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Western Philosophy
20th-century philosophy
Edmund Husserl
Name
Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl
Birth April 8, 1859 (Prostějov, Moravia)
Death April 28, 1938 (aged 79) (Freiburg, Germany)
School/tradition Phenomenology
Main interests Epistemology, Mathematics
Notable ideas Epoché, Natural Standpoint, Noema, Noesis, Eidetic Reduction, Retention and protention
Influenced by Franz Brentano, Carl Stumpf, René Descartes, Gottlob Frege, Kant
Influenced Eugen Fink, Kurt Gödel, Martin Heidegger, Hans Blumenberg, Jacques Derrida, Milan Kundera, Bernard Stiegler, Emmanuel Lévinas, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Jean-Paul Sartre, Max Scheler, Ludwig Landgrebe, Edith Stein, Rudolf Carnap, Alexandre Koyré, José Ortega y Gasset, Roman Ingarden, Millán-Puelles, Hannah Arendt, Leszek Kolakowski, Jan Patočka, Jean-Luc Marion

Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (IPA: [ˈhʊsɛrl]; April 8, 1859 – April 26, 1938) was a philosopher, known as the father of phenomenology. See also [[Analytic philosophy]] and [[Continental philosophy]] The 20th century brought with it upheavals that produced a series of conflicting developments within Philosophy Events 217 - Roman Emperor Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian Year 1859 ( MDCCCLIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Prostějov ('proscɛjof German: Prossnitz) is a city in the Olomouc Region of the Czech Republic. Moravia (Morava; Morawy Moravie Moravia is a historical region in central Europe in the east of the Czech Republic, one of the former Czech lands. Events 1192 - Assassination of Conrad of Montferrat (Conrad I King of Jerusalem, in Tyre, two days after his title Year 1938 ( MCMXXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Epoché ( εποχη) (European transcription epochè or epokhé is a Greek term which describes the theoretical moment where all belief in the existence of the real world and Noema (plural noemata) is Greek for the meaning of something It is the mental equivalent of a schema or Schematic of something Noesis is a Greek word meaning "the ability to sense or know something immediately" Eidetic reduction is a technique in the study of Essences in Phenomenology whose goal is to identify the basic components of phenomena Retention and Protention are key aspects of Edmund Husserl 's Phenomenology of Temporality. Franz Clemens Honoratus Hermann Brentano (January 16 1838 &ndash March 17 1917 was an influential German philosopher and psychologist whose influence Carl Stumpf (21 April 1848 &ndash 25 December 1936 was a German philosopher and psychologist. Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege ( 8 November 1848, Wismar, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin  &ndash 26 July 1925 Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg Eugen Fink (* December 11 1905 in Konstanz; † July 25 1975 in Freiburg im Breisgau) was a German Philosopher Kurt Gödel (kʊɐ̯t ˈgøːdl̩ (April 28 1906 – January 14 1978 was an Austrian American Logician, Mathematician and Philosopher Martin Heidegger ( September 26, 1889 &ndash May 26, 1976) (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ was an influential German philosopher Hans Blumenberg was born on July 13, 1920 in Lübeck, Germany. Milan Kundera (ˈmɪlan ˈkundɛra (born April 1, 1929, in Brno, Czechoslovakia) is a French Writer of Czech Bernard Stiegler (born April 1, 1952) is a French Philosopher and Director of the Department of Cultural Development at the Centre Maurice Merleau-Ponty (mɔʁis mɛʁlopɔ̃ti in French March 14, 1908 – May 3, 1961) was a French phenomenological Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 &ndash 15 April 1980 commonly known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre (ʒɑ̃ pol saʁtʁə was a French Max Scheler ( August 22, 1874, Munich – May 19, 1928, Frankfurt am Main) was a German Philosopher Ludwig Landgrebe ( Vienna 9 March 1902 Cologne 14 August 1991 was an Austrian phenomenologist and Professor of philosophy Edith Stein ( October 12, 1891 &ndash August 9, 1942) was a German-Jewish philosopher, a Carmelite nun Martyr Rudolf Carnap ( May 18, 1891 &ndash September 14, 1970) was an influential German -born philosopher who was active in Alexandre Koyré ( August 29, 1892, Taganrog &ndash April 28, 1964, Paris) sometimes anglicised as Alexander José Ortega y Gasset ( May 9, 1883 - October 18, 1955) was a Spanish philosopher. Roman Witold Ingarden (February 5 1893 – June 14 1970 a Polish philosopher working in the fields of phenomenology, Ontology, and Aesthetics Antonio Millan Puelles (Also spelled Millán-Puelles ( February 11, 1921 – March 22, 2005) was a Spanish Philosopher interested Leszek Kołakowski (born 23 October, 1927 in Radom, Poland) is a distinguished Polish Philosopher and historian of Jan Patočka ( June 1 1907 - March 13 1977) is considered one of the most important contributors to Czech philosophical Phenomenology Jean-Luc Marion (born 1946 is among the best-known living Philosophers in France, former student of Jacques Derrida and one of the leading Catholic Events 217 - Roman Emperor Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian Year 1859 ( MDCCCLIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy. Year 1938 ( MCMXXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language His work was a break with the purely positivist orientation and understanding of the science and philosophy of his day, giving weight to subjective experience as the source of all of our knowledge of objective phenomena. Positivism is the Philosophy that the only authentic knowledge is knowledge that is based on actual sense experience Subjectivity refers to a subject's perspective particularly feelings beliefs and desires A phenomenon (from Greek φαινόμενoν, pl φαινόμενα - phenomena) is any observable occurrence

Husserl was a pupil of Franz Brentano and Carl Stumpf; his philosophical work influenced, among others, Hans Blumenberg, Ludwig Landgrebe, Eugen Fink, Max Scheler, Martin Heidegger, Jean-Paul Sartre, Emmanuel Lévinas, Rudolf Carnap, Hermann Weyl, Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Pierre Bourdieu, Paul Ricœur, Jacques Derrida, Jan Patočka, Roman Ingarden, Edith Stein (St. Franz Clemens Honoratus Hermann Brentano (January 16 1838 &ndash March 17 1917 was an influential German philosopher and psychologist whose influence Carl Stumpf (21 April 1848 &ndash 25 December 1936 was a German philosopher and psychologist. Hans Blumenberg was born on July 13, 1920 in Lübeck, Germany. Ludwig Landgrebe ( Vienna 9 March 1902 Cologne 14 August 1991 was an Austrian phenomenologist and Professor of philosophy Eugen Fink (* December 11 1905 in Konstanz; † July 25 1975 in Freiburg im Breisgau) was a German Philosopher Max Scheler ( August 22, 1874, Munich – May 19, 1928, Frankfurt am Main) was a German Philosopher Martin Heidegger ( September 26, 1889 &ndash May 26, 1976) (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ was an influential German philosopher Jean-Paul Charles Aymard Sartre (21 June 1905 &ndash 15 April 1980 commonly known simply as Jean-Paul Sartre (ʒɑ̃ pol saʁtʁə was a French Rudolf Carnap ( May 18, 1891 &ndash September 14, 1970) was an influential German -born philosopher who was active in Hermann Klaus Hugo Weyl ( 9 November 1885 – 8 December 1955) was a German Mathematician. Maurice Merleau-Ponty (mɔʁis mɛʁlopɔ̃ti in French March 14, 1908 – May 3, 1961) was a French phenomenological Pierre Bourdieu ( August 1, 1930 – January 23, 2002) was an acclaimed French Sociologist and writer known for his Paul Ricœur (born February 27, 1913 in Valence France; died May 20, 2005 in Chatenay Malabry, France was a Jan Patočka ( June 1 1907 - March 13 1977) is considered one of the most important contributors to Czech philosophical Phenomenology Roman Witold Ingarden (February 5 1893 – June 14 1970 a Polish philosopher working in the fields of phenomenology, Ontology, and Aesthetics Edith Stein ( October 12, 1891 &ndash August 9, 1942) was a German-Jewish philosopher, a Carmelite nun Martyr Teresa Benedicta of the Cross), and Karol Wojtyla. Pope In 1887 Husserl converted to Christianity and joined the Lutheran Church. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Lutheranism is a major branch of Western Christianity that identifies with the teachings of the sixteenth-century German reformer Martin Luther He taught philosophy at Halle as a tutor (Privatdozent) from 1887, then at Göttingen as professor from 1901, and at Freiburg im Breisgau from 1916 until he retired in 1928. The Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg (Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg also referred to as MLU, is a public University in the cities of The University of Göttingen ( German: Georg-August-Universität Göttingen) is a University in the city of Göttingen, Germany. After this, he continued his research and writing by using the library at Freiburg.

Contents

Biography

Education and early works

Husserl was born into a Jewish family in Prossnitz, Moravia, then part of the Austrian Empire, after 1918 a part of Czechoslovakia (since 1993, the Czech Republic). PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Moravia (Morava; Morawy Moravie Moravia is a historical region in central Europe in the east of the Czech Republic, one of the former Czech lands. For the history of these states before 1804 see Holy Roman Empire, Habsburg Monarchy, and articles on each of the component countries. Czechoslovakia may also refer to what is now the Czech Republic and Slovakia. The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia,

He initially studied mathematics at the universities of Leipzig (1876) and Berlin (1878), under Karl Weierstrass and Leopold Kronecker. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and The University of Leipzig (Universität Leipzig located in Leipzig in the Free State of Saxony, Germany, is one of the oldest universities For other universities in Berlin see List of Universities in Berlin. Karl Theodor Wilhelm Weierstrass ( Weierstraß) ( October 31, 1815 &ndash February 19, 1897) was a German mathematician Leopold Kronecker ( December 7, 1823 – December 29, 1891) was a German Mathematician and Logician who argued In 1881 he went to Vienna to study under the supervision of Leo Königsberger (a former student of Weierstrass), obtaining the Ph. Vienna ( in Wien; see also other names) is the Capital of Austria, and is also one of the nine States of Austria. Leo Königsberger ( October 15, 1837 – December 15, 1921) was a German mathematician and historian of science. D. in 1883 with the work Beiträge zur Variationsrechnung ("Contributions to the Calculus of Variations").

In 1884, he began to attend Franz Brentano's lectures on psychology and philosophy at the University of Vienna. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and The University of Vienna (Universität Wien is a Public university located in Vienna, Austria. Husserl was so impressed by Brentano that he decided to dedicate his life to philosophy. In 1886 Husserl went to the University of Halle to obtain his Habilitation with Carl Stumpf, a former student of Brentano. Year 1886 ( MDCCCLXXXVI) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common The Martin Luther University of Halle-Wittenberg (Martin-Luther-Universität Halle-Wittenberg also referred to as MLU, is a public University in the cities of Habilitation is the highest academic qualification a person can achieve by their own pursuit in certain European and Asian countries Carl Stumpf (21 April 1848 &ndash 25 December 1936 was a German philosopher and psychologist. Under his supervision he wrote Über den Begriff der Zahl (On the concept of Number; 1887) which would serve later as the base for his first major work, Philosophie der Arithmetik (1891). The Philosophy of Arithmetic is the English language title of Edmund Husserl 's first published book

In these first works he tries to combine mathematics, psychology and philosophy with a main goal to provide a sound foundation for mathematics. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language He analyzes the psychological process needed to obtain the concept of number and then tries to build up a systematical theory on this analysis. To achieve this he uses several methods and concepts taken from his teachers. From Weierstrass he derives the idea that we generate the concept of number by counting a certain collection of objects. From Brentano and Stumpf he takes over the distinction between proper and improper presenting. In an example Husserl explains this in the following way: if you are standing in front of a house, you have a proper, direct presentation of that house, but if you are looking for it and ask for directions, then these directions (e. g. the house on the corner of this and that street) are an indirect, improper presentation. In other words, you can have a proper presentation of an object if it is actually present, and an improper (or symbolic as he also calls it) if you only can indicate that object through signs, symbols, etc. Husserl's 1901 Logical Investigations is considered the starting point for the formal theory of wholes and their parts known as mereology. In Mathematical logic, mereology is a collection of axiomatic First-order theories dealing with parts and their respective wholes [1]

Another important element that Husserl took over from Brentano is intentionality, the notion that the main characteristic of consciousness is that it is always intentional. The term intentionality is often simplistically summarised as "aboutness" Consciousness has been defined loosely as a constellation of attributes of Mind such as Subjectivity, Self-awareness, Sentience, and the While often simplistically summarised as "aboutness" or the relationship between mental acts and the external world, Brentano defined it as the main characteristic of mental phenomena, by which they could be distinguished from physical phenomena. Every mental phenomenon, every psychological act has a content, is directed at an object (the intentional object). An object of the mind is an object which exists in the Imagination, but can only be represented or modeled in the Real world. Every belief, desire etc. has an object that they are about: the believed, the wanted. Brentano used the expression "intentional inexistence" to indicate the status of the objects of thought in the mind. The property of being intentional, of having an intentional object, was the key feature to distinguish mental phenomena and physical phenomena, because physical phenomena lack intentionality altogether.

