Citizendia
Your Ad Here

A streetcar drawing current from a single overhead wire, returning current through the rails and ground
A streetcar drawing current from a single overhead wire, returning current through the rails and ground
An electric locomotive, taking power through a pantograph
An electric locomotive, taking power through a pantograph

An electric vehicle, or EV, is a vehicle with one or more electric motors for propulsion. A tram, tramcar, trolley, trolley car, or streetcar is a railborne vehicle, of lighter weight and construction than a Train "Electric Trains" redirects here For the 1995 Squeeze single see Electric Trains (song. A pantograph is a device that collects electric current from Overhead lines for electric Trains or Trams The term stems from the resemblance to pantograph Vehicles, derived from the Latin word vehiculum, are non-living Means of transport. An electric motor uses Electrical energy to produce Mechanical energy. This is also referred to as an electric drive vehicle. The motion may be provided either by wheels or propellers driven by rotary motors, or in the case of tracked vehicles, by linear motors. A propeller is essentially a type of fan which transmits power by converting Rotational motion into Thrust for propulsion of a vehicle such as an A linear motor or linear induction motor is essentially a multi-phase Alternating current (AC Electric motor that has had its Stator "unrolled"

Unlike an internal combustion engine that is tuned to specifically operate with a particular fuel such as gasoline or diesel. An electric drive vehicle needs electricity which could come from sources such as batteries, fuel cells or a generator. This flexibility allows the drive train of the vehicle to remain the same, while the fuel source can be changed.

The energy used to propel the vehicle may be obtained from several sources, some of them more ecological than others:

It is also possible to have hybrid electric vehicles that derives energy from multiple sources. In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός The battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of Electric vehicle (EV that uses chemical Energy stored in Rechargeable battery In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός Electric double-layer capacitors, also known as supercapacitors, electrochemical double layer capacitors ( EDLCs) or ultracapacitors See also Electric bus A Gyrobus is an Electric bus that uses Flywheel energy storage, not Overhead wires like a Trolleybus. Overhead lines or overhead wires are used to transmit Electrical energy to Trams Trolleybuses or Trains at a distance from the A third rail is a method of providing Electricity to power a railway through a continuous rigid conductor alongside the railway track or between the rails Conduit current collection was a system of Electric current collection used by electric Trams where the power supply was carried in a channel under the roadway rather Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life A solar vehicle is an Electric vehicle powered by a type of Renewable energy, by solar energy obtained from Solar panels on the surface (generally A fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device It produces electricity from Fuel (on the Anode side and an oxidant (on the A hydrogen vehicle is a Vehicle that uses Hydrogen as its on-board fuel for motive power Nuclear Energy is released by the splitting (fission or merging together (fusion of the nuclei of Atom (s A submarine is a Watercraft that can operate independently below water as distinct from a Submersible that has only limited underwater capability An aircraft carrier is a Warship designed with Such as:

Electric vehicles can include electric airplanes, electric boats, and electric motorcycles and scooters. A rechargeable energy storage system or RESS is a system that stores Energy for delivery of electric energy and which is rechargeable generally in The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a A number of vehicles use a diesel-electric Powertrain for providing locomotion. A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle ( PHEV) is a Hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an Electric power An electric aircraft is an Aircraft that runs on Electric motors rather than Internal combustion engines with Electricity coming from While most Boats on the water today are powered by Diesel engines and Sail power and gasoline engines are also popular it is perfectly feasible to power boats Electric Motorcycles and scooters are vehicles with two or three wheels that use electric motors to attain locomotion

Tango T600 (a battery electric vehicle) front view
Tango T600 (a battery electric vehicle) front view

Contents

History

Main article: History of the electric vehicle
Edison and a 1914 Detroit Electric, model 47 (courtesy of the National Museum of American History)
Edison and a 1914 Detroit Electric, model 47 (courtesy of the National Museum of American History)
An electric vehicle and an antique car on display at a 1912 auto show
An electric vehicle and an antique car on display at a 1912 auto show

Electric motive power started with a small railway operated by a miniature electric motor, built by Thomas Davenport in 1835. The Tango is an ultra-narrow electric sports car initially designed and built by Commuter Cars, an American company based in Spokane Washington The battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of Electric vehicle (EV that uses chemical Energy stored in Rechargeable battery The history of the electric vehicle began in the mid-1800s An electrical vehicle held the vehicular Land speed record until around 1900 Detroit Electric (1907 - 1939 was an Automobile brand produced by the Anderson Electric Car Company in Detroit, Michigan. The National Museum of American History collects preserves and displays American heritage in the areas of social political cultural scientific and military history Thomas Davenport ( 9 July 1802 &ndash 6 July 1851) was a Vermont Blacksmith who lived in Forest Dale a village near the In 1838, a Scotsman named Robert Davidson built an electric locomotive that attained a speed of four miles an hour. Robert Davidson (1804 - 1894 was a Scottish inventor who built the first known Electric locomotive in 1837 In England a patent was granted in 1840 for the use of rails as conductors of electric current, and similar American patents were issued to Lilley and Colten in 1847. England is a Country which is part of the United Kingdom. Its inhabitants account for more than 83% of the total UK population whilst its mainland [1]

