or gray wolf ( Canis lupus) also known as the timber wolf or simply wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora The coyote (kaɪˈoʊti ˈkaɪoʊt ( Canis latrans) also known as the prairie wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora The cougar ( Puma concolor) also puma, mountain lion, or panther, depending on region is a Mammal of the Felidae family The Brown Bear ( Ursus arctos) is an Omnivorous Mammal of the family Ursidae, distributed across much of northern Eurasia and The American Black Bear ( Ursus americanus) is the most common Bear Species native to North America. ^[34] In the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem which includes Yellowstone National Park, bears are the most significant predators of calves. Greater Yellowstone is the last remaining large nearly intact Ecosystem in the northern Temperate zone of the Earth and is partly located in Yellowstone ^[40] Major predators in Asia include the wolf, dhole, brown bear, siberian tiger, Amur leopard, and snow leopard. The grey wolf or gray wolf ( Canis lupus) also known as the timber wolf or simply wolf, is a Mammal of the order Carnivora The Dhole ( Cuon alpinus) also known as the Asiatic Wild Dog, Indian Wild Dog or Red Dog is a Mammal of the order Carnivora The Brown Bear ( Ursus arctos) is an Omnivorous Mammal of the family Ursidae, distributed across much of northern Eurasia and The Siberian tiger ( Panthera tigris altaica) also known as the Amur tiger, Manchurian tiger, or Ussuri tiger, is a rare Subspecies The Amur Leopard ( Panthera pardus orientalis) is critically endangered The snow leopard ( Uncia uncia) sometimes known as the ounce, is a large cat native to the mountain ranges of Central Asia from Afghanistan Northern Eurasian lynx and wild boar sometimes prey on the Asian wapiti. The Eurasian lynx ( Lynx lynx) is a medium-sized cat native to European and Siberian forests where it is one of the predators The boar or wild boar ( Sus scrofa) is an Omnivorous, gregarious Mammal of the biological family Suidae. ^[8]

Migration

As is true for many species of deer, especially those in mountainous regions, elk migrate into areas of higher altitude in the spring, following the retreating snows, and the opposite direction in the fall. Hunting pressure also impacts migration and movements. ^[41] During the winter, they favor wooded areas and sheltered valleys for protection from the wind and availability of tree bark to eat. Roosevelt elk are generally non-migratory due to less seasonal variability of food sources. ^[34]

Health issues

Brainworm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis) is a parasitic nematode that has been known to affect the spinal cord and brain tissue of elk, leading to death. Parelaphostrongylus tenuis or brainworm is a small Parasitic Nematode that infects the Brain of many Ungulates Its The nematode has a carrier in the white-tailed deer in which it normally has no ill effects. It is also carried by snails which can be inadvertently consumed by elk during grazing. ^[3]

Chronic Wasting Disease affects the brain tissue in elk, and has been detected throughout their range in North America. Chronic wasting disease (CWD is a Transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE of Deer, Elk (wapiti and Moose. First documented in the late 1960s in mule deer, the disease has affected elk on game farms and in the wild in a number of regions. Elk that have contracted the disease begin to show weight loss, increased watering needs, disorientation and listlessness, and at an advanced stage the disease leads to death. The disease is similar to but not the same as Mad Cow Disease, and no dangers to humans have been documented, nor has the disease been demonstrated to pose a threat to domesticated cattle. Bovine Spongiform Encephalopathy ( BSE) commonly known as Mad-Cow Disease ( MCD) is a fatal Neurodegenerative disease in Cattle ^[42] In 2002, South Korea banned the importation of elk antler velvet due to concerns about chronic wasting disease. South Korea, officially the Republic of Korea and often referred to as Korea ( Korean: 대한민국 tɛː ^[43]

Brucellosis occasionally affect elk in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, the only place in the U. Brucellosis, also called undulant fever, or Malta fever, is a highly contagious Zoonosis caused by ingestion of unsterilized Milk S. where the disease is still known to exist. In domesticated cattle, brucellosis causes infertility, abortions and reduced milk production. It is transmitted to humans as undulant fever, producing flu-like symptoms which may last for years. Brucellosis, also called undulant fever, or Malta fever, is a highly contagious Zoonosis caused by ingestion of unsterilized Milk Though bison are more likely to transmit the disease to other animals, elk inadvertently transmitted brucellosis to horses in Wyoming and cattle in Idaho. The State of Idaho ( is a state in the Pacific Northwest region of the United States of America. Researchers are attempting to eradicate the disease through vaccinations and herd management measures, which are expected to be successful. ^[44]