The elaboration of phenomenology

Some years after the publication of his main work, the Logische Untersuchungen (Logical Investigations; first edition, 1900-1901) Husserl made some key conceptual elaborations which led him to assert that in order to study the structure of consciousness, one would have to distinguish between the act of consciousness and the phenomena at which it is directed (the object-in-itself, transcendent to consciousness). Knowledge of essences would only be possible by "bracketing" all assumptions about the existence of an external world. In Philosophy, essence is the attribute or set of attributes that make an object or substance what it fundamentally is and which it has by necessity Bracketing (also called epoche or the phenomenological reduction is a term derived from Edmund Husserl (1859-1938 for the act of suspending judgment about the natural world This procedure he called epoché. These new concepts prompted the publication of the Ideen (Ideas) in 1913, in which they were at first incorporated, and a plan for a second edition of the Logische Untersuchungen. Year 1913 ( MCMXIII) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common

From the Ideen onward, Husserl concentrated on the ideal, essential structures of consciousness. The metaphysical problem of establishing the material reality of what we perceive was of little interest to Husserl despite being a transcendental idealist. Husserl proposed that the world of objects and ways in which we direct ourselves toward and perceive those objects is normally conceived of in what he called the "natural standpoint", which is characterized by a belief that objects materially exist and exhibit properties that we see as emanating from them. Husserl proposed a radical new phenomenological way of looking at objects by examining how we, in our many ways of being intentionally directed toward them, actually "constitute" them (to be distinguished from materially creating objects or objects merely being figments of the imagination); in the Phenomenological standpoint, the object ceases to be something simply "external" and ceases to be seen as providing indicators about what it is, and becomes a grouping of perceptual and functional aspects that imply one another under the idea of a particular object or "type". The notion of objects as real is not expelled by phenomenology, but "bracketed" as a way in which we regard objects instead of a feature that inheres in an object's essence founded in the relation between the object and the perceiver. In order to better understand the world of appearances and objects, Phenomenology attempts to identify the invariant features of how objects are perceived and pushes attributions of reality into their role as an attribution about the things we perceive (or an assumption underlying how we perceive objects).

In a later period, Husserl began to wrestle with the complicated issues of intersubjectivity (specifically, how communication about an object can be assumed to refer to the same ideal entity) and tries new methods of bringing his readers to understand the importance of Phenomenology to scientific inquiry (and specifically to Psychology) and what it means to "bracket" the natural attitude. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and The Crisis of the European Sciences is Husserl's unfinished work that deals most directly with these issues. In it, Husserl for the first time attempts a historical overview of the development of Western philosophy and science, emphasizing the challenges presented by their increasingly (one-sidedly) empirical and naturalistic orientation. Western philosophy is a term that refers to philosophical thinking in the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence Philosophical naturalism has been described in various ways In its broadest and strongest sense naturalism is the metaphysical position that "nature is all there is Husserl declares that mental and spiritual reality possess their own reality independent of any physical basis,[2] and that a science of the spirit ('Geisteswissenschaft') must be established on as scientific a foundation as the natural sciences have managed:

It is my conviction that intentional phenomenology has for the first time made spirit as spirit the field of systematic scientific experience, thus effecting a total transformation of the task of knowledge. Anthroposophy is a spiritual philosophy based on the teachings of Rudolf Steiner (25 February 1861 – 30 March 1925 which postulates the existence of an objective intellectually Geisteswissenschaft (more frequently used in plural form Geisteswissenschaften) is a traditional division of faculty in German Universities that would include subjects In Science, the term natural science refers to a naturalistic approach to the study of the Universe, which is understood as obeying rules or law of [3]

The Nazi era

Professor Husserl was denied the use of the library at Freiburg as a result of the anti-Jewish legislation the National Socialists (Nazis) passed in April 1933. It is rumored that his former pupil and Nazi Party member, Martin Heidegger, informed Husserl that he was discharged, but Heidegger later denied this, labelling it as slander[4]. Martin Heidegger ( September 26, 1889 &ndash May 26, 1976) (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ was an influential German philosopher Heidegger (whose philosophy Husserl considered to be the result of a faulty departure from, and grave misunderstanding of Husserl's own teachings and methods) removed the dedication to Husserl from his most widely known work, Being and Time, when it was reissued in 1941. Being and Time ( German: Sein und Zeit, 1927) is a book by German philosopher Martin Heidegger. Year 1941 ( MCMXLI) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (the link will display 1941 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. This was not due to diminishing relations between the two philosophers, however, but rather as a result of a suggested censorship by Heidegger's publisher who feared that the book may be banned by the Nazi regime[4]. The dedication can still in fact be read in the footnote of page 38, which thanks Husserl for his guidance and generosity. The philosophical relation between Husserl and Heidegger is discussed at length by Bernard Stiegler in the film The Ister. Bernard Stiegler (born April 1, 1952) is a French Philosopher and Director of the Department of Cultural Development at the Centre The Ister is a 2004 Film directed by David Barison and Daniel Ross.

After his death, Husserl's manuscripts, amounting to approximately 40,000 pages of "Gabelsberger" stenography and his complete research library, were smuggled to Belgium by Herman Van Breda in 1939 and deposited at Leuven to form the Husserl-Archives of the Higher Institute of Philosophy. Gabelsberger shorthand, named for its creator is a form of Shorthand previously common in Germany and Austria. The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Herman Leo Van Breda (born Leo Marie Karel ( 28 February, 1911, Lier, Belgium – 4 March, 1974, Leuven) was Leuven ( French: Louvain, often used in English German: Löwen) is the capital of the province of Flemish Brabant in the The Higher Institute of Philosophy (ie the faculty of philosophy of the Catholic University of Leuven was founded in 1889 by Cardinal Désiré-Joseph Mercier Much of the material in his research manuscripts has been published in the Husserliana critical edition series. The Husserliana is the complete works project of the philosopher Edmund Husserl, which was made possible by Herman Van Breda after he saved the manuscripts of Husserl

Husserl's philosophy

Meaning and object in Husserl

From Logical Investigations (1900/1901) to Experience and Judgment (published in 1939), Husserl expressed clearly the difference between meaning and object. He identified several different kinds of names. For example, there are names that have the role of properties that uniquely identify an object. Each of these names express a meaning and designate the same object. Examples of this are "the victor in Jena" and "the loser in Waterloo", or "the equilateral triangle" and "the equiangular triangle"; in both cases, both names express different meanings, but designate the same object. There are names which have no meaning, but have the role of designating an object: "Aristotle", "Socrates", and so on. Finally, there are names which designate a variety of objects. These are called "universal names"; their meaning is a "concept" and refers to a series of objects (the extension of the concept). The way we know sensible objects is called "sensible intuition".

Husserl also identifies a series of "formal words" which are necessary to form sentences and have no sensible correlates. Examples of formal words are "a", "the", "more than", "over", "under", "two", "group", and so on. Every sentence must contain formal words to designate what Husserl calls "formal categories". There are two kinds of categories: meaning categories and formal-ontological categories. Meaning categories relate judgments; they include forms of conjunction, disjunction, forms of plural, among others. Formal-ontological categories relate objects and include notions such as set, cardinal number, ordinal number, part and whole, relation, and so on. The way we know these categories is through a faculty of understanding called "categorial intuition".

Through sensible intuition our consciousness constitutes what Husserl calls a "situation of affairs" (Sachlage). It is a passive constitution where objects themselves are presented to us. To this situation of affairs, through categorial intuition, we are able to constitute a "state of affairs" (Sachverhalt). One situation of affairs through objective acts of consciousness (acts of constituting categorially) can serve as the basis for constituting multiple states of affairs. For example, suppose a and b are two sensible objects in a certain situation of affairs. We can use it as basis to say, "a<b" and "b>a", two judgments which designate different states of affairs. For Husserl a sentence has a proposition or judgment as its meaning, and refers to a state of affairs which has a situation of affairs as a reference base.

Philosophy of logic and mathematics

Edmund Husserl held the belief that truth-in-itself has as ontological correlate being-in-itself, just as meaning categories have formal-ontological categories as correlates. In Philosophy, ontology (from the Greek, genitive: of being (part The discipline of logic is a formal theory of judgment, that studies the formal a priori relations among judgments using meaning categories. Belief is the psychological state in which an individual holds a Proposition or Premise to be true "A priori" redirects here For other uses see A priori. Mathematics, on the other hand, is formal ontology, it studies all the possible forms of being (of objects). So, in both of these disciplines, formal categories, in their different forms, are the objects of study, not the sensible objects themselves. The problem with the psychological approach to mathematics and logic is that it fails to account for the fact that it is about formal categories, not abstractions from sensibility alone. The reason why we do not deal with sensible objects in mathematics is because of another faculty of understanding called "categorial abstraction". Through this faculty we are able to get rid of sensible components of judgments, and just focus on formal categories themselves.

Thanks to "eidetic intuition" (or "essential intuition"), we are able to grasp the possibility, impossibility, necessity and contingency among concepts or among formal categories. Categorial intuition, along with categorial abstraction and eidetic intuition, are the basis for logical and mathematical knowledge.

Husserl criticized logicians of his time for not focusing on the relation between subjective processes that give us objective knowledge of pure logic. All subjective activities of consciousness need an ideal correlate, and objective logic (constituted noematically) as it is constituted by consciousness needs a noetic correlate (the subjective activities of consciousness).

He stated that logic has three strata, each further away from consciousness, and further away from psychology.

Logic's first stratum is what Husserl called a "morphology of meanings" concerning a priori ways to relate judgments to make them meaningful. In this stratum we elaborate a "pure grammar" or a logical syntax, and he would call its rules "laws to prevent non-sense", which would be similar to what logic calls today " formation rules". A formal language is a set of words, ie finite strings of letters, or symbols. Mathematics, as logic's ontological correlate, also has a similar stratum, a "morphology of formal-ontological categories".

Logic's second stratum would be called by Husserl "logic of consequence" or the "logic of non-contradiction" which explores all possible forms of true judgments. He includes here syllogistic classic logic, propositional logic and that of predicates. This is a semantic stratum, and the rules of this stratum would be the "laws to avoid counter-sense" or "laws to prevent contradiction". They are very similar to today's logic " transformation rules". A formal language is a set of words, ie finite strings of letters, or symbols. Mathematics also has a similar stratum which is based among others on pure theory of pluralities, and a pure theory of numbers. They provide a science of the conditions of possibility of any theory whatsoever.

He also talked about what he called "logic of truth" which consists of formal laws of possible truth and its modalities, and is previous to the third logical third stratum.

Husserl recognized a logical third stratum, a meta-logical level, what he called a "theory of all possible forms of theories". It explores all possible theories in a priori fashion, rather than the possibility of theory in general. We could establish theories of possible relations between pure forms of theories, investigate these logical relations and the deductions from such general connection. The logician is free to see the extension of this deductive, theoretical sphere of pure logic. Husserl finds as ontological correlate to this the "theory of manifolds" It is, in formal ontology, a free investigation where a mathematician can assign several meanings to several symbols, and all their possible valid deductions in a general and indeterminate manner. It is, properly speaking, the most universal mathematics of all. Through the posit of certain indeterminate objects (formal-ontological categories) as well as any combination of mathematical axioms, mathematicians can explore the apodeictic connections between them just as long as consistency is preserved.

This view of logic and mathematics accounted, according to him, for the objectivity of a series of mathematical development of his time, such as n-dimensional manifolds, whether Euclidean or non-Euclidean, Hermann Grassmann's theory of extensions, William Rowan Hamilton's Hamiltonians, Sophus Lie's theory of transformation groups, and Cantor's set theory. A manifold is a mathematical space in which every point has a neighborhood which resembles Euclidean space, but in which the global structure may be In mathematics non-Euclidean geometry describes how this all works--> hyperbolic and Elliptic geometry, which are contrasted with Euclidean geometry Hermann Günther Grassmann ( April 15, 1809, Stettin ( Szczecin) &ndash September 26, 1877, Stettin) was a Sir William Rowan Hamilton (4 August 1805 &ndash 2 September 1865 was an Irish Mathematician, Physicist, and Astronomer who Marius Sophus Lie (liː as "Lee" ( 17 December 1842 - 18 February 1899) was a Norwegian -born Mathematician. In Mathematics, a Lie group (ˈliː sounds like "Lee" is a group which is also a Differentiable manifold, with the property that the group Georg Ferdinand Ludwig Philipp Cantor ( – January 6 1918) was a German Mathematician, born in Russia.

Psychologism

Philosophy of Arithmetic and Frege

It has been suggested by some analytic philosophers that Edmund Husserl, after obtaining his PhD in mathematics, began analysing the foundations of mathematics from a rather psychological point of view, as Brentano's disciple. In his professorship doctoral dissertation called "On the Concept of Number" (1886) and his Philosophy of Arithmetic (1891) Husserl enhanced the approach taken by Weierstrass and other mathematicians of the time in defining the natural numbers by counting with Brentano's methods of descriptive psychology. Later, when attacking the psychologistic point of view of logic and mathematics in the first volume of his Logical Investigations called "The Prolegomena of Pure Logic", he appeared to reject much of his early work, though the forms of psychologism analysed and refuted in the Prolegomena did not apply directly to his Philosophy of Arithmetic. While some scholars point to Gottlob Frege's negative review of the Philosophy of Arithmetic, this did not turn Husserl towards Platonism, as he had already discovered the work of Bernhard Bolzano around 1890/91 and explicitly mentions Bolzano, Leibniz and Lotze as inspirations for his newer position. Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege ( 8 November 1848, Wismar, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin  &ndash 26 July 1925 Bernard (Bernhard Placidus Johann Nepomuk Bolzano ( &ndash December 18, 1848) was a Bohemian Mathematician, theologian, Rudolf Hermann Lotze ( 21 May, 1817 – 1 July, 1881) was a German Philosopher and Logician.

The Frege industry routinely informs us that the review quite transformed poor Husserl's philosophy; but elementary attention to chronology and sources (Hill 1991a, pt. 1) shows that this claim refers far more to the False than to the True.

—Grattann-Guinness "The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870-1948", p. 204

Likewise the opinion that Husserl's notion of noema and object is due to Frege's notion of sense and reference is anachronistic, as already in Husserl's review of Schröder a clear distinction is made between sense and reference and in Husserl's criticism of Frege in the Philosophy of Arithmetic he remarks on the distinction between content and extension of a concept. Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields In general a reference is a relation between objects in which one object designates by linking to another object The distinction between the subjective mental act, the content of a concept and the (external) object was developed independently in the School of Brentano and might have surfaced as early as Brentano's 1870's lectures on logic. The School of Brentano refers to the philosophers and psychologists who studied with Franz Brentano and were essentially influenced by him

Philosophers and scholars such as J. N. Mohanty, Claire Ortiz Hill and Guillermo E. Rosado Haddock, among others, have discovered and explained repeatedly that Husserl's change from psychologism to platonism had nothing to do with Frege's review. Psychologism is a generic type of position in Philosophy according to which Psychology plays a central role in grounding or explaining some other non-psychological Platonism is the Philosophy of Plato or the name of other philosophical systems considered closely derived from it [5] For example, the review falsely attributes to Husserl the view that he subjectivizes everything so no objectivity is possible, and also falsely attributed to him a notion of abstraction whereby the objects disappear until we are left with the number (or at least with two ghosts). Contrary to what Frege states, already in Husserl's Philosophy of Arithmetic we find two different kinds of representations: a subjective representation and objective representation. Objectivity is clearly stated in that work. Frege's attack seems rather to be addressed at the idea on the foundations of mathematics current in the Berlin School of Weierstrass, of which Husserl and Cantor, however, can not be said to be orthodox representatives.

Furthermore, from various sources it is quite clear that Husserl changed his mind about psychologism as early as 1890, a year before his Philosophy of Arithmetic was published. Husserl stated that when it was published, he had already changed his mind. In fact, he says that he had doubts about psychologism from the very beginning. He attributed his change of mind to Leibniz, Bolzano, Lotze, and David Hume. David Hume (26 April 1711 25 August 1776 Scottish Philosopher, Economist, and Historian is an important figure in Western philosophy [6] He makes no mention of Frege as being decisive for the change. In his Logical Investigations, Husserl mentions Frege only twice, one of them in a footnote to point out that he retracted three pages of his criticism of Frege's The Foundations of Arithmetic, and the other one was to question Frege's use of the word Bedeutung to designate reference rather than meaning (sense).

About the difference of sense and reference, Frege thanked Husserl in a letter dated May 24, 1891 for sending him a copy of Philosophy of Arithmetic and Husserl's review of E. Schröder's Vorlesungen über die Algebra der Logik, and in that same letter, he takes Husserl's review of Schröder's book to compare both his and Husserl's notion of sense of reference of concept words. In other words, Frege did recognize, as early as 1891, that Husserl made the difference between sense and reference. The inevitable conclusion is that Gottlob Frege and Edmund Husserl, before 1891, independently reached a theory of sense and reference.

Others point to the fact that Husserl's notion of noema has nothing to do with Frege's notion of sense. For Husserl, noemata are necessarily fused with noeses which are the conscious activities of consciousness. Noesis is a Greek word meaning "the ability to sense or know something immediately" Also, noemata have three different levels: the substratum, which is never presented to consciousness and is the supporter of all the properties of the object; the noematic senses, which are the different ways the objects are presented to us; and modalities of being (possible, doubtful, existent, non-existent, absurd, and so on). Hence, in intentional activities, even non-existent objects can be constituted, and form part of the whole noema. Frege, on the other hand, did not conceive objects as forming part of senses, and if a proper name denotes a non-existent object, then it does not have a reference, hence concepts with no object as argument have no truth value. Also Husserl did not hold that predicate of sentences designate concepts. Also, for Frege, the reference of a sentence is a truth value. Husserl thinks that the reference of a sentence is a state of affairs. So, Husserl's notion of noema is totally unrelated to Frege's notion of sense, just as Husserl's notion of meaning and object is different from that of Frege.

Finally, a comparison between Husserl's conception of logic and mathematics differ from Frege's. While Frege supported the idea that arithmetic could be derived from logic, Husserl's position was that this is not the case. Arithmetic or arithmetics (from the Greek word αριθμός = number is the oldest and most elementary branch of mathematics used by almost everyone For him, mathematics (with the exception of geometry) is logic's ontological correlate, they are both sister disciplines, but none of them is reducible to the other.