Between 1832 and 1839 (the exact year is uncertain), Robert Anderson of Scotland invented the first crude electric carriage, powered by non-rechargeable Primary cells. Scotland ( Gaelic: Alba) is a Country in northwest Europethat occupies the northern third of the island of Great Britain. A primary cell is any kind of Electrochemical cell in which the electrochemical reaction of interest is not reversible so used in Disposable [2]

By the 20th century, electric cars and rail transport were commonplace, with commercial electric automobiles having the majority of the market. Over time their general-purpose commercial use reduced to specialist roles, as platform trucks, forklift trucks, tow tractors and urban delivery vehicles, such as the iconic British milk float. Electric platform trucks are Electric powered Trucks with a large flat surface for holding objects to be transported The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located A milk float is a small Battery electric vehicle (BEV specifically designed for the delivery of fresh Milk.

Electrified trains were used for coal transport as the motors did not use precious oxygen in the mines. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Switzerland's lack of natural fossil resources forced the rapid electrification of their rail network. Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation The Railways of Switzerland include Standard gauge (ie1435 milimetres (4 ft 8½ ins) and narrow gauge (usually, occasionally less One of the earliest rechargeable batteries - the Nickel-iron battery - was favored by Edison for use in electric cars. See also Rechargeable electricity storage system A rechargeable battery, also known as a storage battery, is a group of two or more secondary The nickel-iron battery is a storage battery having a Nickel(III oxide-hydroxide Cathode and an iron Anode, with an electrolyte of Potassium An electric car is a type of alternative fuel Car that utilizes Electric motors and Motor controllers instead of an Internal combustion engine

Electric vehicles were among the earliest automobiles, and before the preeminence of light, powerful internal combustion engines, electric automobiles held many vehicle land speed and distance records in the early 1900s. The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a They were produced by Baker Electric, Columbia Electric, Detroit Electric, and others and at one point in history out-sold gasoline-powered vehicles. Baker Motor Vehicle Company was a manufacturer of Brass Era electric Automobiles in Cleveland Ohio from 1899 to 1914 The Columbia Automobile Company was a leading early Hartford Connecticut, United States manufacturer of automobiles Detroit Electric (1907 - 1939 was an Automobile brand produced by the Anderson Electric Car Company in Detroit, Michigan.

In the 1930s, National City Lines, which was a partnership of General Motors, Firestone, and Standard Oil of California purchased many electric tram networks across the country to dismantle them and replace them with GM buses. National City Lines Inc ( NCL) was a company formed in 1920 reorganized in 1936 into a Holding company for the express purpose of acquiring local transit systems General Motors Corporation ( GM) ( is a multinational automobile manufacturer founded in 1908 and headquartered in the United States. The Firestone Tire and Rubber Company was founded by Harvey Firestone in 1900 to supply pneumatic tires for wagons buggies and other forms of wheeled transportation A tram, tramcar, trolley, trolley car, or streetcar is a railborne vehicle, of lighter weight and construction than a Train The partnership was convicted of conspiring to monopolize the sale of equipment and supplies to their subsidiary companies conspiracy, but were acquitted of conspiring to monopolize the provision of transportation services. The Great American Streetcar Scandal is a Conspiracy theory according to which Streetcar systems throughout the United States were dismantled and replaced Electric tram line technologies could be used to recharge BEVs and PHEVs on the highway while the user drives, providing virtually unrestricted driving range. A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle ( PHEV) is a Hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an Electric power The technology is old and well established (see : Conduit current collection, Nickel-iron battery). Conduit current collection was a system of Electric current collection used by electric Trams where the power supply was carried in a channel under the roadway rather The nickel-iron battery is a storage battery having a Nickel(III oxide-hydroxide Cathode and an iron Anode, with an electrolyte of Potassium The infrastructure has not been built.

In January of 1990, General Motors' President introduced its EV concept two-seater, the "Impact," at the Los Angeles Auto Show. That September, the California Air Resources Board mandated major-automaker sales of EVs, in phases starting in 1998. From 1996 to 1998 GM produced 1117 EV1s, 800 of which were made available through 3-year leases.

Chrysler, Ford, GM, Honda, Nissan and Toyota also produced limited numbers of EVs for California drivers. In 2003, upon the expiration of EV1 leases, GM crushed them. The EV1 was the first modern production electric vehicle from a major automaker and also the first purpose-built Electric car produced by General Motors (GM in the The crushing has variously been attributed to 1) the auto industry's successful Federal Court challenge to California's Zero-emissions vehicle mandate, 2) a federal regulation requiring GM to produce and maintain spare parts for the few thousands EV1s and 3) the success of the Oil and Auto industries' media campaign to reduce public acceptance of electric vehicles. A zero-emissions vehicle, or ZEV is a vehicle itself that produces no Emissions or Pollution from the vehicle when stationary or operating

EV1
EV1

A movie made on the subject in 2005-2006 was titled Who Killed the Electric Car? and released theatrically by Sony Pictures Classics in 2006. Who Killed the Electric Car? is a 2006 Documentary film that explores the birth limited commercialization and subsequent death of the Battery electric Sony Pictures Classics is one of two specialty film divisions of Sony Pictures Entertainment, the other being Screen Gems (which produces more genre-specific fare The film explores the roles of automobile manufacturers, oil industry, the US government, batteries, hydrogen vehicles, and consumers, and each of their roles in limiting the deployment and adoption of this technology. The automotive industry is the industry involved in the design development manufacture marketing and sale of Motor vehicles In 2007 more than 73 million motor vehicles The petroleum industry includes the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting (often by Oil tankers and pipelines The federal government of the United States is the central United States Governmental body established by the United States Constitution. In electronics a battery is a combination of two or more Electrochemical cells which store chemical Energy which can be converted into electrical energy A hydrogen vehicle is a Vehicle that uses Hydrogen as its on-board fuel for motive power Consumers refers to individuals or households that use goods and services generated within the economy.

Honda, Nissan and Toyota also repossessed and crushed most of their EVs, which, like the GM EV1s, had been available only by closed-end lease. After public protests, Toyota sold 200 of its RAV EVs to eager buyers; they now sell, five years later, at over their original forty-thousand-dollar price. The Toyota RAV4 EV is an all-electric version of the popular RAV4 SUV.

Currently, only a few electric cars are commercially available, including:

Energy sources

A passenger railroad, taking power through a third rail with return through the traction rails
A passenger railroad, taking power through a third rail with return through the traction rails

(See articles on diesel-electric and gasoline-electric hybrid locomotion for information on electric vehicles using internal-combustion energy sources). See also Battery electric vehicle This is a list of production battery electric vehicles (all-electric cars A third rail is a method of providing Electricity to power a railway through a continuous rigid conductor alongside the railway track or between the rails A number of vehicles use a diesel-electric Powertrain for providing locomotion. A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to propel the vehicle

Batteries, supercapacitors and flywheel energy storage are forms of rechargeable on-board electrical storage. In electronics a battery is a combination of two or more Electrochemical cells which store chemical Energy which can be converted into electrical energy Electric double-layer capacitors, also known as supercapacitors, electrochemical double layer capacitors ( EDLCs) or ultracapacitors Flywheel Energy Storage (FES works by accelerating a Rotor ( Flywheel) to a very high speed and maintaining the energy in the system as Rotational energy A rechargeable energy storage system or RESS is a system that stores Energy for delivery of electric energy and which is rechargeable generally in By avoiding an intermediate mechanical step, the energy conversion efficiency can be improved over the hybrids already discussed, by avoiding unnecessary energy conversions. Energy conversion efficiency is the Ratio between the useful output of an Energy conversion machine and the input in Energy terms Furthermore, electro-chemical batteries conversions are easy to reverse, allowing electrical energy to be stored in chemical form.

Another form of chemical to electrical conversion is fuel cells, projected for future use. A fuel cell is an electrochemical conversion device It produces electricity from Fuel (on the Anode side and an oxidant (on the

For especially large electric vehicles, such as submarines, the chemical energy of the diesel-electric can be replaced by a nuclear reactor. A submarine is a Watercraft that can operate independently below water as distinct from a Submersible that has only limited underwater capability This article is a subarticle of Nuclear power. A nuclear reactor is a device in which Nuclear chain reactions are initiated controlled The nuclear reactor usually provides heat, which drives a steam turbine, which drives a generator, which is then fed to the propulsion. A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts Thermal energy from pressurized Steam, and converts it into useful mechanical work See Nuclear Power

Electric motor

Main articles: Electric motor and Energy efficiency

The power of a vehicle electric motor, as in other vehicles, is measured in kW. Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions An electric motor uses Electrical energy to produce Mechanical energy. The watt (symbol W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one Joule of energy per Second. 100 kW is roughly equivalent to 134 horsepower, although most electric motors deliver full torque at any speed, so the performance is not equivalent, and far exceeds a 134 horsepower fuel powered motor, which has a limited torque curve.

Large-scale electric transport: energy and motors

A trolleybus uses two overhead wires to provide electrical current supply and return to the power source
A trolleybus uses two overhead wires to provide electrical current supply and return to the power source

Most large electric transport systems are powered by stationary sources of electricity that are directly connected to the vehicles through wires. Due to the extra infrastructure and difficulty in handling arbitrary travel, most directly connected vehicles are owned publicly or by large companies. These forms of transportation are covered in more detail in metros, trams, electric locomotives, and trolleybuses. A rapid transit, underground, subway, elevated railway or metro(politan system is an electric passenger railway A tram, tramcar, trolley, trolley car, or streetcar is a railborne vehicle, of lighter weight and construction than a Train "Electric Trains" redirects here For the 1995 Squeeze single see Electric Trains (song.

In the systems above motion is provided by a rotary electric motor. An electric motor uses Electrical energy to produce Mechanical energy. However, it is possible to "unroll" the motor to drive directly against a special matched track. These linear motors are used in maglev trains which float above the rails supported by magnetic levitation. A linear motor or linear induction motor is essentially a multi-phase Alternating current (AC Electric motor that has had its Stator "unrolled" MAGLEV, or magnetic levitation, is a system of transportation that suspends guides and (usually propels vehicles predominantly trains using magnetic forces Magnetic levitation, maglev, or magnetic suspension is a method by which an object is suspended with no support other than Magnetic fields The This allows for almost no rolling resistance of the vehicle and no mechanical wear and tear of the train or track. Levitation and forward motion are two independent effects; the forward motive force normally requires external power, although some types, such as Inductrack, achieve levitation at low speeds without any. Inductrack is a completely passive, Fail-safe Magnetic levitation system using only unpowered loops of wire in the track and permanent magnets (arranged In addition to the high-performance control systems needed, switching and curving of the tracks becomes difficult with linear motors, which to date has restricted their operations to high-speed point to point services. This article primarily uses North American terminology British and Commonwealth terms are given in parentheses

Small scale electric vehicles

50+ mph fun-ev electric scooter
50+ mph fun-ev electric scooter

Some bicycles have been converted to electric power with a small battery and a small electric motor, some even have solar panels that are folded out when the vehicle is at rest. Electric Motorcycles and scooters are vehicles with two or three wheels that use electric motors to attain locomotion Small scale electric vehicles include electric cars, light trucks, neighborhood electric vehicles, motorcycles, motorized bicycles, electric scooters , golf carts, milk floats, forklifts and similar vehicles. An electric car is a type of alternative fuel Car that utilizes Electric motors and Motor controllers instead of an Internal combustion engine Light truck or' light duty truck' is a classification for Trucks or truck-based Vehicles with a payload capacity of less than 4000 pounds MotorCycle is the title of a 1993 album by Rock band Daniel Amos, released on BAI Records. A motorized bicycle, sometimes referred to as a light electric vehicle or LEV, is a Bicycle with an attached motor used to assist with pedaling Electric Motorcycles and scooters are vehicles with two or three wheels that use electric motors to attain locomotion A golf cart or golf buggy (officially referred to as a golf car according to ANSI standard z130 A milk float is a small Battery electric vehicle (BEV specifically designed for the delivery of fresh Milk.

Issues regarding electric vehicles

Although electric vehicles have few direct emissions, all rely on energy created through electricity generation which will emit pollution unless it is generated by power plants that do not use fossil fuels, such as renewable source or nuclear power plants. Electricity generation is the process of converting non-electrical Energy to Electricity. Renewable energy is Energy generated from Natural resources mdashsuch as Sunlight, Wind, Rain, tides and geothermal Nuclear power is any Nuclear technology designed to extract usable Energy from atomic nuclei via controlled Nuclear reactions Even with power plants emitting CO2, the overall levels would be reduced because the entire process of moving a car is more efficient using electricity than producing gasoline and burning it in a car's engine. [3]

If a large proportion of private vehicles were to convert to plug-in electricity, the existing power plant and transmission infrastructure would be nearly sufficient, assuming most charging occurred overnight using the most efficient off-peak base load sources. Baseload (also base load, or baseload demand) is the minimum amount of power that a utility or distribution company must make available to its customers or the amount [4] But there would be a significant need for additional resources (and emissions) in generation. However, the overall energy consumtion would diminish because of the higher efficiency of electric vehicles over the entire cycle.

Electromagnetic radiation from high performance electrical motors has been claimed to be associated with some human ailments, but such claims are largely unsubstanciated except for extremely high exposures. Electromagnetic radiation takes the form of self-propagating Waves in a Vacuum or in Matter. [5] Electric motors can be shielded within a metallic Faraday's cage, but this adds weight to the vehicle and it is not conclusive that all electromagnetic radiation can be contained. A Faraday cage or Faraday shield is an enclosure formed by conducting material, or by a mesh of such material

Issues with batteries

Old: Banks of conventional lead-acid car batteries are still commonly used for EV propulsion
Old: Banks of conventional lead-acid car batteries are still commonly used for EV propulsion
75 watt-hour/kilogram lithium ion polymer battery prototypes. Newer Li-poly cells provide up to 130 Wh/kg and last through thousands of charging cycles.
75 watt-hour/kilogram lithium ion polymer battery prototypes. Lithium-ion polymer batteries, polymer lithium ion, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries (abbreviated Li-poly Li-Pol LiPo LIP PLI or LiP are Newer Li-poly cells provide up to 130 Wh/kg and last through thousands of charging cycles.

On an energy basis, the price of electricity to run an EV is a small fraction as much as liquid fuel. Issues related to batteries, however, can add to the operating costs.

Lead-acid

Traditionally, most EVs have used lead-acid batteries due to their mature technology, high availability, and low cost (exception: some early EVs, such as the Detroit Electric, used nickel-iron. Lead-acid batteries, invented in 1859 by French Physicist Gaston Planté, are the oldest type of Rechargeable battery. Detroit Electric (1907 - 1939 was an Automobile brand produced by the Anderson Electric Car Company in Detroit, Michigan. The nickel-iron battery is a storage battery having a Nickel(III oxide-hydroxide Cathode and an iron Anode, with an electrolyte of Potassium ) Like all batteries, these have an environmental impact through their construction, use, disposal or recycling. On the upside, vehicle battery recycling rates top 95% in the United States. Deep-cycle lead batteries are expensive and have a shorter life than the vehicle itself, typically needing replacement every 3 years.

Lead-acid batteries in EV applications end up being a significant (25%-50%) portion of the final vehicle mass. Like all batteries, they have significantly lower energy density than petroleum fuels -- in this case, 30-40Wh/kg. Energy density is the amount of Energy stored in a given system or region of space per unit Volume, or per unit Mass, depending on the context although While the difference isn't as extreme as it first appears due to the lighter drivetrain in an EV, even the best batteries tend to lead to higher masses when applied to vehicles with a normal range. The efficiency and storage capacity of the current generation of common deep cycle lead acid batteries decreases with lower temperatures, and diverting power to run a heating coil reduces efficiency and range by up to 40%. Recent advances in battery efficiency, capacity, materials, safety, toxicity and durability are likely to allow these superior characteristics to be applied in car-sized EVs.

Charging and operation of batteries typically results in the emission of hydrogen, oxygen and sulfur, which are naturally occurring and normally harmless if properly vented. Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Sulfur or sulphur (ˈsʌlfɚ see spelling below) is the Chemical element that has the Atomic number 16 Early Citicar owners discovered that, if not vented properly, unpleasant sulfur smells would leak into the cabin immediately after charging. The Citicar was produced between 1974 and 1983 by a US company called Sebring Vanguard, based in Florida

Lead-acid batteries have been re-engineered by Firefly Energy, increasing longevity, slightly increasing energy density, and significantly increasing power density. Firefly is expected market lightweight vehicle batteries, either directly or through manufacturing partners in 2008.

Lead-acid batteries powered such early-modern EVs as the original versions of the EV1 and the RAV4EV. The EV1 was the first modern production electric vehicle from a major automaker and also the first purpose-built Electric car produced by General Motors (GM in the

Nickel metal hydride

Nickel-metal hydride batteries are now considered a relatively mature technology. A nickel-metal hydride battery, abbreviated NiMH, is a type of Rechargeable battery similar to a nickel-cadmium ( Ni[[Cadmium Cd]] battery While less efficient in charging and discharging than even lead-acid, they boast an energy density of 30-80Wh/kg, far higher than lead-acid. When used properly, nickel-metal hydride batteries can have exceptionally long lives, as has been demonstrated in their use in hybrid cars and surviving NiMH RAV4EVs that still operate well after 100,000 miles and over a decade of service. A hybrid vehicle is a vehicle that uses two or more distinct power sources to propel the vehicle Downsides include the poor efficiency, high self-discharge, very finicky charge cycles, and poor performance in cold weather.

Zebra

The sodium or "zebra" battery uses a molten chloroaluminate (NaAlCl4) salt as the electrolyte. Molten salt batteries are a class of Primary cell and Secondary cell high temperature Electric battery that use Molten salts as an Electrolyte Also a relatively mature technology, the Zebra battery boasts a good energy density of 90Wh/kg and near lossless charge/discharge cycles. Since the battery must be heated for use, cold weather doesn't strongly affect its operation except for in increasing heating costs. It has been used in several EVs. The downsides to the Zebra battery include poor power density and the requirement of having to heat the electrolyte, which wastes energy and presents difficulties in long-term storage of charge. Zebras can last for a few thousand charge cycles and are nontoxic.

Lithium ion

Lithium-ion (and similar lithium polymer) batteries, widely known through their use in laptops and consumer electronics, dominate the most recent group of EVs in development. Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries) are a type of Rechargeable battery in which a Lithium ion moves between the Anode Lithium-ion polymer batteries, polymer lithium ion, or more commonly lithium polymer batteries (abbreviated Li-poly Li-Pol LiPo LIP PLI or LiP are The traditional lithium-ion chemistry involves a lithium cobalt oxide cathode and a graphite anode. A cathode is an Electrode through which (positive Electric current flows out of a polarized electrical device An anode is an Electrode through which Electric current flows into a polarized electrical device This yields cells with an impressive 160Wh/kg energy density and good power density, and near lossless charge/discharge cycles. The downsides of traditional lithium-ion batteries include short cycle lifes (hundreds to a few thousand charge cycles) and significant degradation with age. The cathode is also somewhat toxic. Also, traditional lithium-ion batteries can pose a fire safety risk if punctured or charged improperly. The maturity of this technology is moderate. The Tesla Roadster uses "blades" of traditional lithium-ion "laptop battery" cells that can be replaced individually as needed. The Tesla Roadster is a fully electric Sports car. It is the first car produced by electric car firm Tesla Motors.

Most other EVs are utilizing new variations on lithium-ion chemistry that sacrifice energy density (often resulting in batteries with 100Wh/kg or less) to provide extreme power density, fire resistance, environmental friendliness, very rapid charges (as low as a few minutes), and very long lifespans. These variants (phosphates, titanates, spinels, etc) have been shown to have a much longer lifetime, with A123 expecting their lithium iron phosphate batteries to last for at least 10+ years and 7000+ charge cycles[6], and LG Chem expecting their lithium-manganese spinel batteries to last up to 40 years. Lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4 is a compound used in lithium iron phosphate batteries (related to Li-Ion batteries) Lithium (ˈlɪθiəm is a Chemical element with the symbol Li and Atomic number 3 Manganese (ˈmæŋgəniːz is a Chemical element, designated by the symbol Mn. The spinels are any of a class of Minerals of general formulation XY2 O 4 which Crystallize in the cubic (isometric [7]

Much work is being done on lithium ion batteries in the lab[8]. Lithium vanadium oxide has already made its way into the Subaru prototype G4e, doubling energy density. is the automobile manufacturing division of Japanese transportation conglomerate Fuji Heavy Industries Co Silicon nanowires[9][10][11], silicon nanoparticles[12], and tin nanoparticles[13][14] promise several times the energy density in the anode, while composite[15][16][17][18][19] and superlattice[20] cathodes also promise significant density improvements.

Other in-development technologies

Conventional supercapacitors are being worked to achieve the energy density of lithium ion batteries, offering almost unlimited lifespans and no environmental issues. Electric double-layer capacitors, also known as supercapacitors, electrochemical double layer capacitors ( EDLCs) or ultracapacitors High-K supercapacitors, such as EEStor's EESU, promise to best lithium ion energy density several times over if they can be produced. EEStor is a company based in Cedar Park, Texas, United States that has developed a type of Capacitor for Electricity storage, Lithium-sulphur batteries offer 250Wh/kg[21]. Sodium-ion batteries promise 400Wh/kg with only minimal expansion/contraction during charge/discharge and a very high surface area[22].

Battery replacement is also proposed as an alternative. While it suffers from some problems (weight, standardization, etc), Project Better Place has already raised several hundred million dollars to build networks of charging and battery replacement stations. One type of battery "replacement" proposed is much simpler: while the latest generation of vanadium redox battery only has an energy density similar to lead-acid, the charge is stored solely in a vanadium-based electrolyte, which can be pumped out and replaced with charged fluid. The vanadium redox (and redox flow battery in its present form (with sulfuric acid electrolytes was patented by the University of New South Wales in Australia in 1986.

Advantages of electric vehicles

Electric motors are mechanically very simple, and release almost no air pollutants at the place where they are operated.

Electric motors often achieve 90% energy conversion efficiency[23]over the full range of speeds and power output and can be precisely controlled. Energy conversion efficiency is the Ratio between the useful output of an Energy conversion machine and the input in Energy terms They can also be combined with regenerative braking systems that have the ability to convert movement energy back into stored electricity. A regenerative brake is a mechanism that reduces Vehicle speed by converting some of its Kinetic energy into another useful form of energy This can be used to reduce the wear on brake systems (and consequent brake pad dust) and reduce the total energy requirement of a trip, especially effective for start-and-stop city use.

They can be finely controlled and provide high torque from rest, unlike internal combustion engines, and do not need gears to match power curves. The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a This removes the need for gearboxes and torque converters. A torque converter is a modified form of Fluid coupling that is used to transfer rotating power from a prime mover, such as an Internal combustion engine

Another advantage is that electric vehicles typically have less vibration and noise pollution than a vehicle powered by an internal combustion engine, whether it is at rest or in motion. Vibration refers to mechanical Oscillations about an equilibrium point. Noise pollution (or environmental noise) is displeasing human- or machine-created sound that disrupts the activity or balance of human or animal life The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the Combustion of Fuel and an Oxidizer (typically air occurs in a confined space called a

Incentives

USA

Qualifying electric vehicles purchased new are eligible for a one-time federal tax credit that equals 10% of the cost of the vehicle up to $4,000, provided under Section 179A of the Energy Policy Act of 1992; it was extended through 2007 by the Working Families Tax Relief Act of 2004.

A tax deduction of up to $100,000 per location is available for qualified electric vehicle recharging property used in a trade or business. A tax deduction or a tax-deductible expense affects a taxpayer's Income tax.

Other incentives: http://www.eere.energy.gov/afdc/laws/incen_laws.html#fed

European Union

Directive 2006/32/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 5 April 2006 on energy end-use efficiency and energy services includes measures to promote efficient vehicles. "Energy efficiency" redirects here For energy efficiency as a ratio in physics see Energy conversion efficiency.

AVERE has a table summarizing the taxation and incentives for these vehicles in the different European countries, related to state subsidies, reduction of VAT and other taxes, insurance facilities, parking and charging facilities (including free recharging on street or in the parkings), EV imposed by law and banned circulation for petroleum cars, permission to use bus lanes and toll free on highways, between others. In Economics, a subsidy (also known as a subvention is a form of financial assistance paid to a business or economic sector Value added tax ( VAT) or goods and services tax ( GST) is a consumption Tax levied on value added. Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society The word lane has several meanings including and especially a portion of a paved Road which is intended for a single line of vehicles and is marked by White A toll-free, Freecall, Freephone, or 800 number is a special Telephone number, in that the Called party is charged the cost of the * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * Before adding any more images to this * * page please do carefully consider * * whether they would be mere decoration * * or actually improve [24]

Estimated number of electric vehicles

The Energy Information Administration (EIA) estimates that were 55,852 Full-Electric Vehicles (FEV) in 2004, with an annual growth rate of 39. The United States Energy Information Administration (EIA created by Congress in 1977, is the independent statistical agency within the U 1 % (excluding in this estimation electric hybrids). A hybrid electric vehicle (HEV is a Hybrid vehicle which combines a conventional propulsion system with a Rechargeable energy storage system (RESS [25]

Production

Main articles: Plug-in hybrid, Production of electric vehicles, and battery electric vehicle

Practically the only EV to have been manufactured for several years is the Indian REVA. A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle ( PHEV) is a Hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an Electric power The battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of Electric vehicle (EV that uses chemical Energy stored in Rechargeable battery REVAi ( REVA G-Wiz i in some markets is an Indian Electric car intended for use as a City car. It is produced by REVA Electric Car Company Private Ltd. (RECC) in Bangalore, India, a company established in 1994 as a joint venture between the Maini Group India and AEV LLC, California USA. After seven years of R&D, they commercialized the first REVA car in June 2001. [26]

The current version of the REVA is the REVAi. REVAi ( REVA G-Wiz i in some markets is an Indian Electric car intended for use as a City car. It was first reserved for the Indian market, but it is now distributed in several European countries: UK (by GoinGreen under the name G-Wiz), Cyprus and Greece (by REVA Phaedra Electricity Mobility Ltd, Belgium (by Green Mobil), Norway (by Ole Chr. Bye AS), Spain (by Emovement)and Germany (by Elektro PKW). The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located It may be exported to the USA with a speed limiter for use as a Neighborhood Electric Vehicle (NEV).

Most of the EVs that Chrysler, Ford, GM (EV1), Honda, Nissan and Toyota produced in limited numbers for California drivers were crushed. The EV1 was the first modern production electric vehicle from a major automaker and also the first purpose-built Electric car produced by General Motors (GM in the

The production of the Citroën Berlingo Electrique stopped in September 2005. The Citroën Berlingo Electrique is a battery-powered version of the Berlingo range of vans

Several Industry giants, such as Daimler AG, Toyota Motor Corp., General Motors Corp., Renault SA and Mitsubishi Corp. Daimler AG ( (formerly DaimlerChrysler AG) is a German car corporation (not to be confused with the British car-maker Daimler Motor Company) and (pronounced) is a Multinational corporation headquartered in Japan, and is currently the world's largest Automaker. General Motors Corporation ( GM) ( is a multinational automobile manufacturer founded in 1908 and headquartered in the United States. This is about the company for other uses see Renault (disambiguation. The, Mitsubishi Group of Companies, or Mitsubishi Companies is a Japanese conglomerate consisting of a range of autonomous businesses which share the Mitsubishi , are developing new-generation electric vehicles. [27]

Myers Motors, a small private company have created an electric personal Three wheeled car called NMG (No More Gas). A three wheeled car, also known as a tricar or tri-car, is an Automobile having either one Wheel in the This car can take only one passenger, and is being sold in very small numbers in the US only.

European Union

Portugal and Spain

Portugal and Spain want to create the first green car in Iberia, hoping to generate 150 million euros worth of investment and 800 new jobs in the region's struggling motor industry. The green car, which could be powered by electricity. The Mobi-green car, as the vehicle is named, is being developed by two automotive research centres in Portugal and Spain using funds from both the public and private sectors. [28]

Future

Main articles: Battery electric vehicle and Plug-in hybrid
Eliica Battery Electric Car with 370 km/h top speed and 200 km range
Eliica Battery Electric Car with 370 km/h top speed and 200 km range
The number of US survey respondents willing to pay $4,000 more for a plug-in hybrid car increased from 17% in 2005 to 26% in 2006.
The number of US survey respondents willing to pay $4,000 more for a plug-in hybrid car increased from 17% in 2005 to 26% in 2006. The battery electric vehicle, or BEV, is a type of Electric vehicle (EV that uses chemical Energy stored in Rechargeable battery A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle ( PHEV) is a Hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an Electric power The Eliica (or the E lectric Li thium- I on Ca r is a Battery electric vehicle Prototype, or Concept car designed A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle ( PHEV) is a Hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an Electric power

Several start-up companies like Tesla Motors, Ronaele Incorporated, Commuter Cars, Phoenix Motorcars, Miles Electric Vehicles, and Aptera Motors will have powerful battery-electric vehicles available to the public in 2008. Commuter Cars is a Spokane Washington based company founded by Rick Woodbury and his son Bryan Phoenix Motorcars is a California-based company that focuses on developing electric vehicles Miles Electric Vehicles is a manufacturer and distributor of All-electric vehicles manufactured in China to meet international Car safety standards Aptera Motors, formerly Accelerated Composites is a maker of high-efficiency vehicles and is located in Carlsbad California. Battery and energy storage technology is advancing rapidly. The average distance driven by 80% of citizens per day in a car in the US is about 50 miles (US dept of transport, 1991), which fits easily within the current range of the electric car. This range can be improved by technologies such as Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles which are capable of using traditional fuels for unlimited range, rapid charging stations for BEVs, improved energy density batteries, flow batteries, or battery swapping. A plug-in hybrid electric vehicle ( PHEV) is a Hybrid vehicle with batteries that can be recharged by connecting a plug to an Electric power The vanadium redox (and redox flow battery in its present form (with sulfuric acid electrolytes was patented by the University of New South Wales in Australia in 1986.

In 2006 GM began the development of a plug-in EV that will use a lithium-ion battery. The vehicle, initially known as the iCar, is now called the Chevrolet Volt. The Chevrolet Volt is a plug-in series hybrid vehicle by General Motors, with production The basic design was first exhibited January 2007 at the North American International Auto Show. GM is planning to have this EV ready for sale to the public in the latter half of 2010. The car is to have a 50 mile range. If the battery capacity falls below 30 percent a small internal combustion engine will kick in to charge the battery on the go. This in effect increases the range of the vehicle, allowing it to be driven until it can be fully charged by plugging it into a standard household AC electrical source.

On October 29, 2007, Shai Agassi launched Project Better Place, a company focused on building massive scale Electric Recharge Grids as infrastructure supporting the deployment of electric vehicles (including plug-in hybrids) in countries around the world. Events 437 - Valentinian III, Western Roman Emperor, marries Licinia Eudoxia, daughter of his cousin Theodosius II Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Shai Agassi (שי אגסי born 1968 is Founder and CEO of Better Place (formerly known as Project Better Place On January 21, BPP and the Nissan-Renault group signed a MOU - PBP will provide the battery recharging and swapping infrastructure and Renault-Nissan will mass-produce the vehicles. Events 1189 - Philip II of France and Richard I of England begin to assemble troops to wage the Third Crusade. This is about the company for other uses see Renault (disambiguation. A memorandum of understanding ( MOU or MoU) is a Document describing a Bilateral or multilateral Agreement between parties

Improved long term energy storage and nano batteries

There have been several developments which could bring electric vehicles outside their current fields of application, as scooters, golf cars, neighborhood vehicles, in industrial operational yards and indoor operation. First, advances in lithium-based battery technology, in large part driven by the consumer electronics industry, allow full-sized, highway-capable electric vehicles to be propelled as far on a single charge as conventional cars go on a single tank of gasoline. Lithium-ion batteries (sometimes abbreviated Li-ion batteries) are a type of Rechargeable battery in which a Lithium ion moves between the Anode Lithium batteries have been made safe, can be recharged in minutes instead of hours, and now last longer than the typical vehicle. The production cost of these lighter, higher-capacity lithium batteries is gradually decreasing as the technology matures and production volumes increase.

Introduction of Battery Management and Intermediate Storage

Another improvement is to decouple the electric motor from the battery through electronic control, employing ultra-capacitors to buffer large but short power demands and regenerative braking energy. Electric double-layer capacitors, also known as supercapacitors, electrochemical double layer capacitors ( EDLCs) or ultracapacitors A regenerative brake is a mechanism that reduces Vehicle speed by converting some of its Kinetic energy into another useful form of energy The development of new cell types combined with intelligent cell management improved both weak points mentioned above. The cell management involves not only monitoring the health of the cells but also a redundant cell configuration (one more cell than needed). With sophisticated switched wiring it is possible to condition one cell while the rest are on duty.

Electric Vehicle Organizations

Worldwide

The World Electric Vehicle Association (WEVA), chairman Hisashi Ishitani, formed by:

North America

Europe

Patents

See also

References

  1. ^ History of Railway Electric Traction
  2. ^ Inventors - Electric Cars (1890 - 1930)
  3. ^ PNNL: Newsroom - Mileage from megawatts: Study finds enough electric capacity to “fill up” plug-in vehicles across much of the nation
  4. ^ PNNL: Newsroom - Mileage from megawatts: Study finds enough electric capacity to “fill up” plug-in vehicles across much of the nation
  5. ^ GreenFacts summary of the IARC Evaluation of Static and Extremely Low-Frequency (ELFs) Electric and Magnetic Fields
  6. ^ [1]
  7. ^ [2]
  8. ^ [3]
  9. ^ [4]
  10. ^ [5]
  11. ^ [6]
  12. ^ [7]
  13. ^ [8]
  14. ^ [9]
  15. ^ [10]
  16. ^ [11]
  17. ^ [12]
  18. ^ [13]
  19. ^ [14]
  20. ^ [15]
  21. ^ [16]
  22. ^ [17]
  23. ^ http://www.projectbetterplace.com/images/resources/factsheet_projectbetterplace.pdf
  24. ^ http://www.avere.org/state_subsidies.pdf
  25. ^ http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/alternate/page/datatables/aft1-13_03.html
  26. ^ The website of the REVA Electric Car Company
  27. ^ http://online.wsj.com/article/SB121002128666768637.html
  28. ^ Planet Ark : Portugal, Spain Sign Green Car Partnership

External links

© 2009 citizendia.org; parts available under the terms of GNU Free Documentation License, from http://en.wikipedia.org
 Dapyx Software network: MP3 Explorer | Ebook Manager | Zenithic