Cultural references

Elk have played an important role in the cultural history of a number of peoples. Pictograms and petroglyphs of elk were carved into cliffs thousands of years ago by the Anasazi of the southwestern U. A pictogram ( also spelled pictogramme) or pictograph is a Symbol representing a Concept, object, activity place or event Petroglyphs are Images created by removing part of a rock surface by incising pecking carving and abrading "Anasazi" directs here For the X-Files episode see Anasazi (The X-Files. S. More recent Native American tribes, including the Kootenai, Cree, Blackfeet, Ojibwa and Pawnee, produced blankets and robes from elk hides. The Kootenai (also spelled Kutenai) or Ktunaxa (pronounced in English as /k Not to be confused with the Creek. Cree is an Exonym applied to various people indigenous to North America namely the Nehiyaw Nehithaw Nehilaw The Piegan Blackfeet ( Aamsskáápipikani (Southern Pikáni /Piegan or simply as Pikáni in Blackfoot) are a tribe of Native Americans The Ojibwa or Chippewa (also Ojibwe, Ojibway, Chippeway) is the largest group of Native Americans - First Nations The Pawnee (also Paneassa, Pari, Pariki) are a Native American tribe that historically lived along the Platte, Loup and The elk was of particular importance to the Lakota, and played a spiritual role in their society. The Lakota (laˈkˣota (also Teton, Tetonwan) are a Native American tribe ^[45] At birth, Lakota males were given an elk's tooth to promote a long life since that was seen as the last part of dead elk to rot away. The elk was seen as having strong sexual potency and young Lakota males who had dreamed of elk would have an image of the mythical representation of the elk on their "courting coats" as a sign of sexual prowess. The Lakota believed that the mythical or spiritual elk, not the physical one, was the teacher of men and the embodiment of strength, sexual prowess and courage. ^[46]

Neolithic petroglyphs from Asia depict antler-less female elk, which have been interpreted as symbolizing rebirth and sustenance. The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos By the beginning of the Bronze Age, the elk is depicted less frequently in rock art, coinciding with a cultural transformation away from hunting. The term Bronze Age refers to a period in human cultural development when the most advanced Metalworking (at least in systematic and widespread use included techniques for ^[47]

The Rocky Mountain Elk is the official state animal for Utah. A state mammal is the official or representative Animal of a U The State of Utah (ˈjuːtɔː or) is a western state of the United States. An image of an elk and a moose appear on the state flag of Michigan. Michigan ( is a Midwestern state of the United States of America.

Commercial uses

Bull elk in spring are shedding their winter coats, and their antlers are covered in velvet

Elk are held in captivity for a variety of reasons. Hunting interests set aside game farms, where hunters can pay a fee and be essentially guaranteed a chance to shoot an elk in what is known as a canned hunt, as they are fenced in and have absolutely no opportunity to escape. Hunting is the practice of pursuing Animals for Food, Recreation, or Trade. A canned hunt is essentially a trophy hunt. The Hunter is more likely than not to kill because the animal is kept in a more confined area such as in a fenced-in area They are not generally harvested for meat production on a large scale; however, some restaurants offer the meat as a specialty item and it is also available in some grocery stores. The meat has a taste somewhere between beef and venison and is higher in protein and lower in fat than either beef or chicken. Beef is the Culinary name for Meat from Bovines especially domestic Cattle (cows Venison is the Culinary name for Meat from the family Cervidae. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl Fats consist of a wide group of compounds that are generally soluble in organic solvents and largely insoluble in water The chicken ( Gallus gallus, sometimes G gallus domesticus) is a domesticated Fowl which is traditionally believed to have descended from ^[48] Elk meat is also a good source of iron, phosphorus and zinc, but is high in cholesterol. Iron (ˈаɪɚn is a Chemical element with the symbol Fe (ferrum and Atomic number 26 Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 Zinc (ˈzɪŋk from Zink is a Metallic Chemical element with the symbol Zn and Atomic number 30 Cholesterol is a Lipid found in the Cell membranes and transported in the Blood plasma of all Animals It is an essential component of mammalian ^[49]

A male elk can produce 10 to 11 kg (22 to 25 lb) of antler velvet annually and on ranches in the United States, Canada and New Zealand, this velvet is collected and sold to markets in east Asia, where it is used in medicine. Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island Velvet is also considered by some cultures to be an aphrodisiac. ^[43] Antlers are also used in artwork, furniture and other novelty items. All Asian subspecies, along with other deer, have been raised for their antlers in central and eastern Asia by Han Chinese, Turkic peoples, Tungusic peoples, Mongolians, and Koreans. Han Chinese ( are an Ethnic group native to China and by most modern definitions the largest single Ethnic group in the world. The Turkic peoples are Eurasian peoples residing in northern central and western Eurasia who speak languages belonging to the Turkic language family The term Tungusic peoples is used to describe peoples speaking a Tungusic language. Mongolia (mɒŋˈɡoʊliə, literally Mongol country/nation,) is a Landlocked Country in East The Korean people are an East Asian Ethnic group. Most Koreans speak the Korean language. Elk farms are relatively common in North America and New Zealand. ^[30]

Elk hides have been used for thousands of years for tepee covering, blankets, clothing and footwear. A tipi' (also teepee, tepee) is a conical Tent originally made of animal skins or birch bark and popularized by the Native Americans Modern uses are more decorative, but elk skin shoes, gloves and belts are not uncommon. ^[15]

Since 1967, the Boy Scouts of America have assisted employees at the National Elk Refuge in Wyoming by collecting the antlers which are shed each winter. The Boy Scouts of America ( BSA) is the largest youth organization in the United States with over five million The National Elk Refuge is located in the US state of Wyoming and was created in 1912 to protect habitat and provide sanctuary for the largest Elk (also The antlers are then auctioned with most of the proceeds returned to the refuge. In 2006, 3,200 kg (7,060 lb) of antlers were auctioned, bringing in almost $76,000. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been Another 980 kg (2,160 lb) were sold directly for local use, restoring some decorative arches in the Jackson Town Square. Jackson is a Town located in the Jackson Hole Valley of Teton County, Wyoming, United States. ^[50]

Media

An elk bellowing

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Notes and references

External links

• Arizona Elk Arizona Game and Fish Department
• Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation