Egyptians مَصريين Maṣreyyīn ϩⲁⲛⲣⲉⲙ'ⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ han. Remenkīmi
Top row (left to right) Saad Zaghlul • 2nd-century Fayum portrait • Sameera Moussa • Muhammad Abduh • Ester Fanous Bottom row (left to right) Omm Kolsum • Abraam Bishop of Fayoum • Abdel Halim Hafez • Nefertiti • Naguib Mahfouz
Total population
72. Saad Zaghloul ( Arabic سعد زغلول; also Saad Zaghloul Sa'd Zaghloul Pasha ibn Ibrahim) ( 1859 - August 23 Sameera Moussa ( Arabic: سميرة موسى ( March 3, 1917 - August 5, 1952) was an Egyptian nuclear scientist Muhammad Abduh (or Muhammad 'Abduh) (محمد عبده ( Nile Delta, 1849 - Alexandria, July 11 1905,) was an Egyptian Ester Akhnoukh Fanous ( Esther Fanous; Arabic: إستر فانوس also known as Ester Wissa ( February 19, 1895, Assiut Umm Kulthum ( Arabic: أم كلثوم, born أم كلثوم إبراهيم البلتاجي; see Kunya; Egyptian Arabic: Om Kalsoum Saint Abraam ( 1829 - 10 June 1914) was a contemporary Coptic Orthodox saint Abdel Halim Ismail Shabana ( Arabic: عبدالحليم إسماعيل شبانة) commonly known as Abdel Halim Hafez ( عبد الحليم حافظ Nefertiti (pronounced at the time something like *nafratiːta (c Naguib Mahfouz (نجيب محفوظ Nagīb Maḥfūẓ ( December 11, 1911 – August 30, 2006) was an Egyptian Novelist 5 million (2006)[1] plus 4 million in the diaspora (2006)[1]
Regions with significant populations
Egypt 72. The term Diaspora (in Greek, διασπορά &ndash " a scattering or sowing of seeds " refers any population sharing common ethnic This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. 5 million  Saudi Arabia 900,000 (2004) [2]  Libya 333,000 (1999) [3]  United States 318,000 (2000) [4]  Jordan 227,000 (1999) [3]  Kuwait 191,000 (1999) [3]  United Kingdom 147,102 (2000) [5]  United Arab Emirates 140,000 (2002) [2]  Canada 110,000 (2000) [6]  Italy 90,000 (2000) [4]  Australia 65,280 (2006) [7]  Iraq 66,000 (1999) [3]  Greece 60,000 (2000) [4]  Germany 40,000 (2000) [8]  Netherlands 40,000 (2000) [4]  France 36,000 (2000) [4]  Austria 14,000 (2000) [4]  Switzerland 14,000 (2000) [4]  Spain 12,000 (2000) [4]  Israel 11,000 (2005) [9]
Languages
Egyptian Arabic, Egyptian/Coptic
Religions
Islam, Coptic Christianity, Bahá'í Faith, Judaism, Atheism

The Egyptians (Egyptian: rmṯnkm. The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, KSA ( المملكة العربية السعودية, al-Mamlaka al-ʻArabiyya as-Suʻūdiyya) or Suudi Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Jordan, officially the Hashemite Kingdom of Jordan (الأردنّ al-Urdunn) is an Arab country in Southwest Asia spanning the southern The State of Kuwait ( دولة الكويت IPA [dawlatt̪ alkuwajt̪]) is a sovereign Arab Emirate on the coast of the Persian Gulf, enclosed The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located Country to "Dominion of Canada" or "Canadian Federation" or anything else please read the Talk Page Italy (Italia officially the Italian Republic, (Repubblica Italiana is located on the Italian Peninsula in Southern Europe, and on the two largest For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Greece (Ελλάδα transliterated: Elláda, historically, Ellás,) officially the Hellenic Republic (Ελληνική Δημοκρατία Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. The Netherlands ( Dutch:, ˈnedərlɑnt is the European part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, which consists of the Netherlands the Netherlands This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. Austria (Österreich ( officially the Republic of Austria (Republik Österreich Switzerland (English pronunciation; Schweiz Swiss German: Schwyz or Schwiiz Suisse Svizzera Svizra officially the Swiss Confederation Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. History of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria Apostolic foundation Egypt is identified in the Bible as the place of refuge that the The Bahá'í Faith is a Religion founded by Bahá'u'lláh in nineteenth-century Persia, emphasizing the spiritual unity of all humankind Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Atheism Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages t; Coptic: ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙ'ⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ ni. Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt remenkīmi; Arabic: مِصريّون miṣriyūn; Masri: مَصريين maṣreyyīn) are a nation and a North African ethnic group native to Egypt. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language A nation is a Human Cultural and Social Community. In as much as most members never meet each other yet feel a common bond it may be considered North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Egyptian identity is rooted in the lower Nile Valley, the small strip of cultivable land stretching from the First Cataract to the Mediterranean Sea and enclosed by vast deserts. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River The cataracts of the Nile are shallow stretches between Aswan and Khartoum where the water's surface is broken by numerous small boulders and stones lying This unique geography has been the basis of the development of Egyptian society since antiquity. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now

The Egyptian people have spoken only languages of the Afro-Asiatic family throughout their history, from Old Egyptian to today's vernacular Egyptian Arabic. The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a Language family with about 375 languages ( SIL estimate and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa Old Egyptian is the stage of the Egyptian language spoken from 2600 BC to 2000 BC during the Old Kingdom and First Intermediate Period Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages Their religion is predominantly Sunni Islam with a Shia minority and a significant proportion who follow native Sufi orders. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Tariqah ( ar طريقه; pl طرق; Ṭuruq or Persian: Tarighat, Turkish: Tarikat) means "way" ^[10]Sufism: A persecuted majority in Egypt. May 2005. (Arabic) A sizable minority of Egyptians belong to the Coptic Orthodox Church, whose liturgical language, Coptic, is the last stage of the indigenous Egyptian language. History of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria Apostolic foundation Egypt is identified in the Bible as the place of refuge that the A sacred language, or liturgical language, is a Language that is cultivated for religious reasons by people who speak another language in their daily life Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages

Following the Muslim conquest of Egypt in the 7th century, Egypt came under Arab occupation. At the commencement of the Muslim conquest of Egypt Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Egyptians were forced to adopt the Arabic language, and many Arab rulers sought to implement this by punishing those who still spoke Coptic by cutting off their tongues ^{[11] [12]} This came at the expense of the native Coptic language, which became mostly extinct by the 18th century, although it is spoken today as a native tongue by a few hundred Egyptians ^[13]. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt The 18th century lasted from 1701 to 1800 in the Gregorian calendar, in accordance with the Anno Domini / Common Era numbering system As a consequence, the national identity of Egyptians as it developed in the 19th to 20th centuries consists of overlapping or conflicting ideologies, a Muslim identity on one hand, versus a secular nationalism that focuses primarily on Ancient Egypt. A nation is a Human Cultural and Social Community. In as much as most members never meet each other yet feel a common bond it may be considered Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now There is also Arab nationalism, which did not develop in Egypt until the second half of the 20th century, with the presidency of Nasser. Arab nationalism ( Arabic: القومية العربية is a Nationalist ideology which rose to prominence amongst Arabs from the early 20th century onwards Gamal Abdel Nasser (جمال عبد الناصر Gamāl ‘Abd an-Nāṣir; - January 15 1918 September 28 1970) was the second President

Names of the Egyptians

• Rmṯ (n) km. t – This is the native Egyptian name of the people of the Nile Valley, literally 'People of Kemet' (i. Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages e. , Egypt). In antiquity, it was often rendered simply as Rmṯ or '(the) People. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now ' The name is vocalized remenkīmi ⲣⲉⲙⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ in the Coptic stage of the language, meaning Egyptian (han. Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt remenkīmi ϩⲁⲛⲣⲉⲙⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ with the plural indefinite article 'Egyptians'; ni. remenkīmi ⲛⲓⲣⲉⲙⲛⲭⲏⲙⲓ with the plural definite article 'the Egyptians').

• Copts (qibṭ, qubṭ قبط) – Under Muslim rule, the Egyptians came to be known as Copts, a derivative of the Greek word Αἰγύπτιος, Aiguptios (Egyptian), from Αἰγύπτος, Aiguptos (Egypt). A Copt ( Coptic: ouRemenkīmi enEkhristianos, literally Egyptian Christian) is a native Egyptian Christian. The Greek name in turn may be derived from the Egyptian ḥw. Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages t-ka-ptḥ, literally "Estate (or 'House') of Ptah", the name of the temple complex of the god Ptah at Memphis. In Egyptian mythology, Ptah (also spelt Peteh) was the deification of the primordial mound in the Ennead Cosmogony, which was more literally In Egyptian mythology, Ptah (also spelt Peteh) was the deification of the primordial mound in the Ennead Cosmogony, which was more literally Memphis was the ancient capitol of the first nome of Lower Egypt, and of the Old Kingdom of Egypt from its foundation until around 2200 BC and After the majority of Egyptians converted from Christianity to Islam, the term became exclusively associated with Egyptian Christianity and Egyptians who remained Christian, though references to native Muslims as Copts are attested until the Mamluk period. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. History of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria Apostolic foundation Egypt is identified in the Bible as the place of refuge that the ^[14]

• Maṣreyyīn – The modern Egyptian name comes from the ancient Semitic name for Egypt and originally connoted "civilization" or "metropolis". The Semitic languages are a Language family whose living representatives are spoken by more than 467 million people across much of the Middle East, Classical Arabic Miṣr (Egyptian Arabic Maṣr) is directly cognate with the Biblical Hebrew Mitzráyīm, meaning "the two straits", a reference to the predynastic separation of Upper and Lower Egypt. Classical Arabic (CA also known as Qur'anic or Koranic Arabic, is the form of the Arabic language used in literary texts from Umayyad Biblical Hebrew, also called Classical Hebrew, is an archaic form of the Hebrew language in which the Hebrew Bible and various Israelite inscriptions Ancient Egypt was divided into two regions known as Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Edward William Lane writing in the 1820s, said that Egyptians commonly called themselves El-Maṣreeyeen 'the Egyptians', Owlad Maṣr 'the Children of Egypt' and Ahl Maṣr 'the People of Egypt'. Edward William Lane ( September 17, 1801, Hereford, England &mdash August 10, 1876, Worthing, Sussex He added that the Turks "stigmatized" the Egyptians with the name Ahl-Far'oon or the 'People of the Pharaoh'. The Turkish people (Türk Halkı also known as " Turks " ( Türkler) are defined mainly as being speakers of Turkish as a First language ^[15]

• Egyptians, from Greek Αἰγύπτιοι, Aiguptioi, from Αἰγύπτος, Aiguptos "Egypt". The Greek name is derived from Late Egyptian Hikuptah "Memphis", a corruption of the earlier Egyptian name Hat-ka-Ptah (ḥwt-k3-ptḥ), meaning "home of the ka (soul) of Ptah", the name of a temple to the god Ptah at Memphis. Late Egyptian is the stage of the Egyptian language that began to be written in the New Kingdom around the Amarna period. Memphis was the ancient capitol of the first nome of Lower Egypt, and of the Old Kingdom of Egypt from its foundation until around 2200 BC and Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages In Egyptian mythology, Ptah (also spelt Peteh) was the deification of the primordial mound in the Ennead Cosmogony, which was more literally Strabo provided a folk etymology according to which Αίγυπτος had evolved as a compound from Aἰγαίου ὑπτίως Aegaeon uptiōs, meaning "below the Aegean". Strabo ( Greek: Στράβων 63/64 BC – ca AD 24 was a Greek historian, geographer and philosopher. Folk etymology is a term used in two distinct ways A commonly held misunderstanding of the origin of a particular word a False etymology. In English, the noun "Egyptians" appears in the 14th century, in Wycliff's Bible, as Egipcions. Wyclif's Bible is the name now given to a group of Bible translations into Middle English that were made under the direction of or at the instigation of John

Demographics and society

See also: Demographics of Egypt

Modern superstructures juxtaposed with traditional housing along the ancient Nile River are part of today's landscape in Egypt's capital city. Egypt is the most populous country in the Middle East and the second-most populous on the African continent The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River

An estimated 76. 4 million Egyptians live around the world, but the vast majority are in Egypt where they constitute about 94% (72. This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. 5 million) of the total population. ^[1] Approximately 90% of Egyptians are Muslim and 10% are Christian (9% Coptic, 1% other Christian),^[16] though estimates vary. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth History of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria Apostolic foundation Egypt is identified in the Bible as the place of refuge that the The majority live near the banks of the Nile River where the only arable land is found. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River In Geography, arable land (from Latin arare, to Plough) is an agricultural term meaning land that can be used for Close to half of the Egyptian people today are urban; most of the rest are fellahin living in rural towns and villages. Fellah (فلاح (plural Fellahin, فلاحين is a Peasant, farmer or agricultural laborer in the Middle East. A large influx of fellahin into urban cities, and rapid urbanization of many rural areas since the turn of the last century, have shifted the balance between the number of urban and rural citizens. Egyptians also form smaller minorities in neighboring countries, North America, Europe and Australia. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics.

The Egyptians are an autochthonous people deeply attached to their land. Historically, it was rare for Egyptians to leave their country permanently or for an extended period of time—it was not until the 1970s that Egyptians began to emigrate in large numbers. Until recently, a study on the pattern of Egyptian emigration was quoted as saying "Egyptians have a reputation of preferring their own soil. Few leave except to study or travel; and they always return. . . Egyptians do not emigrate. "^[17] Egyptians also tend to be provincial, meaning their attachment extends not only to Egypt but to the specific provinces, towns and villages from which they hail. Egypt is divided into 29 Governorates (singular Muhafazah) and 1 self-governing city Therefore, return migrants, such as temporary workers abroad, come back to their region of origin in Egypt.

Sixty percent of Egyptians are rural fellahin or farmers. The percentage was much higher at the turn of the last century, before rapid urbanization and large-scale in-migration shifted Egypt's demographics.

A sizable Egyptian diaspora did not begin to form until well into the 1980s, today numbering nearly 4 million (2006 est). ^[1] Generally, those who emigrate to the United States (93%) and western European countries (55. 5%) tend to do so permanently, while Egyptians migrating to Arab countries (100%) only go there with the intention of returning to Egypt. ^[4] Prior to 1974, only few Egyptian professionals had left the country in search for employment. Political, demographic and economic pressures led to the first wave of emigration after 1952. Later more Egyptians left their homeland first after the 1973 boom in oil prices and again in 1979, but it was only in the second half of the 1980s that Egyptian migration became prominent. ^[4]

Egyptian emigration today is motivated by even higher rates of unemployment, population growth and increasing prices. Political repression and human rights violations by Egypt's ruling régime are other contributing factors (see Egypt - Human rights). This article is about the country of Egypt For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Egypt topics. Egyptians have also been impacted by the wars between Egypt and Israel, particularly after the Six-Day War in 1967, when migration rates began to rise. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Background Suez Crisis aftermath The Suez Crisis of 1956 represented a military defeat but a political victory for Egypt In August 2006, Egyptians made headlines when 11 students from Mansoura University failed to show up at their American host institutions for a cultural exchange program in the hope of finding employment. Mansoura University was founded in 1972 in Mansoura city Egypt. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the ^[19] Many Coptic Christians also leave the country due to discrimination and harassment by the Egyptian government and Islamist groups. A Copt ( Coptic: ouRemenkīmi enEkhristianos, literally Egyptian Christian) is a native Egyptian Christian.

Egyptians in neighboring countries face additional challenges. Over the years, abuse, exploitation and/or ill-treatment of Egyptian workers and professionals in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, Iraq and Libya have been reported by the Egyptian Human Rights Organization^[20] and different media outlets. The Arab states of the Persian Gulf are made of the kingdoms of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia, the Sultanate of Oman, the States For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. Libya ( ليبيا ar-Latn Lībiyā; Libyan vernacular: Lībya; Amazigh:) officially the Great Socialist People's Libyan Arab ^[21][22] Arab nationals have in the past expressed fear over an "'Egyptianization' of the local dialects and culture that were believed to have resulted from the predominance of Egyptians in the field of education"^[2] (see also Egyptian Arabic - Geographics). The Egyptians for their part object to what they call the "Saudization" of their culture due to Saudi Arabian petrodollar-flush investment in the Egyptian entertainment industry. The entertainment industry (much of which is informally known as show business or show biz) consists of a large number of sub-industries devoted to Entertainment ^[23] Twice Libya was on the brink of war with Egypt due to mistreatment of Egyptian workers and after the signing of the peace treaty with Israel. ^[24] When the Gulf War ended, Egyptian workers in Iraq were subjected to harsh measures and expulsion by the Iraqi government and to violent attacks by Iraqis returning from the war to fill the workforce. ^[25]

Genetics

Main article: Origin of Egyptians

Further information: Predynastic Egypt, Proto-Afro-Asiatic, and Origin of the Nilotic peoples

Mummy of 19th dynasty King Ramesses II. The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King Proto-Afro-Asiatic is the hypothetical Proto-language from which modern Afro-Asiatic languages are descended The Eighteenth Nineteenth, and Twentieth Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title New Kingdom.

Over the years, the findings of archaeology, biological anthropology and population genetics have shed light on the origins of the Egyptians. Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Biological anthropology, or physical anthropology is a branch of Anthropology that studies the mechanisms of biological Evolution, genetic inheritance Population genetics is the study of the Allele frequency distribution and change under the influence of the four evolutionary forces Natural selection, Genetic The indigenous Nile Valley population became firmly established during the Pleistocene epoch when nomadic hunter-gatherers began living along the Nile River. The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical The Pleistocene ('plaɪstəsin is the epoch from 18 million to 10000 years BP covering the world's recent period Nomadic people, (from the νομάδες nomádes, "those who let pasture herds" also known as nomads, are communities of people that A hunter-gatherer society is one whose primary subsistence method involves the direct procurement of edible plants and animals from the wild Foraging and Hunting The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River Traces of these proto-Egyptians appear in the form of artifacts and rock carvings in the terraces of the Nile and the desert oases. In Archaeology, an artifact or artefact is any object made or modified by a human culture, and often one later recovered by some archaeological Beginning in the predynastic period, some differences between the populations of Upper and Lower Egypt were ascertained through their skeletal remains, suggesting a gradual clinal pattern north to south. The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King ^{[26][27][28][29]}

When Lower and Upper Egypt were unified c. 3150 BC, the distinction began to blur, resulting in a more "homogeneous" population in Egypt, though the distinction remains true to some degree to this day. ^[30][31][32] Some biological anthropologists such as Shomarka Keita believe the range of variability to be primarily indigenous and not necessarily the result of significant intermingling of widely divergent peoples. Shomarka Omar Sundiata Yahye (SOY Keita MD DPhil ( May 25, 1954) née Jon Derryll Walker is an African American Genetic divergence is the process of one species diverging over time into more than one species ^[33] Keita describes the northern and southern patterns of the early predynastic period as "northern-Egyptian-Maghreb" and "tropical African variant" (overlapping with Nubia/Kush) respectively. The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King This article is about the region in Africa for other uses see Nubia (disambiguation. Kush civilization centered in the confluence of the Blue Nile and the White Nile, and the confluence of the River Atbara and Nile in what He shows that a progressive change in Upper Egypt toward the northern Egyptian pattern takes place through the predynastic period. The southern pattern continues to predominate in Abydos, Upper Egypt by the First Dynasty, but "lower Egyptian, Maghrebian, and European patterns are observed also, thus making for great diversity. Abydos ( Egyptian Abdju, 3bdw, Arabic: أبيدوس Greek Αβυδος one of the most ancient cities of The first dynasty of Ancient Egypt is often combined with the second dynasty under the group title Early Dynastic Period of Egypt. The Maghreb (المغرب العربي al-Maġrib al-ʿArabī) also rendered Maghrib (or rarely Moghreb) meaning "place of Sunset European populations have a complicated demographic and genetic history including many layers of successive migrations between different time periods "^[34]

A 2006 bioarchaeological study on the dental morphology of ancient Egyptians by Prof. The term bioarchaeology was first coined by British archaeologist Grahame Clark in 1972 as a reference to Zooarchaeology, or the study of animal bones from The term morphology in Biology refers to the outward appearance ( Shape, Structure, Colour, Pattern) of an Organism Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Joel Irish shows dental traits characteristic of indigenous North Africans and to a lesser extent Southwest Asian and southern European populations. North Africa or Northern Africa is the Northernmost Region of the African Continent, separated by the Sahara from Sub-Saharan Southwest Asia or Southwestern Asia (largely overlapping with the Middle East) is the southwestern portion of Asia. Among the samples included in the study is skeletal material from the Hawara tombs of Fayum, which clustered very closely with the Badarian series of the predynastic period. The Badarian culture provides the earliest direct evidence of agriculture in Upper Egypt. The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King All the samples, particularly those of the Dynastic period, were significantly divergent from a neolithic West Saharan sample from Lower Nubia. Biological continuity was also found intact from the dynastic to the post-pharaonic periods. According to Irish:

[The Egyptian] samples [996 mummies] exhibit morphologically simple, mass-reduced dentitions that are similar to those in populations from greater North Africa (Irish, 1993, 1998a–c, 2000) and, to a lesser extent, western Asia and Europe (Turner, 1985a; Turner and Markowitz, 1990; Roler, 1992; Lipschultz, 1996; Irish, 1998a). Dentition is the development of Teeth and their arrangement in the Mouth. Similar craniofacial measurements among samples from these regions were reported as well (Brace et al. , 1993). . . an inspection of MMD values reveals no evidence of increasing phenetic distance between samples from the first and second halves of this almost 3,000-year-long period. Phenetics should not be confused with Phonetics, the study of speech sounds despite the similarity in pronunciation For example, phenetic distances between First-Second Dynasty Abydos and samples from Fourth Dynasty Saqqara (MMD ¼ 0. 050), 11-12th Dynasty Thebes (0. 000), 12th Dynasty Lisht (0. 072), 19th Dynasty Qurneh (0. 053), and 26th–30th Dynasty Giza (0. 027) do not exhibit a directional increase through time. . . Thus, despite increasing foreign influence after the Second Intermediate Period, not only did Egyptian culture remain intact (Lloyd, 2000a), but the people themselves, as represented by the dental samples, appear biologically constant as well. . . Gebel Ramlah [Neolithic Nubian/Western Desert sample] is, in fact, significantly different from Badari based on the 22-trait MMD (Table 4). The Badarian culture provides the earliest direct evidence of agriculture in Upper Egypt. For that matter, the Neolithic Western Desert sample is significantly different from all others [but] is closest to predynastic and early dynastic samples. ^[35]

A group of noted physical anthropologists conducted craniofacial studies of Egyptian skeletal remains and concluded similarly that "the Egyptians have been in place since back in the Pleistocene and have been largely unaffected by either invasions or migrations. Craniofacial ( cranio- combining form meaning head or skull + -facial combining form referring to the facial structures grossly may be used to describe cratain As others have noted, Egyptians are Egyptians, and they were so in the past as well. "^[36]

Genetic analysis of modern Egyptians reveals that they have paternal lineages common to indigenous North Africans/Berber populations primarily, and to Near Eastern peoples to a lesser extent — these lineages would have spread during the Neolithic and maintained by the predynastic period. Genetic genealogy is the application of Genetics to traditional genealogy. In the study of Molecular evolution, a haplogroup, from "ἁπλο-" (Greek haplo-: simple or single + "group" is a group of similar Haplotypes Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century The Neolithic (from Greek νεολιθικός — neolithikos from νέος neos, "new" + λίθος lithos The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King ^[37][38] Studies based on maternal lineages also link Egyptians with people from modern Eritrea/Ethiopia such as the Tigre,^[39][40] who are characterized by haplogroup M1 believed to have originated in West Asia. In the study of Molecular evolution, a haplogroup, from "ἁπλο-" (Greek haplo-: simple or single + "group" is a group of similar Haplotypes Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in NOTE This intro is the result of careful NPOV work Please do not make potentially controversial edits to it without first discussing on the talk page For other uses please see Tigre (disambiguation The Tigre are an ethnic group of north Eritrea who speak the Tigre language. Southwest Asia or Southwestern Asia (largely overlapping with the Middle East) is the southwestern portion of Asia. ^[41]

University of Chicago Egyptologist Frank Yurco confirmed this finding of historical and regional continuity, saying:

Certainly there was some foreign admixture [in Egypt], but basically a homogeneous African population had lived in the Nile Valley from ancient to modern times. The University of Chicago is a Private university located principally in the Hyde Park neighborhood of Chicago. . . [the] Badarian people, who developed the earliest Predynastic Egyptian culture, already exhibited the mix of North African and Sub-Saharan physical traits that have typified Egyptians ever since (Hassan 1985; Yurco 1989; Trigger 1978; Keita 1990; Brace et al. , this volume). . . The peoples of Egypt, the Sudan, and much of East Africa, Ethiopia and Somalia are now generally regarded as a Nilotic (i. e. Nile River) continuity, with widely ranging physical features (complexions light to dark, various hair and craniofacial types) but with powerful common cultural traits, including cattle pastoralist traditions (Trigger 1978; Bard, Snowden, this volume). Language research suggests that this Saharan-Nilotic population became speakers of the Afro-Asiatic languages. . . Semitic was evidently spoken by Saharans who crossed the Red Sea into Arabia and became ancestors of the Semitic speakers there, possibly around 7000 BC. . . In summary we may say that Egypt was distinct North African culture rooted in the Nile Valley and on the Sahara. ^[42]

Identity

Egyptian students at a youth workshop.

Egyptian identity evolved from ancient to modern times to accommodate, in principle, two new religions, Christianity and Islam; and a new language, Arabic, and its spoken descendant, Egyptian Arabic. The degree to which Egyptians identify with each layer of Egypt's history in articulating a sense of collective identity can vary. Questions of identity came to fore in the 20th century as Egyptians sought to free themselves from foreign occupation, leading to the rise of ethno-territorial Egyptian nationalism, secular Arab nationalism (including pan-Arabism), and Islamism. Arab nationalism ( Arabic: القومية العربية is a Nationalist ideology which rose to prominence amongst Arabs from the early 20th century onwards Pan-Arabism is a movement for Unification among the peoples and countries of the Arab World, from the Atlantic Ocean to the Islamism ( Islam + ism; Arabic: al-'islāmiyya) a set of ideologies holding that Islam is not only Egyptian nationalism predates its Arab counterpart by many decades, having roots in the nineteenth century and becoming the dominant mode of expression of Egyptian anti-colonial activists of the pre- and inter-war periods:

In 1931, following a visit to Egypt, Syrian Arab nationalist Sati' al-Husri remarked that "[Egyptians] did not possess an Arab nationalist sentiment; did not accept that Egypt was a part of the Arab lands, and would not acknowledge that the Egyptian people were part of the Arab nation. Sāti` al-Husrī (in Arabic: ساطع الحصري August 1879 – 1967 was a Syrian writer and educationist whose ideas are widely considered to have played a fundamental "^[44] The later 1930s would become a formative period for Arab nationalism in Egypt, in large part due to efforts by Syrian/Palestinian/Lebanese intellectuals. ^[45] Nevertheless, a year after the establishment of the League of Arab States in 1945, to be headquartered in Cairo, Oxford University historian H. The Arab League ( الجامعة العربية) officially called the League of Arab States ( جامعة الدول العربية The University of Oxford (informally "Oxford University" or simply "Oxford" located in the city of Oxford, Oxfordshire, England is the S. Deighton was still writing:

It was not until the Nasser era more than a decade later that Arab nationalism, and by extension Arab socialism, became a state policy and a means with which to define Egypt's position in the Middle East and the world,^[47] usually articulated vis-à-vis Zionism in the neighboring Jewish state. Gamal Abdel Nasser (جمال عبد الناصر Gamāl ‘Abd an-Nāṣir; - January 15 1918 September 28 1970) was the second President Arab Socialism (الاشتراكية العربية al-ishtirākīya al-‘arabīya) is a political ideology based on an amalgamation of Pan-Arabism and History of Zionism|Timeline of Zionism|World Zionist Organization|Zionist political violence Zionism is an international political movement that originally supported the For a while Egypt and Syria formed the United Arab Republic. Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية The United Arab Republic ( الجمهورية العربية المتحدة al-Jumhūrīyah al-‘Arabīyah al-Muttaḥidah / al-Jumhūrīyah al-‘Arabīyah When the union was dissolved, Egypt continued to be known as the UAR until 1971, when Egypt adopted the current official name, the Arab Republic of Egypt. ^[48] The Egyptians' attachment to Arabism, however, was particularly questioned after the 1967 Six-Day War. Background Suez Crisis aftermath The Suez Crisis of 1956 represented a military defeat but a political victory for Egypt Thousands of Egyptians had lost their lives and the country became disillusioned with Arab politics. ^[49] Nasser's successor Sadat, both through public policy and his peace initiative with Israel, revived an uncontested Egyptian orientation, unequivocally asserting that only Egypt and Egyptians were his responsibility. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. The terms "Arab", "Arabism" and "Arab unity", save for the new official name, became conspicuously absent. ^[50] (See also Liberal age and Republic sections. This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group This article is about the contemporary North African ethnic group )

Many Egyptians today feel that Egyptian and Arab identities are inextricably linked, and emphasize the central role that Egypt plays in the Arab world. The Muslim Brotherhood now has a broad following, particularly among the lower-middle class urban population. The Muslim Brothers ( Arabic: الإخوان المسلمون al-ikhwān al-muslimūn, full title The Society of the Muslim Brothers, often simply الإخوان Others continue to believe that Egypt and Egyptians are simply not Arab, emphasizing indigenous Egyptian heritage, culture and independent polity; pointing to the failures of Arab and pan-Arab nationalist policies; and publicly voicing objection to the present official name of the country. Ordinary Egyptians frequently express this sentiment. For example, a foreign journalist said after visiting Egypt, "Although an avowedly Islamic country and now part and parcel of the Arab world, Egyptians are very proud of their distinctiveness and their glorious Pharaonic past dating back to 3500 BC. . . 'We are not Arabs, we are Egyptians,' said tour guide Shayma, who is a devout Muslim. "^[51]

In late 2007, el-Masri el-Yom daily newspaper conducted an interview at a bus stop in the working-class district of Imbaba to ask citizens what Arab nationalism (el-qawmeyya el-'arabeyya) represented for them. Imbaba (Arabic إمبابه) is a neighbourhood in northern Egypt, located in the Giza governorate and part of the greater Cairo metropolitan One Egyptian Muslim youth responded, "Arab nationalism means that the Egyptian Foreign Minister in Jerusalem gets humiliated by the Palestinians, that Arab leaders dance upon hearing of Sadat's death, that Egyptians get humiliated in the Arab states of the Persian Gulf, and of course that Arab countries get to fight Israel until the last Egyptian soldier. The Arab states of the Persian Gulf are made of the kingdoms of Bahrain and Saudi Arabia, the Sultanate of Oman, the States "^[52] Another felt that,"Arab countries hate Egyptians," and that unity with Israel may even be more of a possibility than Arab nationalism, because he believes that Israelis would at least respect Egyptians. ^[52]

Some contemporary prominent Egyptians who oppose Arab nationalism or the idea that Egyptians are Arabs include Secretary General of the Supreme Council of Antiquities Zahi Hawass,^[53] popular writer Osama Anwar Okasha, Egyptian-born Harvard University Professor Leila Ahmed, Member of Parliament Suzie Greiss,^[54] in addition to different local groups and intellectuals. The Supreme Council of Antiquities (commonly abbreviated SCA is part of the Egyptian Ministry of Culture and is responsible for the conservation protection and regulation Zahi Hawass ( Arabic: زاهي حواس (born 28 May 1947 in Damietta, Egypt) is an Egyptian archaeologist and Osama Anwar Okasha is an Egyptian screenwriter and journalist who writes weekly for El-Ahram newspaper Leila Ahmed (b 1940 لیلى احمد is an Egyptian American professor of Women's Studies and Religion at the Harvard Divinity School. ^[55] This understanding is also expressed in other contexts,^[56][57] such as Neil DeRosa's novel Joseph's Seed in his depiction of an Egyptian character "who declares that Egyptians are not Arabs and never will be. "^[58]

Egyptian critics of Arab nationalism contend that it has worked to erode and/or relegate native Egyptian identity by superimposing only one aspect of Egypt's culture. These views and sources for collective identification in the Egyptian state are captured in the words of a linguistic anthropologist who conducted fieldwork in Cairo:

History

Main article: History of Egypt

Egyptians may have the longest continuous history of any people, spanning a period of some 7,000 years. The history of Egypt is the longest continuous history as a unified state of any country in the world Egyptian hieroglyphs (ˈhaɪərəʊɡlɪf from Greek grc-Grek ἱερογλύφος " sacred carving " also hieroglyphic = grc-Grek The Egyptians' recorded history starts with the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt c. Ancient Egypt was divided into two regions known as Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. 3150 BC, an event that sparked the beginning of Egypt's ancient civilization. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now A succession of thirty mostly native dynasties ruled for the next three millennia, during which Egyptian culture flourished and remained distinctively Egyptian in its religion, arts, language and customs. A millennium (pl millennia) is a period of Time equal to one thousand Years (from Latin la mille, thousand and la annum Ancient Egyptian religion encompasses the various religious beliefs and rituals practiced in Ancient Egypt from the predynastic period until the adoption of Christianity Ancient Egyptian art refers to the style of painting sculpture crafts and architecture developed by the Civilization in the lower Nile Valley from 5000 Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Alexander the Great conquered Egypt in 332 BC, giving rise to the Ptolemaic dynasty which introduced Hellenic culture to the Egyptians, but continued to rule according to ancient Egyptian traditions. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. This stability shifted when the Egyptians fell under Roman rule, most notably with the introduction of Christianity in Egypt by Saint Mark in the 1st century. Ægyptus redirects here See Egypt Province for the province of the Ottoman Empire History of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria Apostolic foundation Egypt is identified in the Bible as the place of refuge that the "Saint Mark" redirects here For other uses see Saint Mark (disambiguation. The Egyptians were soon incorporated within the Byzantine fold and remained so until the 7th century, when Egypt became part of the Islamic Caliphate following Amr ibn al-As's conquest that brought Islam to Egypt. At the commencement of the Muslim conquest of Egypt Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. ˤAmr ibn al-ˤĀs (عمرو بن العاص (born c583 - d January 6, 664 CE was an Arab Military commander who is most noted for leading For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Egyptians were ruled by a succession of Arabs, Mamluk Circassians, Ottoman Turks and British until independence was reasserted in 1922 and a republic was declared in 1953. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Circassians is a term derived from the Turkic Cherkess ( Çerkes) and is not the self-designation of any people The Ottoman Turks were the subdivision of the Ottoman Muslim Millet that dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. The English people (from the adjective in Englisc) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to England who predominantly speak English

Predynastic

Main article: Predynastic Egypt

Archaeological findings show that primitive tribes lived along the Nile long before the dynastic history of the Pharaohs began. The Predynastic Period of Egypt (prior to 3100 BC is traditionally the period between the Early Neolithic and the beginning of the Pharaonic monarchy beginning with King Archaeology, archeology, or archæology (from Greek grc ἀρχαιολογία archaiologia – grc ἀρχαῖος archaīos Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Pharaoh is the title given in modern parlance to the ancient Egyptian kings of all periods By about 5500 BC, Egypt was inhabited by settled communities of people who cultivated emmer wheat and barley, made pottery, weaved linen and raised sheep, goats and cattle. Before the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt, northern Egyptians seem to have been somewhat culturally distinct from their neighbors to the south. Ancient Egypt was divided into two regions known as Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt. Surviving evidence for early settlement in Lower Egypt such as pottery, houses and burial sites appear different from those of the Upper Egyptians. The earliest known predynastic northern Egyptian site, Merimda, predates the earliest in Upper Egypt, the Badarian, by about 700 years. The Badarian culture provides the earliest direct evidence of agriculture in Upper Egypt. ^[60] However, later predynastic Lower Egyptians were in contact with not only contemporaneous southern Egyptians, but also with people from the Levant and with the Sumerians of Uruk, as some of the plants cultivated and the pottery types found in Lower Egypt resemble those of neighboring cultures. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the Sumer ( Sumerian: sux-Latn [[Ki (earth ki]]-[[EN (cuneiform en]]-'''ĝir15''', Akkadian: Šumeru; possibly Biblical Shinar Uruk ( URU UNUG, Sumerian: unug Akkadian: uruk) from the Akkadian rendering of the Sumerian Toponym 'unug' is modern ^[61]

Prehistoric Lower Egyptians already believed in an existence after death, as attested by their grave goods. ^[62] Each province before the unification of Egypt acquired its own animal deity. Uto and Bast were worshipped in the delta towns of Buto and Bubastis respectively, while Thoth and Wepwawet were the Upper Egyptian deities of Ashmounein and Asyut. In Egyptian mythology, Wadjet, which means the Green One ( Egyptian egy w3ḏyt; also spelt Wadjit or Wedjet In Egyptian mythology, Bast (also spelled Ubasti, and later Bastet) is an ancient Solar and War Goddess, worshipped at The Nile Delta ( Arabic: دلتا النيل) is the delta formed in Northern Egypt ( Lower Egypt) where the Nile River spreads Buto or Butos or Butosos ( Greek:, Herod ii 59 63 155, Steph B Bubastis ( Greek:, Herod ii 59 137 or, Strabo xvii p 805 Diodorus xvi For other meanings of "Thoth" or of "Djehuti" and similar see Thoth (disambiguation. In late Egyptian mythology, Wepwawet ( Hieroglyphic WP-W3WT; also rendered Upuaut, Wep-wawet, Wepawet, and Ophois Hermopolis Magna or simply Hermopolis ( Ammian, ii 16 or Hermopolis Megale ( Greek:, Steph Lycopolis and Lykopolis redirect here for the ancient city bearing those names located in the delta of the Nile see Lycopolis (Delta The predynastic settlements of Upper Egypt displayed more elaborate funerary practices and artifacts that were more clearly the direct predecessors of those of the dynastic Egyptians. Significantly, the earliest known evidence of Egyptian hieroglyphic inscriptions appears on Naqada III pottery vessels dated to about 3200 BC. Egyptian hieroglyphs (ˈhaɪərəʊɡlɪf from Greek grc-Grek ἱερογλύφος " sacred carving " also hieroglyphic = grc-Grek This article is about the Egyptian village See also Naqahdah for the fictional element from the Stargate setting ^[63] During the predynastic and protodynastic periods, the southern Egyptian cities of Nekheb, Nekhen (Hierakonpolis) and Abydos were major centers of power. The Protodynastic Period of Egypt (generally dated 3200 BC - 3000 BC) refers to the period of time at the very end of the Predynastic Period. El Kab is an Upper Egyptian site on the east bank of the Nile at the mouth of Wadi Hillal, about 80km south of Luxor, consisting of prehistoric Hieraconpolis redirects here for the ancient fortress in Egypt called Hieracon see Hieracon Nekhen, ( Greek:, Strabo xvii Abydos ( Egyptian Abdju, 3bdw, Arabic: أبيدوس Greek Αβυδος one of the most ancient cities of The first attempt to conquer Lower Egypt seems to have been made by a king from Nekhen known as Scorpion, but it would be another 100 years or so before another upper Egyptian king successfully unified the two lands. ^[64]

The Narmer Palette believed to depict the unification of Upper and Lower Egypt. The Narmer Palette, also known as the Great Hierakonpolis Palette or the Palette of Narmer, is a significant Egyptian archeological find dating from Ancient Egypt was divided into two regions known as Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt.

Early Dynastic

Main articles: Ancient Egypt and History of Ancient Egypt

The beginning of the Egyptians' recorded history starts with the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt by the Upper Egyptian king Narmer (identified with the pharaoh Menes). Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The History of Ancient Egypt spans the period from the early predynastic settlements of the northern Nile Valley to the Roman conquest in 30 Narmer was an Egyptian Pharaoh who ruled in the 31st century BC. Menes is the name of the Egyptian Pharaoh credited with founding the First dynasty, sometime around 3100 BC He founded Ancient Egypt's 1st dynasty around 3150 BC. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now The first dynasty of Ancient Egypt is often combined with the second dynasty under the group title Early Dynastic Period of Egypt. To strengthen his political role, King Menes/Narmer married the northern Egyptian princess Neithotep and took on the title of Two Ladies, i. The royal titulary or royal protocol of an Egyptian Pharaoh is the standard naming convention taken by the kings of Ancient Egypt e. , Nekhbet, the vulture goddess of Upper Egypt and Uto the cobra goddess worshipped by the Lower Egyptians, as a symbol of the unification. In Egyptian mythology, Nekhbet (also spelt Nechbet, and Nekhebit) was an early Predynastic, local Goddess who was the patron of the In Egyptian mythology, Wadjet, which means the Green One ( Egyptian egy w3ḏyt; also spelt Wadjit or Wedjet Herodotus, like the Egyptian historian Manetho, associated the unification with King Menes. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash Manetho (or Manethon) was an Egyptian Historian and Priest from Sebennytos ( Ancient Egyptian: Tjebnutjer) who He also indicated that Menes founded the ancient city of Memphis in Lower Egypt, which became the new capital of the unified country. Memphis was the ancient capitol of the first nome of Lower Egypt, and of the Old Kingdom of Egypt from its foundation until around 2200 BC and The Egyptians from this point onwards referred to the country as tawy, Two Lands, a common name until the New Kingdom period when the name km. The New Kingdom, sometimes referred to as the Egyptian Empire, is the period in Ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BC and t (Coptic: kīmi), Black Land, is more frequently attested. Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt The first two dynasties of Egypt were each ruled by eight kings and lasted for a combined period of about 400 years.

Old Kingdom

Main article: Old Kingdom

Prince Rahotep, possible son of King Sneferu, 4th dynasty. The Old Kingdom is the name commonly given to that period in the 3rd millennium BCE when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievement Sneferu, also spelled as Snefru or Snofru (in Greek known as Soris) was the founder of the Fourth dynasty of Egypt, reigning The fourth dynasty of Ancient Egypt is characterized as a Golden age of the Old Kingdom.

By the end of the Early Dynastic period, a strong centralized government was firmly established with Memphis as its capital city. The Archaic or Early Dynastic Period of Egypt immediately follows the unification of Lower and Upper Egypt c The Old Kingdom (c. The Old Kingdom is the name commonly given to that period in the 3rd millennium BCE when Egypt attained its first continuous peak of civilization in complexity and achievement 2700−2200 BC), is particularly famous for its magnificent superstructures, many of which served as royal tombs for the pharaohs. They were state-sponsored projects built by native Egyptians in the 3rd and 4th dynasties. Third Dynasty The Third Dynasty of Ancient Egypt is the first dynasty of the Old Kingdom. The fourth dynasty of Ancient Egypt is characterized as a Golden age of the Old Kingdom. Building typically commenced during the Nile's Inundation when agricultural lands were submerged in water and people could not farm. King Djoser's step pyramid at Saqqara, engineered by the architect Imhotep, and the Giza pyramids are a testament to the Egyptians' competence in astronomy and mathematics very early in their history. Netjerikhet or Djoser ( Turin King List "Dsr-it" Manetho "Tosarthros" is the best-known Pharaoh of the Third dynasty The Pyramid of Djoser(Zoser, or step pyramid ( kbhw-ntrw in Egyptian) is an archeological remain in the Saqqara necropolis Egypt Saqqara or Sakkara, Saqqarah ( Arabic: سقارة is a vast ancient burial ground in Egypt, featuring the world's oldest standing Step Imhotep (sometimes spelled Immutef, Im-hotep, or Ii-em-Hotep, circa ( fl The Giza Necropolis stands on the Giza Plateau on the outskirts of Cairo, Egypt. It is believed that many parts of famous medical papyri that appear in later periods, particularly the Edwin Smith papyrus, were written during this period by Imhotep and other Egyptian physicians. The Edwin Smith Papyrus is the only surviving copy of part of an Ancient Egyptian Textbook on trauma Surgery. ^[65]

Egyptian religion and writing took definitive shape in the Early Dynastic and Old Kingdom periods. Ancient Egyptian religion encompasses the various religious beliefs and rituals practiced in Ancient Egypt from the predynastic period until the adoption of Christianity Egyptian hieroglyphs (ˈhaɪərəʊɡlɪf from Greek grc-Grek ἱερογλύφος " sacred carving " also hieroglyphic = grc-Grek The local pantheon, which had been in the predynastic period confined to sacred animal deities, expanded to include cosmic gods representing the sun, moon, sky and wind. This constituted an effort toward greater philosophical and intellectual development. ^[66] Solar worship embodied in the cults of Ra and Atum—subsequently Atum-Ra—came to particular prominence in the Old Kingdom. Ra (pronounced Rah and sometimes as Rê, is an Ancient Egyptian sun god. Atum (alternatively spelled Tem, Temu, Tum, and Atem) is an important Deity in Egyptian mythology, whose cult centred The oldest known mummy dates to the 5th dynasty in Saqqara. The Third Fourth Fifth and Sixth Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title Old Kingdom. ^[67] Lasting for an estimated 500 years, the Old Kingdom was the quintessential Egyptian civilization. Insular and unchallenged from abroad, the Egyptians enjoyed a time of continuous stability unmatched by any other period, leading one historian to describe it as the "Peaceable Kingdom of historical memory. "^[68]

Middle Kingdom

Main article: Middle Kingdom of Egypt

Mummified head of King Ahmose I, c. The Middle Kingdom is the period in the history of Ancient Egypt stretching from the establishment of the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Fourteenth Dynasty See Amasis II for the 26th Dynasty pharaoh whose name sometimes appears as Ahmose II 1525 BC.

A period of political fragmentation led to the First Intermediate Period of Egypt. The First Intermediate Period is the name conventionally given by Egyptologists to that period in Ancient Egyptian history between the end of the Old It lasted for about 150 years during which central authority and social order were maintained by local governors. Stronger Nile floods and stabilization of government under Mentuhotep II, whose role in founding the Middle Kingdom was celebrated as late as the 20th dynasty,^[69] brought back renewed prosperity in the Middle Kingdom c. Nebhotepre Mentuhotep II (2046 BC &ndash 1995 BC was a Pharaoh of the 11th dynasty, the son of Intef III of Egypt and a minor queen called Iah The Eighteenth Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title New Kingdom. The Middle Kingdom is the period in the history of Ancient Egypt stretching from the establishment of the Eleventh Dynasty to the end of the Fourteenth Dynasty 2040 BC. Thebes (modern Luxor) became the new capital during the 11th dysnaty, though government administration remained in Memphis. Thebes ( Thēbai) was a city in Ancient Egypt located about 800 km south of the Mediterranean on the east bank of the river Nile ( Luxor (in Arabic: الأقصر al-Uqṣur) is a city in Upper (southern Egypt and the capital of Luxor The Eleventh dynasty of Ancient Egypt was one group of rulers whose earlier members are grouped with the four preceding dynasties to form the First Intermediate Period Under Amenemhat I's reign, the capital was moved to Itjtawy, and the Middle Kingdom was celebrated as a Wehem Mesut or a renaissance period. Amenemhat I, also Amenemhet I, was the first ruler of the Twelfth Dynasty (the dynasty debated to be the beginning of the Middle Kingdom of Egypt) Itjtawy (full Egyptian name Amenemhat-itj-tawy &mdash "Amenemhat &ndash the Seizer of the Two Lands" is the as-yet unidentified location of the royal The period of Ancient Egyptian history known as wehem mesut ( Manuel de Codage Transliteration: wHm msw ^[70] Egyptians regularly traded with their neighbors to the south and east, and their political influence extended into those areas. However, land cultivation and stock raising remained the foundation of Egypt's economy, as they would during the course of Egyptian history. The state did not institute a system of coinage until the Late Period—most business hitherto was conducted by barter. The Late Period of Egypt refers to the last flowering of native Egyptian rulers after the Third Intermediate Period from the 26th Saite Dynasty into Persian ^[71]

The Middle Kingdom became a golden age of Egyptian literature thanks to a large body of textual evidence that made this stage of Egyptian (i. Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages e. , Middle Egyptian) the classical phase of the language. The end of the Middle Kingdom was brought about by a decline in central authority which led to Egypt being occupied for the first time during its dynastic history. The Hyksos invaders were a Semitic people who took over much of Lower Egypt around 1650 BC, and founded a new capital at Avaris. The Hyksos ( Egyptian heqa khasewet, "foreign rulers" Greek,, Arabic,) were an Asiatic people who invaded the eastern Nile In Linguistics and Ethnology, Semitic (from the Biblical " Shem " Hebrew שם translated as "name" Arabic: ساميّ Avaris ( Egyptian: ħt wʕrt Hatwaret, Greek: αυαρις Auaris) located at Tell ed-Dab'a, was the ancient capital of the They ruled as Egyptian pharaohs and their names were often inscribed on scarabs bearing both the their Semitic and Egyptian titles. Hyksos rule lasted just over 100 years when they were eventually driven out by the native Egyptian nobleman Ahmose I. See Amasis II for the 26th Dynasty pharaoh whose name sometimes appears as Ahmose II Despite the Hyksos' attempt to rule according to native Egyptian traditions, the Egyptians' perception of them was consistently negative. They were depicted as "uncouth barbarians who 'ruled without Re. '"^[72] Ahmose took to the throne in a re-unified Egypt, and with his rule began a period of Egyptian independence as well as expansion into surrounding regions.

New Kingdom

Main article: New Kingdom

Funerary golden mask placed over the mummy of King Tutankhamun, 18th dynasty, c. The New Kingdom, sometimes referred to as the Egyptian Empire, is the period in Ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BC and "Amarna period" redirects here For information on Amarna see Amarna The Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1292 BC is perhaps the best known of 1333 – 1324 BC.

The New Kingdom is perhaps the most celebrated period of Egyptian history. The New Kingdom, sometimes referred to as the Egyptian Empire, is the period in Ancient Egyptian history between the 16th century BC and Lasting from roughly 1550 to 1070 BC, the period marked the rise of Egypt as an international power. Ahmose founded the 18th dynasty and relocated the capital to Thebes, though once again Memphis remained the administrative capital. "Amarna period" redirects here For information on Amarna see Amarna The Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1292 BC is perhaps the best known of Thebes ( Thēbai) was a city in Ancient Egypt located about 800 km south of the Mediterranean on the east bank of the river Nile ( The Egyptians emerged from the shock of the Hyksos invasion determined to protect Egypt's national and territorial integrity. The Egyptian army developed into a well-organized service made up of professionally trained soldiers. International relations became a primary concern for the New Kingdom pharaohs. Egyptians were introduced to many foreign ideas, some of which they adopted and incorporated into their lifestyle. As in most periods, agriculture and stock farming continued to be the mainstays of Egyptian economy. The introduction of the shaduf from western Asia helped develop more efficient methods of irrigation. A shadoof or shaduf (an Arabic word شادوف Amun rose to become a state god and was syncretized with Ra as Amun-Ra. Amun, reconstructed Egyptian Yamānu (also spelled Amon, Amoun, Amen, and rarely Imen, Greek Ἄμμων Syncretism consists of the attempt to reconcile disparate or contradictory beliefs often while melding practices of various schools of thought The main Temple of Amun built in Thebes is the largest structure in the Karnak complex. The Precinct of Amun-Re, located near Luxor, Egypt, is one of the four main enclosed areas that make up the immense Karnak Temple Complex. The Karnak temple complex, universally known only as Karnak, describes a vast conglomeration of ruined temples chapels pylons and other buildings

Perhaps this period is best known for some of its rulers. Queen Hatshepsut was one of only a few Egyptian female rulers and their most influential. Hatshepsut (or Hatchepsut, hætˈʃɛpsʊt meaning Foremost of Noble Ladies, was the fifth Pharaoh of the eighteenth dynasty of She sent trade missions as far south as the coast of modern Eritrea, and her numerous building projects, most notably her mortuary temple complex at Deir el-Bahri, were rivaled only by those of her Old Kingdom predecessors. Eritrea () ( Ge'ez: ኤርትራ ʾErtrā, Arabic: إرتريا Iritriya) officially the State of Eritrea, is a country in Mortuary temples (or memorial temples) were temples constructed adjacent to or in the vicinity of royal tombs in the Middle Kingdom and New Kingdom Deir el-Bahri (Arabic دير البحري dayr al-baḥrī, literally meaning "The Northern Monastery " is a complex of Mortuary temples and tombs Thutmose III, dubbed the Napoleon of Egypt, pushed Egypt's southern frontier to the Fourth Cataract in Nubia, then conquered and subsequently founded protectorates in the Levant. Thutmose III (sometimes read as Thutmosis or Tuthmosis III and meaning Thoth is Born) was the sixth Pharaoh of the Eighteenth This article is about the region in Africa for other uses see Nubia (disambiguation. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the He undertook a building program at Karnak, including the festival temple "Effective of Monuments" in the precinct of Amun. ^[73] Akhenaten with his wife Nefertiti revolutionized Egyptian religion, albeit briefly, with the solar monotheism of Aten. Akhenaten (often alt: Akhnaten, or rarely Ikhnaton) (In English ˌɑkəˡnɑtən or approximately "AHK-en-AHT-en" his royal name Amenhotep Nefertiti (pronounced at the time something like *nafratiːta (c For the Celtic Frost album see Monotheist (album In Theology, monotheism (from Greek grc [[wiktμόνος μόνος]] Alternative use the Aten asteroids named after 2062 Aten Aten (or Aton was the disk of the Sun in ancient Egyptian Young King Tutankhamun is world famous for his magnificent tomb found intact. Ramesses II conducted many successful military campaigns and signed what may be the world's first peace treaty. ^[74] He constructed many impressive monuments, including the renowned archaeological complex of Abu Simbel and the memorial temple of Ramesseum. Abu Simbel ( أبو سنبل or ar '''أبو سمبل''' is an Archaeological site comprising two massive rock Temples in southern Egypt The Ramesseum is the memorial temple (or mortuary temple of Pharaoh Ramesses II ("Ramesses the Great" also spelt "Ramses" and Ramesses III was the last of the great pharaohs of the New Kingdom, under whose rule Egypt reached a peak of prosperity. Usimare Ramses III (also written Ramesses and Rameses) was the second Pharaoh of the Twentieth Dynasty and is considered to be the last great ^[75]

Late period

King Nectanebo II was Egypt's last native Pharaoh, 360 − 343 BC. Nectanebo II (ruled 360 - 343 BC also known by the name Nakhthoreb, was the third and last king of the Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt and also the last native

When the New Kingdom came to an end, the priests of Amun and the military had become powerful and independent at the expense of the throne. By 1200 BC, Egypt was under repeated attacks by Libyans from the west and invaders from the Aegean region referred to as the Sea Peoples. Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley. Etymology In ancient times there were various explanations for the name Aegean. The Sea Peoples is the term used for a confederacy of seafaring raiders of the second millennium BC who sailed into the eastern shores of the Mediterranean, caused political The country fell into the chaos of the Third Intermediate Period during which authority was divided among several competing nomarchs. The Third Intermediate Period refers to the time in Ancient Egypt from the death of Pharaoh Ramesses XI in 1070 BC to the foundation of the Nomarchs were the semi- Feudal rulers of Ancient Egyptian provinces The 22nd through the 25th dynasties were made up entirely of Libyan and Nubian/Kushite rulers. This article is about the region in Africa for other uses see Nubia (disambiguation. Kush civilization centered in the confluence of the Blue Nile and the White Nile, and the confluence of the River Atbara and Nile in what The Assyrians invaded and took of control of Egypt in the 7th century BC, but soon a native Egyptian dynasty drove out the Assyrians and reclaimed the throne. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture The 26th dynasty began the Saïte period which witnessed another period of Egyptian independence as well as a cultural revival. The Saite or Twenty-sixth Dynasty of Egypt was the last native dynasty to rule Egypt before the Persian conquest (although others followed and had its capital at The first Saïte king, Psamtek I, founded a new capital at Saïs and reunified upper and lower Egypt. Egyptians looked at the Old Kingdom, by then a 2000-year-old civilization, for inspiration in their artistic and religious expression to cope with the repeated foreign assaults on their country at the close of the Pharaonic era.

Soon Egypt fell to the Persian Achaemenid Empire led by Cambyses in 525 BC, marking more than a century of Persian rule. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Achaemenid Empire or Achaemenid Persian Empire ( haχɒmaneʃijɒn (558–330 BC was the first of the Persian Empires to rule over significant portions of Constant revolting by Egyptians through the 5th century BC culminated in the Egyptians reasserting their independence briefly under Amyrtaeus, who led a revolt from the Delta and took control of Memphis and Upper Egypt. Amyrtaeus (or Amenirdisu) of Sais is the only king of the Twenty-eighth dynasty of Egypt and is thought to be related to the royal family of the The Nile Delta ( Arabic: دلتا النيل) is the delta formed in Northern Egypt ( Lower Egypt) where the Nile River spreads ^[76] Egyptians remained independent until the reign of King Nectanebo II, the last native ruler of pharaonic Egypt. Nectanebo II (ruled 360 - 343 BC also known by the name Nakhthoreb, was the third and last king of the Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt and also the last native The country prospered during his reign (360−343 BC), which was characterized by large building and sculpture construction comparable to those of the Saïte period. ^[77] The Persians under Artaxerxes III dealt a final blow to the Egyptians' independence when they reconquered Egypt in 343 BC. Artaxerxes III of Persia ( Ca 425 BC &ndash 338 BC ( Old Persian: 𐎠𐎼𐎫𐎧𐏁𐏂𐎠 transliterated as Artaxšaçrā) was the Great Alexander the Great, on his way to conquer and dismantle the Persian Empire, arrived in Egypt in 332 BC. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia After Alexander's death, the Greek Macedonian Ptolemaic dynasty was established by one of his generals, which continued to rule the country along pharaonic traditions. The Ptolemaic dynasty (sometimes also known as the Lagids, from the name of Ptolemy I's father Lagus) was a Hellenistic Macedonian royal family Alexander founded the city of Alexandria which became the new capital of Egypt until the Byzantine period. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια When the last and most famous of the Ptolemies, Queen Cleopatra VII, was defeated along with Mark Antony by the Roman Emperor Octavian in the Battle of Actium, it marked the end of 3000 years of Dynastic Egyptian history. Cleopatra VII Philopator (in Greek, Κλεοπάτρα Φιλοπάτωρ; January 69 BC &ndash 30 BC was a Hellenistic ruler of Egypt Marcus Antonius (in Latin: M·ANTONIVS·M·F·M·N ( c January 14 83 BC&ndash August 1, 30 BC known in English as Mark Augustus ( Latin: IMPERATOR·CAESAR·DIVI·FILIVS·AVGVSTVS September 23 63 BC – August 19 AD 14) born Gaius Octavius Thurinus, was The Battle of Actium was the decisive engagement in the Final War of the Roman Republic between the forces of Octavian and the combined forces of Mark Antony

Society

Farm scene from the burial chamber of Sennedjem, reign of Ramesses II, c. The Ancient Egyptian artisan Sennedjem lived in Deir el-Medina on the west bank of the Nile, opposite Thebes, during the reigns of Seti I 1279–1213 BC.

Throughout the Pharaonic epoch, divine kingship was the glue which held Egyptian society together. It was especially pronounced in the Old and Middle Kingdoms and continued until the Roman conquest. The societal structure created by this system of government remained virtually unchanged up to modern times. ^[78] The role of the king, however, was considerably weakened after the 20th dynasty. The Eighteenth Nineteenth and Twentieth Dynasties of ancient Egypt are often combined under the group title New Kingdom. The king in his role as Son of Ra was entrusted to maintain Ma'at, the principle of truth, justice and order, and to enhance the country's agricultural economy by ensuring regular Nile floods. Maat or Mayet, thought to have been pronounced as *Muʔʕat (Muh-aht was the Ancient Egyptian concept of Truth, balance order— Law Flooding of the Nile is an important cycle in Egypt. It is celebrated by Egyptians as an annual holiday for Two weeks starting Ascendancy to the Egyptian throne reflected the myth of Horus who assumed kingship after he buried his murdered father Osiris. Osiris ( Greek language, also Usiris; the Egyptian language name is variously transliterated Asar, Aser, Ausar, Ausir The king of Egypt, as a living personification of Horus, could claim the throne after burying his predecessor, who was typically his father. When the role of the king waned, the country became more susceptible to foreign influence and invasion.

The attention paid to the dead, and the veneration with which they were held, were one of the hallmarks of ancient Egyptian society. Egyptians built tombs for their dead that were meant to last for eternity. This was most prominently expressed by the Great Pyramids. The ancient Egyptian word for tomb pr nḥḥ means 'House of Eternity. Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages ' The Egyptians also celebrated life and this is attested by tomb reliefs and inscriptions, papyri and other sources depicting Egyptians farming, conducting trade expeditions, hunting, holding festivals, attending parties and receptions with their pet dogs, cats and monkeys, dancing and singing, enjoying food and drink, and playing games. The ancient Egyptians were also known for their engaging sense of humor, much like their modern descendants. ^[79]

Boat scene, tomb of Nebamun, 18th dynasty, Thebes. "Amarna period" redirects here For information on Amarna see Amarna The Eighteenth Dynasty (1550-1292 BC is perhaps the best known of

Another important continuity during this period is the Egyptian attitude toward foreigners—those they considered not fortunate enough to be part of the community of rmṯ or "the people" (i. e. , Egyptians. ) This attitude was facilitated by the Egyptians' more frequent contact with other peoples during the New Kingdom, when Egypt expanded to an empire that also encompassed Nubia through Jebel Barkal and parts of the Levant. This article is about the region in Africa for other uses see Nubia (disambiguation. Jebel Barkal or Gebel Barkal (جبل بركل is a small Mountain located some 400 km north of Khartoum, in Sudan, on a large bend of the See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the The Egyptian sense of superiority was given religious validation, as foreigners in the land of Ta-Meri (Egypt) were anathema to the maintenance of Maat—a view most clearly expressed by the admonitions of Ipuwer in reaction to the chaotic events of the Second Intermediate Period. The Ipuwer Papyrus is a single surviving Papyrus holding an Ancient Egyptian poem called The Admonitions of Ipuwer or The Dialogue of The Second Intermediate Period marks a period when Ancient Egypt once again fell into disarray between the end of the Middle Kingdom, and the start of the New Foreigners in Egyptian texts were described in derogatory terms; e. g. , 'wretched Asiatics' (Semites), 'vile Kushites' (Nubians), and 'Ionian dogs' (Greeks). Egyptian beliefs remained unchallenged when Egypt fell to the Hyksos, Assyrians, Libyans, Persians and Greeks—their rulers assumed the role of the Egyptian Pharaoh and were often depicted praying to Egyptian gods. Early history The most Neolithic site in Assyria is at Tell Hassuna, the center of the Hassuna culture Berbers are the indigenous peoples of North Africa west of the Nile Valley.

The ancient Egyptians used a solar calendar that divided the year into 12 months of 30 days each, with five extra days added. The calendar revolved around the annual Nile Inundation (akh. The Nile (النيل, Ancient Egyptian iteru or Ḥ'pī, Coptic piaro or phiaro) is a major north-flowing River t), the first of three seasons into which the year was divided. The other two were Winter and Summer, each lasting for four months. The modern Egyptian fellahin calculate the agricultrual seasons, with the months still bearing their ancient names, in much the same manner. Fellah (فلاح (plural Fellahin, فلاحين is a Peasant, farmer or agricultural laborer in the Middle East. The importance of the Nile in Egyptian life, ancient and modern, cannot be overemphasized. The rich alluvium carried by the Nile inundation were the basis of Egypt's formation as a society and a state. Regular inundations were a cause for celebration; low waters often meant famine and starvation. The ancient Egyptians personified the river flood as the god Hapy and dedicated a Hymn to the Nile to celebrate it. --> Hapy was a deification of the annual flooding (inundation of the Nile River km. t, the Black Land, was as Herodotus observed, "the gift of the river. Herodotus of Halicarnassus ( Greek: Hēródotos Halikarnāsseús) was a Greek Historian who lived in the 5th century BC ( 484 BC&ndash "

Graeco-Roman period

Main articles: Ptolemaic Egypt and Roman Egypt

Roman-era portrait of an Egyptian mummy from the Fayum collection, c. Ptolemaic Egypt began when Ptolemy I Soter declared himself Pharaoh of Egypt in 305 BC and ended with the death of queen Cleopatra Ægyptus redirects here See Egypt Province for the province of the Ottoman Empire Mummy portraits or Fayum mummy portraits (also Faiyum mummy portraits) is the modern term for a type of realistic painted Portraits on wooden boards AD 125 − AD 150

When Alexander died, a story began to circulate that Nectanebo II was Alexander's father. Nectanebo II (ruled 360 - 343 BC also known by the name Nakhthoreb, was the third and last king of the Thirtieth dynasty of Egypt and also the last native This made Alexander in the eyes of the Egyptians a legitimate heir to the native pharaohs. ^[80] The new Ptolemaic rulers, however, exploited Egypt for their own benefit and a great social divide was created between Egyptians and Greeks. ^[81] The local priesthood, however, continued to wield power as they had during the Dynastic age. Egyptians continued to practice their religion undisturbed and largely maintained their own separate communities from their foreign conquerors. ^[82] The language of administration became Greek, but the mass of the Egyptian population was Egyptian-speaking and concentrated in the countryside, while most Greeks lived in Alexandria and only few had any knowledge of Egyptian. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages ^[83]

The Ptolemaic rulers all retained their Greek names and titles, but projected a public image of being Egyptian pharaohs. Much of this period's vernacular literature was composed in the demotic phase and script of the Egyptian language. Demotic (from δημοτικός dēmotikós, "popular" refers to either the Ancient Egyptian script derived from northern forms of Hieratic It was focused on earlier stages of Egyptian history when Egyptians were independent and ruled by great native pharaohs such as Ramesses II. Prophetic writings circulated among Egyptians promising expulsion of the Greeks, and frequent revolting by the Egyptians took place throughout the Ptolemaic period. ^[84] A revival in animal cults, the hallmark of the Predyanstic and Early Dyanstic periods, is said to have come about to fill a spiritual void as Egyptians became increasingly disillusioned and weary due to successive waves of foreign invasions. ^[85]

When the Romans annexed Egypt in 30 BC, the social structure created by the Greeks was largely retained, though the power of the Egyptian priesthood diminished. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The Roman emperors lived abroad and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship as the Ptolemies had. The art of mummy portraiture flourished, but Egypt became further stratified with Romans at the apex of the social pyramid, Greeks and Jews occupied the middle stratum, while Egyptians, who constituted the vast majority, were at the bottom. Mummy portraits or Fayum mummy portraits (also Faiyum mummy portraits) is the modern term for a type of realistic painted Portraits on wooden boards PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Egyptians paid a poll tax at full rate, Greeks paid at half-rate and Roman citizens were exempt. ^[86] The Roman emperor Caracalla advocated the expulsion of all ethnic Egyptians from the city of Alexandria, saying "genuine Egyptians can easily be recognized among the linen-weavers by their speech. Caracalla ( April 4 188 &ndash April 8, 217) born Lucius Septimius Bassianus and later "^[87] This attitude lasted until AD 212 when Roman citizenship was finally granted to all the inhabitants of Egypt, though ethnic divisions remained largely entrenched. ^[88] The Romans, like the Ptolemies, treated Egypt like their own private property, a land exploited for the benefit of a small foreign elite. The Egyptian peasants, pressed for maximum production to meet Roman quotas, suffered and fled to the desert. ^[89]

Byzantine rule and Coptic Christianity

A typical example of early Coptic art reflecting a blend of Egyptian and Christian elements, as the ankh was "Christianized" into the Coptic cross. Ankylosis progressive homolog (mouse, also known as ANKH, is a human Gene.

The cult of Isis, like those of Osiris and Serapis, had been popular in Egypt and throughout the Roman Empire at the coming of Christianity, and continued to be the main competitor with Christianity in its early years. Isis is a goddess in Ancient Egyptian religious beliefs and is celebrated in their mythology as the ideal mother and wife patron of nature and magic friend of slaves sinners Osiris ( Greek language, also Usiris; the Egyptian language name is variously transliterated Asar, Aser, Ausar, Ausir Serapis (Latin spelling or Sarapis in Greek was a syncretic Hellenistic - Egyptian god in Antiquity. The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial The main temple of Isis remained a major center of worship in Egypt until the reign of the Byzantine emperor Justinian I in the 6th century, when it was finally closed down. Flavius Petrus Sabbatius Iustinianus ( Greek: Φλάβιος Πέτρος Σαββάτιος Ιουστινιανός; known in English as Justinian I or Egyptians, disaffected and weary after a series of foreign occupations, identified the story of the mother-goddess Isis protecting her child Horus with that of the Virgin Mary and her son Jesus escaping the emperor Herod. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Herod (הוֹרְדוֹס Horodos, Greek: Herōdes) also known as Herod I or Herod the Great (73 BC – 4 BC in Jericho ^[90] Consequently, many sites believed to have been the resting places of the holy family during their sojourn in Egypt became sacred to the Egyptians. The visit of the holy family later circulated among Egyptian Christians as fulfillment of the Biblical prophecy "When Israel was a child, then I loved him, and called my son out of Egypt" (Hosea 11:1). The feast of the coming of the Lord of Egypt on June 1 became an important part of Christian Egyptian tradition. According to tradition, Christianity was brought to Egypt by Saint Mark the Evangelist in the early 40s of the 1st century, under the reign of the Roman emperor Nero. "Saint Mark" redirects here For other uses see Saint Mark (disambiguation. The 1st century was the Century that lasted from 1 to 100 according the Julian calendar. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called The earliest converts were Jews residing in Alexandria, a city which had by then become a center of culture and learning in the entire Mediterranean oikoumene. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια Ecumene (also spelled œcumene or oikoumene) a term originally used in the Greco-Roman world to refer to the inhabited earth (or at least the known

St. Mark is said to have founded the Holy Apostolic See of Alexandria and to have become its first Patriarch. The following is a list of all the Coptic Orthodox Popes of Alexandria who have led the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria and have succeeded the Apostle Mark Within 50 years of St. Mark's arrival in Alexandria, a fragment of New Testament writings appeared in Oxyrhynchus (Bahnasa), which suggests that Christianity already began to spread south of Alexandria at an early date. Oxyrhynchus (Ὀξύρρυγχος "sharp-nosed" ancient Egyptian Pr-Medjed; Coptic Pemdje; modern Egyptian Arabic By the mid-third century, a sizable number of Egyptians were persecuted by the Romans on account of having adopted the new Christian faith, beginning with the Edict of Decius. Christianity was tolerated in the Roman Empire until AD 284, when the Emperor Diocletian persecuted and put to death a great number of Christian Egyptians. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate This event became a watershed in the history of Egyptian Christianity, marking the beginning of a distinct Egyptian or Coptic Church. History of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria Apostolic foundation Egypt is identified in the Bible as the place of refuge that the It became known as the 'Era of the Martyrs' and is commemorated in the Coptic calendar in which dating of the years began with the start of Diocletian's reign. The Coptic calendar, also called the Alexandrian calendar, is used by the Coptic Orthodox Church and still used in Egypt When Egyptians were persecuted by Diocletian, many retreated to the desert to seek relief. The practice precipitated the rise of monasticism, for which the Egyptians, namely St. Antony, St. Bakhum, St. Shenouda and St. Amun, are credited as pioneers. Monasticism (from Greek μοναχός, monachos, derived from Greek monos, alone is the religious practice in which one Saint Anthony the Great (c 251–356 also known as Anthony the Abbot, Anthony of Egypt, Anthony of the Desert, Anthony the Anchorite, Saint Pachomius (ca 292-348 also known as Abba Pachomius and Pakhom in Arabic الأنبا باخوميوس, is generally recognized as the founder of Saint Shenouda the Archimandrite (348-466 was the abbot of the White Monastery in Egypt. Ammon or Amun (294 – 357 was a Saint and Hermit of Egypt. He was one of the most venerated ascetics of the Nitrian Desert By the end of the 4th century, it is estimated that the mass of the Egyptians had either embraced Christianity or were nominally Christian. ^[91]

The Catechetical School of Alexandria was founded in the 3rd century by Pantaenus, becoming a major school of Christian learning as well as science, mathematics and the humanities. Saint Pantaenus (d ca 200 was a Christian Theologian who founded the Catechetical School of Alexandria about AD 190 The Psalms and part of the New Testament were translated at the school from Greek to Egyptian, which had already begun to be written in Greek letters with the addition of a number of demotic characters. Psalms ( Hebrew: Tehilim, תהילים, or "praises" is a book of the Hebrew Bible (the Christian Old Testament) included This stage of the Egyptian language would later come to be known as Coptic along with its alphabet. Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt The Coptic alphabet is the script used for writing the Coptic language. The third theologian to head the Catachetical School was a native Egyptian by the name of Origen. Origen ( Greek: Ōrigénēs, or Origen Adamantius, ca 185–ca Origen was an outstanding theologian and one of the most influential Church Fathers. The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church He traveled extensively to lecture in various churches around the world and has many important texts to his credit including the Hexapla, an exegesis of various translations of the Hebrew Bible. Hexapla (Ἑξαπλά Gr for "sixfold" is the term for an edition of the Bible in six versions Exegesis (from the Greek 'to lead out' involves an extensive and critical interpretation of an authoritative text, especially of a Holy In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon.

Coptic-Arabic manuscript, Ayyubid period, AD 1249-50. The Ayyubid or Ayyoubid Dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origins which ruled Egypt, Syria, Yemen (except for Images depict Jesus in the Garden of Gethsemene, the kiss of Judas, the arrest of Christ, his appearance before Caiaphas, Peter's denial at cockcrow, Christ before Pilate, and the baptism of Jesus in the Jordan River. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Judas Iscariot, יהודה איש־קריות Yəhûḏāh ʾΚ-qəriyyôṯ was according to the New Testament, one of the twelve original apostles Yosef Bar Kayafa ( Hebrew יוסף בַּר קַיָּפָא joˑsef bar qayːɔfɔʔ (which translates as Joseph son of Caiaphas) also known simply as This article is about the Jordan River and its valley in western Asia

At the threshold of the Byzantine period, the New Testament had been entirely translated into Coptic. But while Christianity continued to thrive in Egypt, the old pagan beliefs which had survived the test of time were facing mounting pressure. The Byzantine period was particularly brutal in its zeal to erase any traces of ancient Egyptian religion. Under emperor Theodosius I, Christianity had already been proclaimed the religion of the Empire and all pagan cults were forbidden. Flavius Theodosius (January 11 347 – January 17 395 also called Theodosius I and Theodosius the Great ( Greek: Θεοδόσιος Α΄ When Egypt fell under the jurisdiction of Constantinople after the split of the Roman Empire, many ancient Egyptians temples were either destroyed or converted into monasteries. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS ^[92]

One of the defining moments in the history of the Church in Egypt is a controversy that ensued over the nature of Jesus Christ which culminated in the final split of the Coptic Church from both the Byzantine and Roman Catholic Churches. The Council of Chalcedon convened in AD 451, signaling the Byzantine Empire's determination to assert its hegemony over Egypt. The Council of Chalcedon was the fourth Ecumenical council. It was held from 8 October to 1 November 451 at Chalcedon (a city of When it declared that Jesus Christ was of two natures embodied in Christ's person, the Egyptian reaction was swift, rejecting the decrees of the Council as incompatible with the Miaphysite doctrine of Coptic Orthodoxy. Miaphysitism (sometimes called henophysitism) is the Christology of the Oriental Orthodox Churches The Copts' upholding of the Miaphysite doctrine against the pro-Chalcedonian Greek Melkites had both theological and national implications. The term Melkite (also written Melchite) is used to refer to various Christian churches and their members originating in the Middle East. As Coptologist Jill Kamil notes, the position taken by the Egyptians "paved [the way] for the Coptic church to establish itself as a separate entity. Coptology is most commonly defined as the science of Coptic studies . . No longer even spiritually linked with Constantinople, theologians began to write more in Coptic and less in Greek. Coptic art developed its own national character, and the Copts stood united against the imperial power. Coptic art is a term used either for the art of Egypt produced in the early Christian era or for the art produced by the Coptic Christians themselves "^[93]

Arab and Ottoman Egypt

Tomb of Egyptian saint Dhul-Nun al-Misri (AD 796-859) in Cairo's City of the Dead. Dhul-Nun al-Misri (ذو النون المصري born in 796 in Akhmim, Upper Egypt - 859) was an Egyptian Sufi saint "City of the Dead" is also the name of a song by The Rasmus, see City of the Dead (song.

Before the Muslim conquest of Egypt, the Byzantine Emperor Heraclius was able to reclaim the country after a brief Persian invasion in AD 616, and subsequently appointed Cyrus of Alexandria, a Chalcedonian, as Patriarch. At the commencement of the Muslim conquest of Egypt Egypt was part of the Byzantine Empire with its capital in Constantinople. Heraclius, or Herakleios (Flavius Heraclius Augustus;) (c 575 - February 11, 641) was a Byzantine Emperor, who ruled the East Cyrus of Alexandria was a Melchite patriarch of the Egyptian see of Alexandria in the seventh century one of the authors of Monothelism and last Cyrus was determined to convert the Egyptian Miaphysites by any means. He expelled Coptic monks and bishops from their monasteries and sees. Many died in the chaos, and the resentment of the Egyptians against their Byzantine conquerors reached a peak. ^[94] Meanwhile, the new religion of Islam was making headway in Arabia, culminating in the Muslim conquests that took place following Muhammad's death. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) The initial Arab Muslim conquests (632–732 (فتح Fatah, literally opening, also referred to as the Islamic conquests or Arab IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics In AD 639, the Arab general 'Amr ibn al-'As marched into Egypt, facing off with the Byzantines in the Battle of Heliopolis that ended with the Byzantines' defeat. ˤAmr ibn al-ˤĀs (عمرو بن العاص (born c583 - d January 6, 664 CE was an Arab Military commander who is most noted for leading The Battle of Heliopolis or "Ayn Shams" was a decisive battle between Arab Muslim armies and Byzantine forces for the control of Egypt The relationship between the Greek Melkites and the Egyptian Copts had grown so bitter that most Egyptians did not put up heavy resistance against the Arabs. ^[95]

The new Muslim rulers moved the capital to Fustat and, through the 7th century, retained the existing Byzantine administrative structure with Greek as its language. Fustat (also Fostat, Al Fustat, Misr al-Fustat and Fustat-Misr, and in Arabic الفسطاط was the first Capital of Egypt Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Native Egyptians filled administrative ranks and continued to worship freely so long as they paid the jizya poll tax, in addition to a land tax that all Egyptians irrespective of religion also had to pay. Under Islamic law, jizya or jizyah (جزْية ʤɪzjæh Ottoman Turkish: cizye both derived from Pahlavi and ultimately from Aramaic In Islamic law, kharaj is a Tax on agricultural land Kharaj has no basis in the Qur'an or Hadith, being rather the product The authority of the Miaphysite doctrine of the Coptic Church was for the first time nationally recognized. Soon increased taxation by the Arabs became heavier, leading many Christians to adopt Islam in order to escape the jizya. ^[96] According to al-Ya'qubi, repeated revolts by Egyptian Christians against the Arabs took place in the 8th and 9th centuries under the reign of the Umayyads and Abbasids. Ahmad ibn Abu Ya'qub ibn Ja'far ibn Wahb Ibn Wadih al-Ya'qubi (? – 897 known as Ya'qubi, was a Muslim historian and Geographer The greatest was one in which disaffected Muslim Egyptians joined their Christian compatriots around AD 830 in an unsuccessful attempt to repel the Arabs. ^[97] The Egyptian Muslim historian Ibn Abd al-Hakam spoke harshly of the Abbasids—a reaction that according to Egyptologist Okasha El-Daly can be seen "within the context of the struggle between proud native Egyptians and the central Abbasid caliphate in Iraq. "^[98]

The form of Islam that eventually took hold in Egypt was Sunni, though very early in this period Egyptians began to blend their new faith with indigenous beliefs and practices that had survived through Coptic Christianity. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic Just as Egyptians had been pioneers in early monasticism so they were in the development of the mystical form of Islam, Sufism. Monasticism (from Greek μοναχός, monachos, derived from Greek monos, alone is the religious practice in which one Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف ^[99] Various Sufi orders were founded in the 8th century and flourished until the present day. Tariqah ( ar طريقه; pl طرق; Ṭuruq or Persian: Tarighat, Turkish: Tarikat) means "way" The 8th century is the period from 701 to 800 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. One of the earliest Egyptian Sufis was Dhul-Nun al-Misri (i. Dhul-Nun al-Misri (ذو النون المصري born in 796 in Akhmim, Upper Egypt - 859) was an Egyptian Sufi saint e. , Dhul-Nun the Egyptian). He was born in Akhmim in AD 796 and achieved political and social leadership over the Egyptian people. Akhmim ( Arabic اخميم, from Egyptian Khent-min, through Coptic Khmin) is a city in ^[100] Dhul-Nun was regarded as the Patron Saint of the Physicians and is credited with having introduced the concept of Gnosis into Islam, as well as of being able to decipher a number of hieroglyphic characters due to his knowledge of Coptic. Gnosis (from one of the Greek words for Knowledge, γνώσις is the spiritual knowledge of a Saint or mystically enlightened human being Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt ^[101] He was keenly interested in ancient Egyptian sciences, and claimed to have received his knowledge of alchemy from Egyptian sources. ^[102] By the end of the 9th century, Islam appears to have become predominant among Egyptians. ^[103]

Mosque of Abu Haggag built in the 11th century over the ruins of a pharaonic temple. The Mosque of Abu Haggag is a Mosque located in the Egyptian city of Luxor. The ancient Opet festival associated with this temple is mirrored in the present day festival of Abu-l Haggag celebrated similarly by boat processions through the streets of Luxor. Luxor (in Arabic: الأقصر al-Uqṣur) is a city in Upper (southern Egypt and the capital of Luxor ^[104]

In the years to follow the Arab occupation of Egypt, a social hierarchy was created whereby Egyptians who converted to Islam acquired the status of mawali or "clients" to the ruling Arab elite, while those who remained Christian, the Copts, became dhimmis. Mawali or mawala ( Arabic, موالي) is a term in Classical Arabic used to address non-Arab Muslims A dhimmi ( ذمي, collectively أهل الذمة, ahl al-dhimma, the people of the dhimma or pact of protection Ottoman Turkish In time, however, the power of the Arabs waned throughout the Islamic Empire so that in the 10th century, the Turkish Ikhshids were able to take control of Egypt and made it an independent political unit from the rest of the empire. A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history The Ikhshidid dynasty of Egypt (sometimes Transliterated other ways ruled from 935 to 969. Egyptians continued to live socially and politically separate from their foreign conquerors, but their rulers like the Ptolemies before them were able to stabilize the country and bring renewed economic prosperity. It was under the Shiite Fatimids from the 10th to the 12th centuries that Muslim Egyptian institutions began to take form along with the Egyptian dialect of Arabic, which was to eventually supplant native Egyptian or Coptic as the spoken language. Al-Azhar was founded in AD 970 in the new capital Cairo, not very far from its ancient predecessor in Memphis. Al-Azhar University (pronounced "az-HAR" الأزهر الشريف, "the Noble Azhar" in Egypt, founded in 975 is the chief centre of Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt. It became the preeminent Muslim center of learning in Egypt and by the Ayyubid period it had acquired a Sunni orientation. The Ayyubid or Ayyoubid Dynasty was a Muslim dynasty of Kurdish origins which ruled Egypt, Syria, Yemen (except for The Fatimids with some exceptions were known for their religious tolerance and their observance of local Muslim, Coptic and indigenous Egyptian festivals and customs. Under the Ayyubids, the country for the most part continued to prosper until it fell to the Mamluks.

The Mamluk period (AD 1258-1517) is generally regarded as one under which Egyptians, Muslims and Copts, greatly suffered. Copts were forcibly converted to Islam in greater numbers following the Crusader assaults on Egypt. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents By the 15th century most Egyptians had already been converted to Islam, while Coptic Christians were reduced to a minority. ^[105] The Mamluks were mainly ethnic Circassians and Turks who had been captured as slaves then recruited into the army fighting on behalf of the Islamic empire. Circassians is a term derived from the Turkic Cherkess ( Çerkes) and is not the self-designation of any people The Turkish people (Türk Halkı also known as " Turks " ( Türkler) are defined mainly as being speakers of Turkish as a First language Native Egyptians were not allowed to serve in the army until the reign of Mohamed Ali. This article is about the leader of Egypt For other people named Muhammad Ali or Mehmet Ali see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation and Mehemet Ali (disambiguation Historian James Jankwoski writes:

Egyptians under the Ottoman Turks from the 16th to the 18th centuries lived within a social hierarchy similar to that of the Mamluks, Arabs, Romans, Greeks and Persians before them. The Ottoman Turks were the subdivision of the Ottoman Muslim Millet that dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. Native Egyptians applied the term atrak (Turks) indiscriminately to the Ottomans and Mamluks, who were at the top of the social pyramid, while Egyptians, most of whom were farmers, were at the bottom. Frequent revolts by the Egyptian peasantry against the Ottoman-Mamluk Beys took place throughout the 18th century, particularly in Upper Egypt where the peasants at one point wrested control of the region and declared a separatist government. Bey is a Turkish title for "chieftain" traditionally applied to the leaders of small tribal groups ^[107] The only segment of Egyptian society which appears to have retained a degree of power during this period were the Muslim 'ulama or religious scholars, who directed the religious and social affairs of the native Egyptian population and interceded on their behalf when dealing with the Turko-Circassian elite. Egyptians, as Muslims, were part of a wider Islamic community, yet they held on to their national identity in the face of repeated invasions in the course of nearly 2000 years. Some Egyptian writers in the Ottoman period who wrote about the history of Egypt include Ibn Zunbul, el-Bakri, el-Isḥaqi and el-Sharqawi.

Modern history

Main articles: History of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali dynasty and History of modern Egypt

Egyptian woman in 19th-century traditional garb. The history of Egypt under the Muhammad Ali Pasha dynasty was a period of rapid reform and modernization that led to Egypt becoming one of the most developed states The History of modern Egypt conventionally begins with the French expedition led by Napoleon Bonaparte and Mohammed Ali 's subsequent assumption of power in 1801

Modern Egyptian history is generally believed to begin with the French expedition in Egypt led by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1798. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. Napoleon Bonaparte (15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821 was a French military and political leader who had a significant impact on the History of Europe. The French defeated a Mamluk-Ottoman army at the Battle of the Pyramids, and soon they were able to seize control of the country. Legal residents and citizens To be French according to the first article of the Constitution is to be a citizen of France regardless of one's origin race or religion ( The Battle of the Pyramids, also known as the Battle of Embabeh was a battle fought on July 21, 1798 between the French army in The French occupation was short-lived, ending when British troops drove out the French in 1801. The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. Its impact on the social and cultural fabric of Egyptian society, however, was tremendous. To be sure, the Egyptians were deeply hostile to the French, whom they viewed as yet another foreign occupation to be resisted. At the same time, the French expedition introduced Egyptians to the ideals of the French Revolution which were to have a significant influence on their own self-perception and realization of modern independence. The French Revolution (1789–1799 was a period of political and social upheaval in the History of France, during which the French governmental structure previously an When Napoleon invited the Egyptian ulama to head a French-supervised government in Egypt, for some, it awakened a sense of nationalism and a patriotic desire for national independence from the Turks. The Ottoman Turks were the subdivision of the Ottoman Muslim Millet that dominated the ruling class of the Ottoman Empire. In addition, the French introduced the printing press in Egypt and published its first newspaper. The monumental catalogue of Egypt's ecology, society and economy, Description de l'Égypte, was written by scholars and scientists who accompanied the French army on their expedition.

The withdrawal of French forces from Egypt left a power vacuum that was filled after a period of political turmoil by Mohammed Ali, an Ottoman officer of Albanian descent. This article is about the leader of Egypt For other people named Muhammad Ali or Mehmet Ali see Muhammad Ali (disambiguation and Mehemet Ali (disambiguation } Albanians (Shqiptarët are an Ethnic group and a Nation, in the sense of sharing a common Albanian culture speaking the Albanian language He rallied support among the Egyptians until he was elected by the native Muslim ulama as governor of Egypt. Mohammed Ali is credited for having undertaken a massive campaign of public works, including irrigation projects, agricultural reforms and the cultivation of cash crops (notably cotton, rice and sugar-cane), increased industrialization, and a new educational system—the results of which are felt to this day. Cotton is a soft staple Fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant ( Gossypium sp Rice is a Cereal foodstuff which forms an important part of the diet of many people worldwide and as such it is a staple food for many Sugarcane ( Saccharum) is a genus of 6 to 37 species (depending on taxonomic interpretation of tall perennial grasses (family Poaceae tribe Andropogoneae In order to consolidate his power in Egypt, Mohammed Ali worked to eliminate the Turko-Circassian domination of administrative and army posts. For the first time since the Roman period, native Egyptians filled the junior ranks of the country's army. The army would later conduct military expeditions in the Levant, Sudan and against the Wahabis in Arabia. See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the Sudan (officially the Republic of Sudan) ( السودان al-Sūdān is a country in northeastern Africa. Wahhabism ( Arabic: Al-Wahhābīyya الوهابية or Wahabism is a conservative reformist call of Sunni Islam attributed to The Arabian Peninsula (in Arabic: شبه الجزيرة العربية šibh al-jazīra al-ʻarabīya or جزيرة العرب jazīrat al-ʻarab) ^[109] Many Egyptians student missions were sent to Europe in the early 19th century to study at European universities and acquire technical skills such as printing, shipbuilding and modern military techniques. One of these students, whose name was Rifa'a et-Tahtawy, was the first in a long line of intellectuals that started the modern Egyptian Renaissance.

Renaissance

Rifa'a el-Tahtawi, 1801-1873, laid the groundwork for the modern Egyptian Renaissance. Rifa'a el-Tahtawi (also spelled Tahtawy; Arabic: رفاعة الطهطاوي born in Tahta, Egypt 1801 died in 1873 was an Egyptian

The period between 1860 − 1940 was characterized by an Egyptian nahda, renaissance or rebirth. It is best known for the renewed interest in Egyptian antiquity and the cultural achievements that were inspired by it. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now Along with this interest came an indigenous, Egypt-centered orientation, particularly among the Egyptian intelligentsia that would affect Egypt's autonomous development as a sovereign and independent nation-state. The first Egyptian renaissance intellectual was Rifa'a el-Tahtawi. Rifa'a el-Tahtawi (also spelled Tahtawy; Arabic: رفاعة الطهطاوي born in Tahta, Egypt 1801 died in 1873 was an Egyptian In 1831, Tahtawi undertook a career in journalism, education and translation. Three of his published volumes were works of political and moral philosophy. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language In them he introduces his students to Enlightenment ideas such as secular authority and political rights and liberty; his ideas regarding how a modern civilized society ought to be and what constituted by extension a civilized or "good Egyptian"; and his ideas on public interest and public good. The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs ^[110]

Tahtawi was instrumental in sparking indigenous interest in Egypt's ancient heritage. He composed a number of poems in praise of Egypt and wrote two other general histories of the country. He also co-founded with his contemporary Ali Mubarak, the architect of the modern Egyptian school system, a native Egyptology school that looked for inspiration to medieval Egyptian scholars like Suyuti and Maqrizi, who studied ancient Egyptian history, language and antiquities. Ali Pasha Mubarak (1823-1893 CE) was an Egyptian Public works and Education minister during the second half of the nineteenth century Egyptology (from Egypt and Greek grc -λογία -logia. علم المصريات مصر شناسی is a major field of Archaeology TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Imam Jalaluddin Al-Suyuti (c Taqi al-Din Ahmad ibn 'Ali ibn 'Abd al-Qadir ibn Muhammad al-Maqrizi (1364 &ndash 1442 Arabic: ar تقى الدين أحمد بن على بن عبد القادر بن محمد ^[111] Tahtawi encouraged his compatriots to invite Europeans to come and teach the modern sciences in Egypt, drawing on the example of Pharaoh Psamtek I who had enlisted the Greeks' help in organizing the Egyptian army. The Greeks ( Greek: Έλληνες) are a Nation and Ethnic group native to Greece, Cyprus and neighbouring regions

Egyptian silk weavers during the reign of Khedive Ismail, 1880. Isma'il Pasha, known as Ismail the Magnificent (إسماعيل باشا ( December 31, 1830 &ndash March 2, 1895) was Wāli

Among Mohammed Ali's successors, the most influential was Isma'il Pasha who became khedive in 1863. Isma'il Pasha, known as Ismail the Magnificent (إسماعيل باشا ( December 31, 1830 &ndash March 2, 1895) was Wāli For the HMS Khedive, see ''USS'' Cordova. Khedive (from Persian for "lord" was a title first Ismail's reign witnessed the growth of the army, major education reforms, the founding of the Egyptian Museum and the Royal Opera House, the rise of an independent political press, a flourishing of the arts, and the inauguration of the Suez Canal. The Museum of Egyptian Antiquities, known commonly as the Egyptian Museum, in Cairo, Egypt, is home to the most extensive collection of Ancient The Khedivial Opera House or Royal Opera House ( Arabic: دار أوبرا الخديوي) was the original opera house in Cairo, Egypt The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation In 1866, the Assembly of Delegates was founded to serve as an advisory body for the government. Its members were elected from across Egypt, including villages, which meant that native Egyptians came to exert increasing political and economic influence over their country. ^[112] Several generations of Egyptians exposed to the ideas of constitutionalism made up the emerging intellectual and political milieu that slowly filled the ranks of the government, the army and institutions which had long been dominated by an aristocracy of Turks, Greeks, Circassians and Armenians. For the revolt in Brazil, see Constitutionalist Revolution. The term Constitutionalism is a word with a variety of meanings Circassians is a term derived from the Turkic Cherkess ( Çerkes) and is not the self-designation of any people The Armenians (Հայեր Hayer) are a Nation and Ethnic group originating in the Caucasus and in the Armenian Highlands A large

Ismail's massive modernization campaign, however, left Egypt indebted to European powers, leading to increased European meddling in local affairs. This led to the formation of secret groups made up of Egyptian notables, ministers, journalists and army officers organized across the country to oppose the increasing European influence. ^[113] When the British deposed of Ismail and installed his son Tawfik, the now Egyptian-dominated army reacted violently, staging a revolt led by Minister of War Ahmed Urabi, self-styled el-Masri ('the Egyptian'), against the Khedive, the Turko-Circassian elite, and the European stronghold. Tewfik Pasha (Tawfiq of Egypt (1852-1892 (محمد توفيق باشا was Khedive of Egypt and Sudan, and the sixth ruler from the The Urabi Revolt or Orabi Revolt (ˈʕoɾɑːˌbi also known as the Orabi Revolution, was an uprising in Egypt in 1879-82 against the Khedive Colonel Ahmed Orabi or Ahmed Urabi ( Egyptian Arabic: ʻorābi ˈʕoɾɑːˌbi ( April 1, 1841 - September 21, 1911) ( The revolt was a military failure and British forces occupied Egypt in 1882. The Battle of Tel el-Kebir or el-Tal el-Kebir was between the Egyptian army led by Ahmed Urabi and the British military fought near Tel-el-Kebir The British Empire was the largest empire in history and for over a century was the foremost global power. Technically, Egypt was still part of the Ottoman Empire with the Mohammed Ali family ruling the country, though now with British supervision and according to British directives. The Ottoman Empire (1299–1923 ( Old Ottoman Turkish: دولتْ علیّه عثمانیّه Devlet-i Âliye-yi Osmâniyye, Late Ottoman and Modern Turkish The Muhammad Ali Dynasty (أسرة محمد علي Usrat Muhammad 'Ali) was the ruling dynasty of The Egyptian army was disbanded and a smaller army commanded by British officers was installed in its place.

Liberal age

Mustafa Kamil, an anti-colonial nationalist famous for coining the phrase, "If I had not been an Egyptian, I would have wished to become one", 1874 − 1908. Muṣṭafā Kāmil Pasha (مصطفى كامل ( August 14, 1874, Cairo, Egypt – February 10, 1908,

Egyptian self-government, education, and the continued plight of Egypt's peasant majority deteriorated most significantly under British occupation. Slowly, an organized national movement for independence began to form. In its beginnings, it took the form of an Azhar-led religious reform movement that was more concerned with the social conditions of Egyptian society. It gathered momentum between 1882 and 1906, ultimately leading to a resentment against European occupation. ^[114] Sheikh Muhammad Abduh, the son of a Delta farmer who was briefly exiled for his participation in the Urabi revolt and a future Azhar Mufti, was its most notable advocate. Muhammad Abduh (or Muhammad 'Abduh) (محمد عبده ( Nile Delta, 1849 - Alexandria, July 11 1905,) was an Egyptian This article is about an Islamic scholar Mufti can also refer to civilian dress. Abduh called for a reform of Egyptian Muslim society and formulated the modernist interpretations of Islam that took hold among younger generations of Egyptians. Modernism describes an array of Cultural movements rooted in the changes in Western society in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Among these were Mustafa Kamil and Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, the architects of modern Egyptian nationalism. Muṣṭafā Kāmil Pasha (مصطفى كامل ( August 14, 1874, Cairo, Egypt – February 10, 1908, Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed ( 15 January, 1872 -1963 was an Egyptian intellectual anti-colonial activist and a former rector of Cairo University. Mustafa Kamil had been a student activist in the 1890s involved in the creation of a secret nationalist society that called for British evacuation from Egypt. He was famous for coining the popular expression, "If I had not been an Egyptian, I would have wished to become one. "

Egyptian nationalist sentiment reached a high point after the 1906 Dinshaway Incident, when following an altercation between a group of British soldiers and Egyptian farmers, four of the farmers were hanged while others were condemned to public flogging. Denshawai (AR دنشواي is an Egyptian village that witnessed the Denshawai Incident of 1906 Dinshaway, a watershed in the history of Egyptian anti-colonial resistance, galvanized Egyptian opposition against the British, culminating in the founding of the first two political parties in Egypt: the secular, liberal Umma (the Nation, 1907) headed by Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, and the more radical, pro-Islamic Watani Party (National Party, 1908) headed by Mustafa Kamil. See Colony and Colonization for examples of colonialism which do not refer to Western colonialism Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed ( 15 January, 1872 -1963 was an Egyptian intellectual anti-colonial activist and a former rector of Cairo University. Lutfi was born to a family of farmers in the Delta province of Daqahliya in 1872. Dakahlia governorate (الدقهلية is an Egyptian governorate lying northeast of Cairo. He was educated at al-Azhar where he attended lectures by Mohammed Abduh. Abduh came to have a profound influence on Lutfi's reformist thinking in later years. In 1907, he founded the Umma Party newspaper, el-Garida, whose statement of purpose read: "El-Garida is a purely Egyptian party which aims to defend Egyptian interests of all kinds. "^[115]

Both the People and National parties came to dominate Egyptian politics until World War I, but the new leaders of the national movement for independence following four arduous years of war (in which Great Britain declared Egypt a British protectorate) were closer to the secular, liberal principles of Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed and the People's Party. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All See also Kingdom of Great Britain Great Britain (Breatainn Mhòr Prydain Fawr Breten Veur Graet Breetain is the larger of the two main islands In International law, a protectorate is a autonomous territory that is "protected" by a stronger state or entity hense the protector which engages to protect Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed ( 15 January, 1872 -1963 was an Egyptian intellectual anti-colonial activist and a former rector of Cairo University. Prominent among these was Saad Zaghlul who led the new movement through the Wafd Party. Saad Zaghloul ( Arabic سعد زغلول; also Saad Zaghloul Sa'd Zaghloul Pasha ibn Ibrahim) ( 1859 - August 23 In post- World War I Egypt, the term wafd ( وفد) referred to a "delegation" and more specifically the one that had the direct goal Saad Zaghlul held several ministerial positions before he was elected to the Legislative Assembly and organized a mass movement demanding an end to the British Protectorate. He garnered such massive popularity among the Egyptian people that he came to be known as 'Father of the Egyptians'. When on March 8, 1919 the British arrested Zaghlul and his associates and exiled them to Malta, the Egyptian people staged their first modern revolution. Malta, officially the Republic of Malta (Repubblika ta' Malta is a European Microstate, comprising an Archipelago of three islands The Egyptian Revolution of 1919 was a countrywide non-violent revolution against the British occupation of Egypt. Demonstrations and strikes across Egypt became such a daily occurrence that normal life was brought to a halt. ^[116]

The Wafd Party drafted a new Constitution in 1923 based on a parliamentary representative system. The 1923 Constitution was a previous working Constitution of Egypt during the period 1923-1952 A parliamentary system, also known as parliamentarianism (and parliamentarism in American English) is a System of government in which Saad Zaghlul became the first popularly-elected Prime Minister of Egypt in 1924. Egyptian independence at this stage was provisional, as British forces continued to be physically present on Egyptian soil. In 1936, the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty was concluded. The Anglo-Egyptian Treaty of 1936 was a treaty signed in 1936, between the United Kingdom and Egypt, officially (but seldom known as The Treaty of New forces that came to prominence were the Muslim Brotherhood and the radical Young Egypt Party. The Muslim Brothers ( Arabic: الإخوان المسلمون al-ikhwān al-muslimūn, full title The Society of the Muslim Brothers, often simply الإخوان The Misr El-Fatah (Young Egypt Party ( Arabic: Hizb Misr El-Fatah) is a small Egyptian political party with the membership of some 225 members In 1920, Banque Misr (Bank of Egypt) was founded by Talaat Pasha Harb as "an Egyptian bank for Egyptians only",^[117] which restricted shareholding to native Egyptians and helped finance various new Egyptian-owned businesses. For Egypt's central bank please see Central Bank of Egypt Banque Misr (بنك مصر (Translated The Bank of Egypt is an Egyptian Talaat Pasha Harb ( 25 November 1867 - 23 August 1941) was a leading Egyptian economist and founder of Banque Misr (The

Under the parliamentary monarchy, Egypt reached the peak of its modern intellectual Renaissance that was started by Rifa'a el-Tahtawy nearly a century earlier. Among those who set the intellectual tone of a newly independent Egypt, in addition to Muhammad Abduh and Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed, were Qasim Amin, Muhammad Husayn Haykal, Taha Hussein, Abbas el-'Akkad, Tawfiq el-Hakeem, and Salama Moussa. Muhammad Abduh (or Muhammad 'Abduh) (محمد عبده ( Nile Delta, 1849 - Alexandria, July 11 1905,) was an Egyptian Ahmed Lutfi el-Sayed ( 15 January, 1872 -1963 was an Egyptian intellectual anti-colonial activist and a former rector of Cairo University. Qasim Amin (1863-1908 was an Egyptian jurist and one of the founders of the Egyptian national movement and Cairo University. Muhammad Husayn Haykal ( Arabic: ar محمد حسين هيكل ( August 20, 1888 – 1956 was an Egyptian writer journalist politician Taha Hussein ( November 14, 1889 &mdash October 28, 1973) ( طه حسين) (nicknamed "the dean of Arabic literature"was Abbas Mahmoud al-Akkad Maḥmūd al-‘Aqqād}} (عباس محمود العقاد ( June 28, 1889 &ndash March 12, 1964) was an Egyptian Tawfiq al-Hakim or Tawfik al-Hakim ( October 9, 1898 - July 26, 1987 ( توفيق الحكيم) was a prominent Egyptian Salama Moussa (1887-1958 (Ar سلامه موسى was a notable Egyptian journalist and reformer in the 1920s They delineated a liberal outlook for their country expressed as a commitment to individual freedom, secularism, an evolutionary view of the world and faith in science to bring progress to human society. Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 ^[118] This period was looked upon with fondness by future generations of Egyptians as a Golden Age of Egyptian liberalism, openness, and an Egypt-centered attitude that put the country's interests center stage. The term Golden age is best known from Greek mythology and legend but can also be found in other ancient cultures (see below

When Egyptian novelist and Noble Prize laureate Naguib Mahfouz died in 2006, many Egyptians felt that perhaps the last of the Greats of Egypt's golden age had passed away. The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature Naguib Mahfouz (نجيب محفوظ Nagīb Maḥfūẓ ( December 11, 1911 – August 30, 2006) was an Egyptian Novelist In his dialogues with close associate and journalist Mohamed Salmawy, published as Mon Égypte, Mahfouz had this to say:

Egyptian women demonstrated along with men in the 1919 Revolution precipitated by the British-ordered exile of nationalist leader Saad Zaghlul. The Egyptian Revolution of 1919 was a countrywide non-violent revolution against the British occupation of Egypt. Saad Zaghloul ( Arabic سعد زغلول; also Saad Zaghloul Sa'd Zaghloul Pasha ibn Ibrahim) ( 1859 - August 23

Republic

Muhammad Naguib, 1901 − 1984, was the first President of the Republic of Egypt, a post he held for only a year. Muhammad Naguib (محمد نجيب) (born 20 February, 1901 &ndash 29 August, 1984) was the first President of Egypt, serving

Increased involvement by King Farouk in parliamentary affairs, government corruption, and the widening gap between the country's rich and poor led to the eventual toppling of the monarchy and the dissolution of the parliament through a coup d'état by a group of army officers in 1952. Farouk I of Egypt ( Arabic: فاروق الأول Fārūq al-Awwal) ‎ (February 11 1920 &ndash March 18 1965 was the tenth ruler from the Muhammad In Egypt, the clandestine revolutionary Free Officers Movement (Arabic حركة الضباط الأحرار was composed of young junior army officers committed to unseating The Egyptian Republic was declared on June 18, 1953 with General Muhammad Naguib as the first President of the Republic. Muhammad Naguib (محمد نجيب) (born 20 February, 1901 &ndash 29 August, 1984) was the first President of Egypt, serving After Naguib was forced to resign in 1954 and later put under house arrest by Gamal Abdel Nasser, the real architect of the 1952 movement, mass protests by Egyptians erupted against the forced resignation of what became a popular symbol of the new régime. Gamal Abdel Nasser (جمال عبد الناصر Gamāl ‘Abd an-Nāṣir; - January 15 1918 September 28 1970) was the second President ^[120] Nasser assumed power as President and began a nationalization process that initially had profound effects on the socioeconomic strata of Egyptian society. Political power ( Imperium in Latin is a type of power held by a group in a Society which allows administration of some or all of Nationalization, also spelled nationalisation, is the act of taking an industry or assets into the Public ownership of a national government According to one historian, "Egypt had, for the first time since 343 BC, been ruled not by a Macedonian Greek, nor a Roman, nor an Arab, nor a Turk, but by an Egyptian. "^[121]

Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal leading to the 1956 Suez Crisis. The Suez Canal is a Canal in Egypt. Opened in 1869 it allows Water transportation between Europe and Asia without circumnavigation The Suez Crisis, also referred to as the Tripartite Aggression, (أزمة السويس - العدوان الثلاثي Crise du canal de Suez מבצע קדש Kadesh Egypt became increasingly involved in regional affairs until three years after the 1967 Six Day War, in which Egypt lost the Sinai to Israel, Nasser died and was succeeded by Anwar Sadat. Background Suez Crisis aftermath The Suez Crisis of 1956 represented a military defeat but a political victory for Egypt The Sinai Peninsula or Sinai ( Coptic: sina; Egyptian Arabic: sina سينا Arabic, sina'a سيناء For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Israel topics. Sadat revived an Egypt Above All orientation, switched Egypt's Cold War allegiance from the Soviet Union to the United States, expelling Soviet advisors in 1972, and launched the Infitah economic reform policy. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Infitah ( Arabic: إنفتاح is an Arabic word meaning "open door" and refers to Egyptian President Anwar Sadat Like his predecessor, he also clamped down on religious and leftist opposition alike. Egyptians fought one last time in the 1973 October War in an attempt to liberate Egyptian territories captured by Israel six years earlier. The October War presented Sadat with a political victory that later allowed him to regain the Sinai. In 1977, Sadat made a historic visit to Israel leading to the signing of the 1978 peace treaty, which was supported by the vast majority of Egyptians,^[122] in exchange for the complete Israeli withdrawal from Sinai. The Camp David Accords were signed by Egyptian President Anwar El Sadat and Israeli Prime Minister Menachem Begin on September 17, Sadat was finally assassinated in Cairo by a fundamentalist soldier in 1981, and was succeeded by Hosni Mubarak. Cairo () which means "the Vanquisher" or "the Triumphant" is the capital and largest city of Egypt.

President Mohamed Hosni Mubarak has been the President of the Republic since October 14, 1981, currently serving his fifth term in office. The President of the Arab Republic of Egypt is the elected Head of State of Egypt. Events 1066 - Norman Conquest: Battle of Hastings - In England on Senlac Hill seven miles from Hastings, the forces Year 1981 ( MCMLXXXI) was a Common year starting on Thursday (link displays the 1981 Although power is ostensibly organized under a multi-party semi-presidential system, in practice it rests almost solely with the President. A multi-party system is a system in which three or more political parties have the capacity to gain control of government separately or in coalition The semi-presidential system is a System of government in which a prime minister and a President are both active participants in the day-to-day administration In late February 2005, for the first time since the 1952 coup d'état, the Egyptian people had an apparent chance to elect a leader from a list of various candidates, most prominently Ayman Nour. Ayman Abd El Aziz Nour (أيمن عبد العزيز نور (born 10 October 1964) is an Egyptian Politician, a former member of that country's Most Egyptians today are skeptical about the process of democratization and fear that power may ultimately be transferred to the President's first son, Gamal Mubarak. Democratization ( British English: Democratisation) is the transition to a more democratic Political regime. Gamal Mubarak (جمال مبارك or Gamal El Deen Muhammad Hosni Sayed Mubarak (جمال الدين محمد حسنى سيد مبارك born 1963 is the younger of the In 2003, the Egyptian Movement for Change or simply Kefaya was founded as a grassroots mobilization of Egyptians seeking a return to democracy, a transparent government and greater equality and freedom. Kefaya (Arabic كفاية Egyptian Arabic for “Enough!” is the unofficial Moniker of the Egyptian Movement for Change (Arabic الحركة المصرية

The long road to Egyptian independence took more than 20 centuries to achieve, and for many Egyptians it is still a work in progress. Egyptians have endured as a people for more than 5,000 years thanks in large part to Egypt's unique geography. They take pride in their pharaonic heritage and in their descent from one of mankind's earliest civilizations.

Kefaya is a grassroots movement and a form of non-violent resistance organized on the Egyptian street with the goal to achieve equality and democracy. Kefaya (Arabic كفاية Egyptian Arabic for “Enough!” is the unofficial Moniker of the Egyptian Movement for Change (Arabic الحركة المصرية

Culture

Main article: Culture of Egypt

Egyptian culture boasts five millennia of recorded history. The Culture of Egypt has five thousand years of recorded history Ancient Egypt was among the earliest and greatest civilizations during which the Egyptians maintained a strikingly complex and stable culture that influenced later cultures of Europe, the Near East and Africa. Ancient Egypt was an Ancient Civilization in eastern North Africa, concentrated along the lower reaches of the Nile River in what is now B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century After the Pharaonic era, the Egyptians themselves came under the influence of Hellenism, Christianity and Islamic culture. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. History of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria Apostolic foundation Egypt is identified in the Bible as the place of refuge that the Muslim Culture is a term primarily used in Secular Academia to describe all cultural practices common to historically Islamic peoples Today, many aspects of ancient Egyptian culture exist in interaction with newer elements, including the influence of modern Western culture, itself influenced by Ancient Egypt. Western culture (sometimes equated with Western Civilization) are terms which are used to refer to Cultures of European origin

Surnames

People of Egyptian origins can have names or family names beginning with the Egyptian masculine possessive pronoun pa/ba. Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages For example, Bayoumi بيومي ("of the sea", i. Tamer Bayoumi ( Arabic:ar تامر بيومى (born April 12, 1982) is an Egyptian Taekwondo athlete who won a bronze medal in e. Lower Egyptian) (variations: Baioumi, Bayoumi, Baioumy), Bashandi بشندي , Bakhum باخوم ("the eagle"), Bekhit, Bahur ("of Horus") and Banoub بانوب ("of Anubis"). Anubis is the Greek name for a Jackal -headed god associated with Mummification and the afterlife in Egyptian mythology. The name Shenouda شنوده, which is very common among Copts—e. A Copt ( Coptic: ouRemenkīmi enEkhristianos, literally Egyptian Christian) is a native Egyptian Christian. g. , it is the name of the present Egyptian Pope as well as that of one of the Coptic Church's foremost saints—means "son of God". HH Pope Shenouda III of Alexandria ( Coptic:, Arabic: البابا شنوده الثالث (born 3 August 1923) born Nazeer Gayed Saint Shenouda the Archimandrite (348-466 was the abbot of the White Monastery in Egypt. Hence names, and many toponyms, may end with -nouda or -nuti which is the Egyptian/Coptic word for God. Toponymy refers to the scientific study of place-names ( toponyms) their origins meanings use and Typology. In addition, Egyptian families often derive their name from places in Egypt, such as el-Minyawi المنياوي from Minya and Suyuti السيوطي from Asyut; or from one of the local Sufi orders such as el-Shazli الشاذلي and el-Sawy الصاوي. Minya Governorate ( محافظة المنيا) is one of the governorates of Upper Egypt. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Imam Jalaluddin Al-Suyuti (c Lycopolis and Lykopolis redirect here for the ancient city bearing those names located in the delta of the Nile see Lycopolis (Delta Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف

With the adoption of Christianity and eventually Islam, Egyptians began to take on names associated with these religions. Many Egyptian surnames also became Hellenized and Arabized, meaning they were altered to sound Greek or Arabic. Hellenization (or Hellenisation) is a term used to describe the spread of Greek culture. Arabization ( Arabic: تعريب) describes a growing cultural influence on a non-Arab area that gradually changes into one that speaks Arabic and/or Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language This was done by the addition of the Greek suffix -ios to Egyptian names; for example, Bakhum/Pakhum > Pachomios; or by adding the Arabic definite article el (Classical Arabic al) to names such as Baymoui > el-Bayoumi. Names starting with the Egyptian affix bu ("place") were sometimes Arabized to abu ("father of"); for example, Busiri بوصيري ("of the place of Osiris") occasionally became Abusir and al-Busiri. Būsīrī ( Abū 'Abdallāh Muhammad ibn Sa'īd ul-Būsīrī) ( 1211 &ndash 1294) was an Egyptian Poet who lived in Egypt, Osiris ( Greek language, also Usiris; the Egyptian language name is variously transliterated Asar, Aser, Ausar, Ausir Some people might also have surnames like el-Shamy الشامي ("the Levantine") indicating a possible Levantine origin, or Turkish Dewidar دويدار, an Ottoman-Mamluk remnant. Conversely, some Levantines might carry the surname el-Masri ("the Egyptian") suggesting a possible Egyptian extraction. The Egyptian peasantry, the fellahin, are more likely to retain indigenous names given their relative isolation throughout the Egyptian people's history.

Language

Main articles: Egyptian language, Coptic language, and Egyptian Arabic

Ebers Papyrus detailing treatment for asthma in hieratic Egyptian, c. Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt The Ebers Papyrus of about 1550 BC is among the most important Medical papyri of Ancient Egypt. Asthma is a chronic Condition involving the Respiratory system in which the airways occasionally constrict become inflamed, and are Hieratic is a Cursive writing system used in pharaonic Egypt that developed alongside the hieroglyphic system to which it is intimately Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages 1550 BC.

The ancient Egyptian language constitutes an independent branch of the Afro-Asiatic language phylum. Egyptian is an Afro-Asiatic language most closely related to the Berber, Semitic, Somali and Beja languages The Afro-Asiatic languages constitute a Language family with about 375 languages ( SIL estimate and more than 300 million speakers spread throughout North Africa List of language familiesA language family is a group of Languages related by descent from a common ancestor called the Proto-language of that family Its closest relatives are the Berber, Semitic, and Beja groups of languages. Nomenclature The term Berber has been used in Europe since at least the 17th century and is still used today The Semitic languages are a Language family whose living representatives are spoken by more than 467 million people across much of the Middle East, Beja (also called Bedawi Bedauye To Bedawie is an Afro-Asiatic language of the southern coast of the Red Sea, spoken by about two million nomads the Written records of Egyptian have been dated from about 3200 BC, making it one of the oldest and longest documented languages. Events c 3150 BC — According to the legend Narmer ( First Dynasty) started to rule in Ancient Egypt. The language survived in its Coptic stage of development until the 17th century, and while it ceased to be spoken, it continues to be the language of liturgy in the Coptic Church. Coptic or Coptic Egyptian ( MetRemenkīmi) is the final stage of the Egyptian language, a northern Afro-Asiatic language spoken in Egypt As a means of recording the passage of Time, the 17th Century was that Century which lasted from 1601 - 1700 in the Gregorian calendar A liturgy is the customary public worship done by a specific religious group according to their particular traditions Attempts at revitalization are currently underway by some local groups. Liberal Egyptian Party ( Arabic: الحزب المصري الليبرالي el Hizb el Masri el Liberali) formerly Mother Egypt (حزب مصر الأم

The national language of Egypt today is Egyptian Arabic. A national language is a Language (or language variant, ie Dialect) which has some connection - de facto or de jure - with Its earliest recorded history comes in the form of a document by a sixteenth century linguist writing about the peculiarities of the speech of the Egyptian people. This suggests that the language by then was spoken by the majority of Egyptians. It is represented in a body of vernacular literature comprising novels, plays and poetry published over the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. Vernacular literature is Literature written in the Vernacular - the speech of the "common people" Classical Arabic is also a significant cultural element in Egyptian culture, as Egyptian novelists and poets were among the first to experiment with modern styles of Arabic literature, and the forms they developed have been widely imitated.

Contribution to humanity

The Egyptians have played a significant role in the development of arts and sciences, and have contributed some of the world's most important inventions. The arts is a broad subdivision of Culture, composed of many expressive disciplines. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding The irrigation methods developed by early Egyptians led to cooperation and the development of the first centralized government based on professional knowledge, a rule of hydraulic engineers. For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. An engineer is a person professionally engaged in a field of Engineering. The earliest evidence (c. 1600 BC) of traditional empiricism and the scientific method is credited to Egypt, as evidenced by the Edwin Smith and Ebers papyri. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena The Edwin Smith Papyrus is the only surviving copy of part of an Ancient Egyptian Textbook on trauma Surgery. The Ebers Papyrus of about 1550 BC is among the most important Medical papyri of Ancient Egypt. Egyptian inventions include a 365-day calendar, 24-hour division of the day and hydraulic cement. The ancient civil Egyptian calendar had a year that was 365 days long and was divided into 12 months of 30 days each plus 5 extra days (epagomenes Greek ἐπαγόμεναι In the most general sense of the word a cement is a binder a substance which sets and hardens independently and can bind other materials together

Today, Egypt has the highest number of Nobel Prize Laureates in Africa and of any country in the Muslim world. The Nobel Prize (Nobelpriset (Nobelprisen is a Swedish prize established in the 1895 will of Swedish chemist Alfred Nobel; it was first awarded in Peace, Literature

Egyptians with notable contributions to the world:

• Abu Kamil - his work in algebra formed the basis for Fibonacci's work. (c 850 – c 930 (ابو كامل for short was an Egyptian Muslim mathematician during the Islamic Golden Age. Algebra is a branch of Mathematics concerning the study of structure, relation, and Quantity. Leonardo of Pisa (c 1170 – c 1250 also known as Leonardo Pisano, Leonardo Bonacci, Leonardo Fibonacci, or most commonly simply Fibonacci
• Anthony the Great - recognized as the founder of monasticism. Saint Anthony the Great (c 251–356 also known as Anthony the Abbot, Anthony of Egypt, Anthony of the Desert, Anthony the Anchorite, Monasticism (from Greek μοναχός, monachos, derived from Greek monos, alone is the religious practice in which one
• Athanasius of Alexandria - compiler of the New Testament books as they are used today.
• Djer - credited with writing the first medical treatise on anatomy. Djer is the second or third Pharaoh of the First dynasty of Egypt, which dates from approximately 3100 B ^[124]
• Dhul-Nun al-Misri - one of the founders of Sufism; introdcued Gnosis into Islam. Dhul-Nun al-Misri (ذو النون المصري born in 796 in Akhmim, Upper Egypt - 859) was an Egyptian Sufi saint Sufism ( تصوّف - taṣawwuf, Persian: صوفی‌گری sufigari, Turkish: tasavvuf, Urdu: تصوف Gnosis (from one of the Greek words for Knowledge, γνώσις is the spiritual knowledge of a Saint or mystically enlightened human being
• Farouk El-Baz - was supervisor of Lunar Science Planning in NASA's Project Apollo. Dr Farouk El-Baz ( فاروق الباز) is an Egyptian American scientist who worked with NASA to assist in the planning of scientific exploration of
• Eman Ghoneim - woman geomorphologyist who helped discover the Kebira Crater in the Sahara. Dr Eman Ghoneim (إيمان غنيم is an experienced Egyptian Geomorphologist with a primary focus on the application of Geographical Information Systems Geomorphology (from Greek: γη ge, "earth" μορφή morfé, "form" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" The Sahara (الصحراء الكبرى aṣ-ṣaḥrā´ al-kubra, "The Great Desert" is the world's largest hot Desert and the world's second largest
• Zahi Hawass - archaeologist, Time Magazine 100 Most Influential People. Zahi Hawass ( Arabic: زاهي حواس (born 28 May 1947 in Damietta, Egypt) is an Egyptian archaeologist and
• Imhotep - recognized as the world's first medical doctor and architect. Imhotep (sometimes spelled Immutef, Im-hotep, or Ii-em-Hotep, circa ( fl
• Origen - one of the world's most influential early Christian scholars. Origen ( Greek: Ōrigénēs, or Origen Adamantius, ca 185–ca
• Riad Higazy - a feature on the moon was named after him. Riad Abdel-Magid Higazy (1919&ndash1967 was an Egyptian earth scientist
• Sameera Moussa - nuclear scientist who organized the Atomic Energy for Peace Conference. Sameera Moussa ( Arabic: سميرة موسى ( March 3, 1917 - August 5, 1952) was an Egyptian nuclear scientist
• Magdi Yacoub - one of the world's foremost heart surgeons. Sir Magdi Habib Yacoub FRS (born 16 November 1935 in Belbis, Egypt) is Professor of Cardiothoracic Surgery at Imperial College London.
• Ibn Yunus - noted for important astronomical contributions; the Ibn Yunus crater is named after him. Ibn Yunus ( Arabic: ابن يونس) (full name Abu al-Hasan 'Ali abi Sa'id 'Abd al-Rahman ibn Ahmad ibn Yunus al-Sadafi al-Misri (c Ibn Yunus is the remains of a flooded lunar crater. It lies on the far side of the Moon, just past the eastern limb
• Ahmed H. Zewail - pioneer of femtochemistry; winner of Nobel Prize in Chemistry. Ahmed Hassan Zewail (أحمد حسن زويل (born February 26 1946 in Damanhur, Egypt) is an Egyptian American scientist and the Femtochemistry is the Science that studies Chemical reactions on extremely short timescales approximately 10–15 seconds (one Femtosecond
• Mohamed ElBaradei - Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA); ElBaradei and the IAEA were jointly awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 2005. DrMohamed Mostafa El-Baradei ( Arabic: محمد البرادعي transliteration) (born June 17, 1942, in Cairo, Egypt The International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA) is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its The International Atomic Energy Agency ( IAEA) is an international organization that seeks to promote the peaceful use of nuclear energy and to inhibit its
• Boutros Boutros-Ghali - an Egyptian diplomat who was the sixth Secretary-General of the United Nations from January 1992 to December 1996. Boutros Boutros-Ghali ( Arabic: بطرس بطرس غالي Coptic: Ⲃⲟⲩⲧⲣⲟⲥ Ⲃⲟⲩⲧⲣⲟⲥ Ⲅⲁⲗⲏ (born November 14, 1922 The United Nations ( UN) is an International organization whose stated aims are to facilitate cooperation in International law, International security

See Egypt and Culture of Egypt for information on Egyptian literature, music and arts

See also

• Ancient Egypt
• Copts
• Culture of Egypt
• Demographics of Egypt
• Egypt
• Egyptian Americans
• Egyptian Australians
• List of Egyptians
• List of prominent Copts
• Egyptian athletes

References