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Hurricane Kate of 2003
Tropical cyclones
Formation and naming
Development - Structure
Naming - Seasonal lists - Full list
Effects

Effects
Watches and warnings
Storm surge - Notable storms
Retired names (Atlantic - Eastern Pacific - Western Pacific)
Climatology and tracking
Basins - RSMCs - TCWCs - Scales
Observation - Forecasting
Rainfall forecasting
Rainfall climatology
Part of the Nature series: Weather

The effects of tropical cyclones are the impacts that tropical cyclones have on the areas they move through. A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low pressure center and numerous Thunderstorms that produce strong winds and Flooding Tropical cyclogenesis is the technical term describing the development and strengthening of a Tropical cyclone in the Atmosphere. The eye is a region of mostly calm Weather found at the center of strong Tropical cyclones The eye of a Storm is a roughly circular area and typically 30–65 km Presently most Tropical cyclones are given a name using one of several Lists of tropical cyclone names. Due to their long-term persistence and the need for a unique identifier in issuing forecasts and warnings Tropical cyclones and Subtropical cyclones are given names according This is a list of named tropical cyclones, giving all official names for Tropical cyclones. Warnings and watches are two levels of alert issued by national Weather forecasting bodies to coastal areas threatened by the imminent approach of a Tropical cyclone Storm surge or tidal surge is an offshore rise of water associated with a low pressure weather system typically a Tropical cyclone. This is a list of notable Tropical cyclones, subdivided by basin and reason for notability Tropical cyclone names may be retired (removed from the name list in several Tropical cyclone basins around the world by the World Meteorological Organization This is a list of retired Atlantic hurricane names. Hurricane names are retired by the World Meteorological Organization (WMO in a meeting in March April or May Wikipedia_talkFeatured_lists#Proposed_change_to_all_featured_lists for an explanation of this and other inclusion tags below -->This is a list of all Pacific This is a list of all Pacific typhoons that have had their names retired by the Japan Meteorological Agency. Northwestern Pacific Ocean See also Pacific typhoon The Northwest Pacific Ocean is the most active basin on the planet A Regional Specialized Meteorological Centre (also Regional Specialized Meteorological Center and Regional Specialised Meteorological Centre) is responsible for the A Tropical Cyclone Warning Centre is one of six regional warning centers that are part of the World Meteorological Organization Tropical cyclone programme and act Tropical cyclones are ranked according to their maximum winds using several scales Tropical cyclone observation has been carried out over the past couple of centuries in various ways Tropical cyclone forecasting is the science and art of forecasting where a Tropical cyclone 's center and its effects are expected to be at some point in the future Tropical cyclone rainfall forecasting involves using scientific models and other tools to predict the precipitation expected in Tropical cyclones such as hurricanes and typhoons A tropical cyclone rainfall climatology is developed to determine rainfall characteristics of past tropical cyclones Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. The weather is a set of all the phenomena occurring in a given Atmosphere at a given Time. A tropical cyclone is a storm system characterized by a low pressure center and numerous Thunderstorms that produce strong winds and Flooding The main destructive impacts include heavy rain, strong wind, large storm surges at landfall, and tornadoes. Rain is Liquid precipitation. On Earth it is the condensation of atmospheric Water vapor into drops heavy enough to fall often making it to Wind is the flow of Air or other Gases that compose an Atmosphere (including but not limited to the Earth's) Storm surge or tidal surge is an offshore rise of water associated with a low pressure weather system typically a Tropical cyclone. Landfall is the event of a Tropical cyclone (also known as a hurricane or a Waterspout coming onto Land after being over water A tornado is a violent rotating column of air which is in contact with both the surface of the earth and a Cumulonimbus cloud or in rare cases the base of a Cumulus How devastating a tropical cyclone is depends mainly on its intensity, how big it is, and where it impacts. Tropical cyclones are ranked according to their maximum winds using several scales Tropical cyclones act to remove forest canopy as well as change the landscape near coastal areas, by moving and reshaping sand dunes and causing extensive erosion along the coast. Even well inland, heavy rainfall can lead to mudslides and landslides in mountainous areas. Their impacts can be sensed over time by studying the concentration of the Oxygen-18 isotope within caves near the shore.

After the cyclone has passed, devastation continues. In Meteorology, a cyclone refers to an area of closed circular fluid motion rotating in the same direction as the Earth. Standing water can cause the spread of disease, and transportation or communications infrastructure may have been destroyed, hampering clean-up and rescue efforts. Water stagnation occurs when Water stops flowing Stagnant water can be a major Environmental hazard. Nearly two million people have died globally due to tropical cyclones. Despite their devastating effects, tropical cyclones are also beneficial, by potentially bringing rain to dry areas and moving heat from the tropics poleward. Out at sea, ships take advantage of their known characteristics by navigating through their weaker, western half.

Pie graph of American tropical cyclone casualties by cause from 1970-1999
Pie graph of American tropical cyclone casualties by cause from 1970-1999

Contents

Out at sea

A mature tropical cyclone can release heat at a rate upwards of 6x1014 watts. The watt (symbol W) is the SI derived unit of power, equal to one Joule of energy per Second. [1] Tropical cyclones on the open sea cause large waves, heavy rain, and high winds, disrupting international shipping and, at times, causing shipwrecks. A shipwreck can refer to a wrecked ship or to the event that caused the wreck such as the striking of something that causes the ship to sink the stranding of the ship on rocks [2] Generally, after its passage, a tropical cyclone stirs up ocean water, lowering sea surface temperatures behind it. Sea surface temperature (SST is the water Temperature close to the surface [3] This cool wake can cause the region to be less favorable for a subsequent tropical cyclone. On rare occasions, tropical cyclones may actually do the opposite. 2005's Hurricane Dennis blew warm water behind it, contributing to the unprecedented intensity of Hurricane Emily, which followed it closely. Hurricane Dennis was an early-forming major Hurricane in the Caribbean and Hurricane Emily was the fifth named storm, third hurricane second major hurricane and first Category 5 of the record-breaking 2005 Atlantic hurricane season [4] Hurricanes help to maintain the global heat balance by moving warm, moist tropical air to the mid-latitudes and polar regions. [5] Were it not for the movement of heat poleward (through other means as well as hurricanes), the tropical regions would be unbearably hot.

North American Colonization

Shipwrecks are common with the passage of strong tropical cyclones. Such shipwrecks can change the course of history,[6] as well as influence art and literature. A hurricane led to a victory of the Spanish over the French for control of Fort Caroline, and ultimately the Atlantic coast of North America, in 1565. [7] The Sea Venture wrecked near Bermuda in 1609 which led to the colonization of Bermuda[8] and provided the inspiration for Shakespeare's The Tempest. The Sea Venture was a 17th-century English sailing ship the wrecking of which in Bermuda is widely thought to have been the inspiration for Shakespeare's William Shakespeare ( baptised The Tempest is a comedy written by William Shakespeare. It is generally dated to 1610-11 and accepted as the last play written solely by him although

Shipping

Mariners have a way to safely navigate around tropical cyclones. [9] They split tropical cyclones into two halves, based on its direction of motion. They avoid the right half of the cyclone and termed it the dangerous semicircle since the heaviest rain and strongest winds and seas were located in this half of the storm. The other half of the tropical cyclone was called the navigable semicircle since weather conditions are less extreme in this half of the storm. The rules of thumb for ship travel when a tropical cyclone is in their vicinity are to avoid them if at all possible and do not cross their forecast path (crossing the T). Those travelling through the dangerous semicircle are advised to keep to the true wind on the starboard bow and make as much headway as possible. Starboard is the nautical term that refers to the right side of a vessel as perceived by a person on board a vessel and facing the bow (front Ships moving through the navigable semicircle are advised to keep the true wind on the starboard quarter while making as much headway as possible. [10]

Upon landfall

The most significant effects of a tropical cyclone occur when they cross coastlines, making landfall. Landfall is the event of a Tropical cyclone (also known as a hurricane or a Waterspout coming onto Land after being over water

Strong winds

Strong winds can damage or destroy vehicles, buildings, bridges, and other outside objects, turning loose debris into deadly flying projectiles. Wind is the flow of Air or other Gases that compose an Atmosphere (including but not limited to the Earth's) In the United States, major hurricanes comprise just 21% of all landfalling tropical cyclones, but account for 83% of all damage. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Tropical cyclones are ranked according to their maximum winds using several scales [11] Tropical cyclones often knock out power to tens or hundreds of thousands of people, preventing vital communication and hampering rescue efforts. [12] Tropical cyclones often destroy key bridges, overpasses, and roads, complicating efforts to transport food, clean water, and medicine to the areas that need it. Furthermore, the damage caused by tropical cyclones to buildings and dwellings can result in economic damage to a region, and to a diaspora of the population of the region. The term Diaspora (in Greek, διασπορά &ndash " a scattering or sowing of seeds " refers any population sharing common ethnic [13]

Storm surge

The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in Gulfport, Mississippi. Katrina was the costliest tropical cyclone in United States history.
The aftermath of Hurricane Katrina in Gulfport, Mississippi. Hurricane Katrina of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest hurricane, as well as one of the five deadliest in the history of the United States Gulfport is the second largest city in Mississippi after the state capital Jackson. Katrina was the costliest tropical cyclone in United States history. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the
See also: Storm surge

The storm surge, or the increase in sea level due to the cyclone, is typically the worst effect from landfalling tropical cyclones, historically resulting in 90% of tropical cyclone deaths. Storm surge or tidal surge is an offshore rise of water associated with a low pressure weather system typically a Tropical cyclone. Storm surge or tidal surge is an offshore rise of water associated with a low pressure weather system typically a Tropical cyclone. [13] The relatively quick surge in sea level can move miles/kilometers inland, flooding homes and cutting off escape routes. The storm surges and winds of hurricanes may be destructive to human-made structures, but they also stir up the waters of coastal estuaries, which are typically important fish breeding locales.

Heavy rainfall

See also: Tropical cyclone rainfall climatology

The thunderstorm activity in a tropical cyclone produces intense rainfall, potentially resulting in flooding, mudslides, and landslides. A tropical cyclone rainfall climatology is developed to determine rainfall characteristics of past tropical cyclones Rain is Liquid precipitation. On Earth it is the condensation of atmospheric Water vapor into drops heavy enough to fall often making it to Inland areas are particularly vulnerable to freshwater flooding, due to residents not preparing adequately. A flood is an overflow of an expanse of water that submerges land a deluge [14] Heavy inland rainfall eventually flows into coastal estuaries, damaging marine life in coastal estuaries. [15] The wet environment in the aftermath of a tropical cyclone, combined with the destruction of sanitation facilities and a warm tropical climate, can induce epidemics of disease which claim lives long after the storm passes. [13] Infections of cuts and bruises can be greatly amplified by wading in sewage-polluted water. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in Large areas of standing water caused by flooding also contribute to mosquito-borne illnesses. Furthermore, crowded evacuees in shelters increase the risk of disease propagation. Emergency shelters are places (such as Najidah) for people to live temporarily when they can't live in their previous residence similar to Homeless shelters The [13]

Although cyclones take an enormous toll in lives and personal property, they may be important factors in the precipitation regimes of places they impact and bring much-needed precipitation to otherwise dry regions. In Meteorology, precipitation (also known as one class of hydrometeors, which are atmospheric water phenomena is any product of the condensation of atmospheric Hurricanes in the eastern north Pacific often supply moisture to the Southwestern United States and parts of Mexico. The Southwestern area of the United States could be defined as the states west of the Mississippi River, with the qualification of a certain northern limit such as the 37 [16] Japan receives over half of its rainfall from typhoons. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. [17] Hurricane Camille averted drought conditions and ended water deficits along much of its path,[18] though it also killed 259 people and caused $9. Hurricane Camille was the third and strongest tropical cyclone and second hurricane of the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season 14 billion (2005 USD) in damage. The United States dollar ( sign: $; code: USD) is the unit of Currency of the United States; it has also been

On the other hand, the occurrence of tropical cyclones can cause tremendous variability in rainfall over the areas they effect: indeed cyclones are the primary cause of the most extreme rainfall variability in the world, observed in places such as Onslow and Port Hedland in subtropical Australia where the annual rainfall can range from practically nothing with no cyclones to over 1,000 millimetres (39 in) if cyclones are abundant. Onslow is a coastal town in the Pilbara region of Western Australia, north of Perth. Port Hedland is the highest tonnage port in Australia and largest town in the Pilbara region of Western Australia, with a population of approximately 14000 (this includes For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics.

Tornadoes

Main article: History of tropical cyclone-spawned tornadoes

The broad rotation of a landfalling tropical cyclone often spawns tornadoes, particularly in their right front quadrant. Intense Tropical cyclones usually produce Tornadoes the majority of them weak upon landfall Intense Tropical cyclones usually produce Tornadoes the majority of them weak upon landfall While these tornadoes are normally not as strong as their non-tropical counterparts, heavy damage or loss of life can still occur. Tornadoes can also be spawned as a result of eyewall mesovortices, which persist until landfall. The eye is a region of mostly calm Weather found at the center of strong Tropical cyclones The eye of a Storm is a roughly circular area and typically 30–65 km [19]

Deaths

Deaths per year from tropical cyclones
Australia 5[20]
United States 25[21]
East Asia 740[22]
Globally 10000[21]

During the last two centuries, tropical cyclones have been responsible for the deaths of about 1. 9 million persons worldwide. It is estimated that 10,000 people per year perish due to tropical cyclones. [21] The deadliest tropical cyclone was the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which had a death toll of anywhere from 300,000 to 500,000 lives. The 1970 Bhola cyclone was a devastating Tropical cyclone that struck East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) and India 's West Bengal on

United States

Before Hurricane Katrina, the average death rate for tropical cyclones in the United States was decreasing. Hurricane Katrina of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest hurricane, as well as one of the five deadliest in the history of the United States The main cause of storm-related fatalities was shifting away from storm surge and towards freshwater flooding. [23] However, the median death rate per storm had increased through 1979, with a lull during the 1980-1995 period. In Probability theory and Statistics, a median is described as the number separating the higher half of a sample a population or a Probability distribution This was due to greater numbers of people moving to the coastal margins and into harm's way. Despite advances in warning strategies and reduction in track forecast error, this increase in fatalities is expected to continue for as long as people migrate towards the shore. [24]

Reconstruction and repopulation

While tropical cyclones may well seriously damage settlement, total destruction encourages rebuilding. For example, the destruction wrought by Hurricane Camille on the Gulf coast spurred redevelopment, greatly increasing local property values. Hurricane Camille was the third and strongest tropical cyclone and second hurricane of the 1969 Atlantic hurricane season [18] However, disaster response officials point out that redevelopment encourages more people to live in clearly dangerous areas subject to future deadly storms. Hurricane Katrina is the most obvious example, as it devastated the region that had been revitalized after Hurricane Camille. Hurricane Katrina of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season was the costliest hurricane, as well as one of the five deadliest in the history of the United States Many former residents and businesses do relocate to inland areas away from the threat of future hurricanes as well.

In isolated areas with small populations, tropical cyclones may cause enough casualties to contribute to the founder's effect as survivors repopulate their place. In Population genetics, the founder effect refers to the loss of genetic variation when a new colony is established by a very small number of individuals from a larger For example, around 1775, a typhoon hit Pingelap Atoll, and in combination with a subsequent famine, reduced the island's population to a low level. Several generations after the disaster, as many as 10% of Pingelapese have a genetic form of color-blindness called achromatopsia. A genetic disorder is a condition caused by abnormalities in Genes or Chromosomes While some diseases such as Cancer, are due to genetic abnormalities acquired Color blindness, a Color vision deficiency is the inability to perceive differences between some of the Colors that others can distinguish Achromatopsia ( ACHM) spelled with an s is a medical syndrome that exhibits symptoms relating to at least five separate individual diseases [25] This is due to one of the survivors of the depopulation brought on by the typhoon having a mutated gene, which the population bottleneck caused to be at a higher-than-usual level in succeeding generations. A population bottleneck (or genetic bottleneck) is an Evolutionary event in which a significant percentage of a population or species is killed or otherwise prevented [25]

Effects on Natural Resources

Geomorphology

Tropical cyclones reshape the geology near the coast by eroding sand from the beach as well as offshore, rearranging coral, and changing dune configuration onshore. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Their rain water gets absorbed into stalagmites within caves, creating a record of past tropical cyclone impacts. A stalagmite (from the Greek stalagma ("Σταλαγμίτης" "drop" or "drip" is a

Coastal Ridges

Waves and storm surges accompanying tropical cyclones erode undersea sands, erode shell deposits, break off corals from near shore reefs in their paths, and carry all this detritus landwards in a rolling wave of material that is deposited onshore, above highest astronomical tide as a ridge of sand, shell and coral. In nautical terminology a reef is a rock, sandbar, or other feature lying beneath the surface of the water (six fathoms or less at low water Characteristics A tide is a repeated cycle of sea level changes in the following stages Over several hours the water rises or advances up a beach in the flood [26] For example, each severe tropical cyclone (ie category 4-5 on the Saffir-Simpson scale) crossing northeast Australia's tropical coastline since the last significant change in sea levels (about 5000 years ago) has 'emplaced' such ridges within the coastal landscape forming, in some places, series of ridges and a geomorphological record of highest magnitude cyclones hitting the coast over 3000 - 5000 years. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. [27]

Eyewitness accounts verify ridges of this kind are formed by severe tropical cyclones and two clear examples cited are the 18 kilometres (11 mi) long, 35 metres (110 ft) wide, 3. 5 metres (11 ft) high coral shingle ridge deposited on Funafuti Atoll (Central South Pacific) by Tropical Cyclone Bebe in October 1971, and the large coral shingle ridge deposited on Jaluit Atoll (Marshall Islands) by Typhoon Ophelia in January 1958. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit The 1970-1975 Southern Hemisphere tropical cyclone seasons ran year-round from July 1 to June 30 during each year between 1970 and 1975 The Marshall Islands, officially the Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI is a Micronesian nation of islands in the middle of the Pacific Ocean }The 1958 Pacific typhoon season has no official bounds it ran year-round in 1958, but most tropical cyclones tend to form in the northwestern Pacific Ocean between In tropical northeast Australia, an intense tropical cyclone hit in March 1918 (crossing over the town of Innisfail), at which time there were eyewitness accounts of a 4. For the town in Alberta Canada see Innisfail Alberta Innisfail is a town located in the far north of the state of Queensland 5 metres (15 ft) to 5. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit 1 metres (17 ft) high ridge of pumice being deposited by that cyclone's surge as it crossed the coast. The metre or meter is a unit of Length. It is the basic unit of Length in the Metric system and in the International A foot (plural feet or foot; symbol or abbreviation ft or sometimes &prime – the prime symbol) is a non-SI unit ). [26]

Limestone Cave Stalagmites

When tropical cyclones cross land, thin layers of calcium carbonate of unusually 'light' Oxygen isotope (Oxygen-18) composition are deposited onto stalagmites in limestone caves up to 300 kilometres (190 mi) from the cyclone's path. Calcium carbonate is a Chemical compound with the Chemical formula Ca[[Carbon C]] O 3 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Isotopes (Greek isos = "equal" tópos = "site place" are any of the different types of atoms ( Nuclides Oxygen-18 ( 18O) is a natural stable Isotope of Oxygen and one of the Environmental isotopes. A stalagmite (from the Greek stalagma ("Σταλαγμίτης" "drop" or "drip" is a Limestone is a Sedimentary rock composed largely of the Mineral Calcite ( Calcium carbonate: CaCO3 [27]

As the cloud tops of tropical cyclones are high and cold, and their air is humid - their rainwater is 'lighter'. In other words, the rainfall contains significantly higher quanties of unevaporated Oxygen-18 than other tropical rainfall. The isotopically lighter rainwater soaks into the ground, percolates down into caves, and, within a couple of weeks, Oxygen-18 transfers from the water into calcium carbonate, before being deposited in thin layers or 'rings' within stalagmites. A succession of such events created within stalagmites maintain a record of cyclones tracking within a 300 kilometres (190 mi) radius of caves going back centuries, millennia, or even millions of years. [28]

At Actun Tunichil Muknal cave in central Belize, researchers drilling stalagmites with a computer- controlled dental drill accurately identified and verified evidence of isotopically light rainfall for 11 tropical cyclones occurring over a 23 year period (1978-2001). Belize (bəˈliːz formerly British Honduras, is a country in Central America. [28]

At the Chillagoe limestone caves in northeast Australia (130 kilometres (81 mi) inland from Cairns) researchers identified and matched evidence of isotopically light rainfall with 100 years of cyclone records, and from this have created a record of tropical cyclones from 2004 back to 1200 A. Chillagoe in northern Queensland, Australia, was once a thriving mining town for a range of minerals but is now reduced to a small zinc mine and some Marble D. (an 800 year record). [27]

Landscapes

Severe tropical cyclones defoliate tropical forest canopy trees, remove vines and epiphytes from the trees, break tree crown stems, and cause tree falls. The canopy is one of the uppermost levels of a Forest, below the emergent layer, formed by the Tree crowns Canopy trees refers to the trees A vine is any plant of Genus Vitis (the Grape plants or by extension any similar climbing or trailing plant An epiphyte is an organism that grows upon or attaches to a living plant The degree of damage they do along their paths, at a landscape level (i. e. > 10 kilometres (6. 2 mi)), can be catastrophic yet variable and patchy. [29] Stripping trees and scattering forest debris also provides fuel for wildfires, such as a blaze that lasted three months in 1989 and burned 460 square miles of forest that had been stripped by Hurricane Gilbert. A wildfire, also known as a wildland fire, forest fire, brush fire, vegetation fire, grass fire, Peat fire, Hurricane Gilbert is the second most intense Hurricane ever observed in the Atlantic basin and the largest Atlantic tropical cyclone in size since 1988 [30]

Assessments of cyclone damage done to tropical rainforest landscapes in northeast Australia, have produced the following typology for describing and 'mapping' the variable impacts they have along their paths, as follows:[31]

  1. Severe and extensive closest to the centre of cyclone: impact appears to be multidirectional and is evidenced by crowns of most trees having been broken, smashed or windthrown
  2. Severe and localised closer to the cyclone centre than its edge: direction of the destructive winds is clearly identifiable, and severe canopy disruption is limited to the windward aspect of these forested areas
  3. Moderate canopy disturbance closer to cyclone edge than its centre: most of the tree stems are still standing, with only some treefalls, and most of the damage is the defoliation of the canopy and branch breakage;
  4. Slight canopy disturbance closest to cyclone edge: occasional stem fall or branch breakage, with most of the damage consisting of loss of foliage on the forest edges only, subsequently followed by leaf damage and heavy leaf litter falls. Windward is the direction from which the wind is blowing at the time in question Windward is the direction from which the wind is blowing at the time in question An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics.

See also

References

  1. ^ National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration (August 2000). This is a list of wetest tropical cyclones by country using all known available sources The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA) is a scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the NOAA Question of the Month: How much energy does a hurricane release?. NOAA. The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA) is a scientific agency within the United States Department of Commerce focused on the conditions of the Retrieved on 2006-03-31. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 307 - After divorcing his wife Minervina, Constantine marries Fausta, the daughter of the retired Roman Emperor
  2. ^ David Roth and Hugh Cobb (2001). Eighteenth Century Virginia Hurricanes. NOAA. Retrieved on 2007-02-24. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the
  3. ^ Earth Observatory (2005). Passing of Hurricanes Cools Entire Gulf. National Aeronautics and Space Administration. The National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA, ˈnæsə is an agency of the United States government, responsible for the nation's public space program Retrieved on 2006-04-26. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy.
  4. ^ Franklin, James (July 12, 2005). James L Franklin is a Weather forecaster with the National Hurricane Center. Events 1191 - Saladin 's garrison surrenders ending the two-year Siege of Acre. Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Tropical Storm Emily Discussion No. 8, 5:00 p.m. EDT. National Hurricane Center. The US National Hurricane Center, located at Florida International University in Miami Florida, is the division of National Weather Service Retrieved on 2006-05-02. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1194 - King Richard I of England gives Portsmouth its first Royal Charter.
  5. ^ Living With an Annual Disaster. Zurich Financial Services (July/August 2005). Retrieved on 2006-11-29. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1777 - San Jose California, is founded as el Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe
  6. ^ Edward N. Rappaport and Jose Fernandez-Partagas. The Deadliest Atlantic Tropical Cyclones, 1492-1996. Retrieved on 2008-01-01. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common New Year See also New Year The Ancient Romans began their consular year on January 1st since 153 BC
  7. ^ Sun-Sentinel. Hurricane timeline: 1495 to 1800. Retrieved on 2007-10-03. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 42 BC - First Battle of Philippi: Triumvirs Mark Antony and Octavian fight an indecisive battle with Caesar's
  8. ^ Peter Linebaugh and Marcus Rediker. The Wreck of the Sea-Venture.
  9. ^ Old Dominion University. Old Dominion University (ODU is a large public Research university located in historic Norfolk Virginia. Lesson 15B: Storm Avoidance. Retrieved on 2008-01-07. 2008 ( MMVIII) is the current year in accordance with the Gregorian calendar, a Leap year that started on Tuesday of the Common Events 1325 - Alfonso IV becomes King of Portugal. 1558 - France takes Calais, the last continental
  10. ^ The Pennsylvania State University. The Pennsylvania State University (commonly known as Penn State) is a state-related, land-grant, space grant public research University Lesson 21: Weather. Retrieved on 2007-05-26. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 451 - The Battle of Avarayr between Armenian rebels and the Sassanid Empire takes place
  11. ^ Chris Landsea (1998). How does the damage that hurricanes cause increase as a function of wind speed?. Hurricane Research Division. Retrieved on 2007-02-24. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the
  12. ^ Staff Writer. "Hurricane Katrina Situation Report #11", Office of Electricity Delivery and Energy Reliability (OE) United States Department of Energy, 2005-08-30. The United States Department of Energy ( DOE) is a Cabinet -level department of the United States government responsible for energy policy Year 2005 ( MMV) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link displays full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Events 1363 - Beginning date of the Battle of Lake Poyang; the forces of two Chinese rebel leaders— Chen Youliang and Retrieved on 2007-02-24. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the  
  13. ^ a b c d James M. Shultz, Jill Russell and Zelde Espinel (2005). Epidemiology of Tropical Cyclones: The Dynamics of Disaster, Disease, and Development. Oxford Journal. Retrieved on 2007-02-24. Year 2007 ( MMVII) was a Common year starting on Monday of the Gregorian calendar in the 21st century. Events 303 - Galerius, Roman Emperor, publishes his edict that begins the persecution of Christians in his portion of the
  14. ^ Rappaport, Ed (May 2006). Inland Flooding. National Hurricane Preparedness Week. National Hurricane Center. The US National Hurricane Center, located at Florida International University in Miami Florida, is the division of National Weather Service Retrieved on 2006-03-31. Year 2006 ( MMVI) was a Common year starting on Sunday of the Gregorian calendar. Events 307 - After divorcing his wife Minervina, Constantine marries Fausta, the daughter of the retired Roman Emperor
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