Husserl's criticism of psychologism

Psychologism in logic stipulated that logic itself was not an independent discipline, but a branch of psychology. Psychologism is a generic type of position in Philosophy according to which Psychology plays a central role in grounding or explaining some other non-psychological Husserl, after his Platonic turn, pointed out that the failure of anti-psychologists to defeat psychologism is a result of being unable to distinguish between the theoretical side of logic (which tells us what is - descriptive), and the normative side (which tells us how we ought to think - prescriptive). Anti-psychologists at that time conceived logic as being normative in nature, when pure logic does not deal at all with "thoughts" but about a priori conditions for any judgments and any theory whatsoever. "A priori" redirects here For other uses see A priori.

Since "truth-in-itself" has "being-in-itself" as ontological correlate, and psychologists reduce truth (and hence logic) to empirical psychology, the inevitable consequence is scepticism. Besides, also psychologists have not been so successful in trying to see how from induction or psychological processes we can justify the absolute certainty of logical principles, such as the principles of identity and non-contradiction. It is therefore futile to base certain logical laws and principles on uncertain processes of the mind.

This confusion made by psychologism (and related disciplines such as biologism and anthropologism) can be due to three specific prejudices:

1. The first prejudice is the supposition that logic is somehow normative in nature. Husserl argues that logic is theoretical, i. e. , that logic itself proposes a priori laws which are themselves the basis of the normative side of logic. Since mathematics is related to logic, he cites an example from mathematics: If we have a formula like (a+b)(a-b)=a²-b² it does not tell us how to think mathematically. It just expresses a truth. A proposition that says: "The product of the sum and the difference of a and b should give us the difference of the squares of a and b" does express a normative proposition, but this normative statement is based on the theoretical statement "(a+b)(a-b)=a²-b²".

2. For psychologists, the acts of judging, reasoning, deriving, and so on, are all psychological processes. Therefore, it is the role of psychology to provide the foundation of these processes. Husserl states that this effort made by psychologists are a "μετάβασις εἰς ἄλλο γένος" (a transgression to another field). It is a μετάβασις because psychology cannot possibly provide any foundations for a priori laws which themselves are the basis for all the ways we should think correctly. Psychologists have the problem of confusing intentional activities with the object of these activities. It is important to distinguish between the act of judging and the judgment itself, the act of counting and the number itself, and so on. Counting five objects is undeniably a psychological process, but the number 5 is not.

3. Judgments can be true or not true. Psychologists argue that judgments are true because they become "evidently" true to us. This evidence, a psychological process that "guarantees" truth, is indeed a psychological process. Husserl responds to it saying that truth itself as well as logical laws remain valid always regardless of psychological "evidence" that they are true. No psychological process can explain the a priori objectivity of these logical truths.

From this criticism to psychologism, the distinction between psychological acts from their intentional objects, and the difference between the normative side of logic from the theoretical side, derives from a platonist conception of logic. This means that we should regard logical and mathematical laws as being independent of the human mind, and also as an autonomy of meanings. It is essentially the difference between the real (everything subject to time) and the ideal or irreal (everything that is atemporal), such as logical truths, mathematical entities, mathematical truths and meanings in general.

Philosophers influenced by Husserl

Hans Blumenberg received his postdoctoral qualification in 1950, with a dissertation on 'Ontological distance', an inquiry into the crisis of Husserl's phenomenology. Hans Blumenberg was born on July 13, 1920 in Lübeck, Germany.

Hermann Weyl's interest in intuitionistic logic and impredicativity appears to have resulted from contacts with Husserl. Hermann Klaus Hugo Weyl ( 9 November 1885 – 8 December 1955) was a German Mathematician. Intuitionistic logic, or constructivist logic, is the Symbolic logic system originally developed by Arend Heyting to provide a formal basis for Brouwer In Mathematics and Logic, impredicativity is the property of a self-referencing Definition.

Rudolf Carnap was also influenced by Husserl, not only concerning Husserl's notion of essential insight that Carnap used in his Der Raum, but also his notion of "formation rules" and "transformation rules" is founded on Husserl's philosophy of logic. Rudolf Carnap ( May 18, 1891 &ndash September 14, 1970) was an influential German -born philosopher who was active in

Ludwig Landgrebe became assistant to Husserl in 1923. Ludwig Landgrebe ( Vienna 9 March 1902 Cologne 14 August 1991 was an Austrian phenomenologist and Professor of philosophy From 1939 he collaborated with Eugen Fink at the Husserl-Archives in Leuven, authorized by Husserl. The Higher Institute of Philosophy (ie the faculty of philosophy of the Catholic University of Leuven was founded in 1889 by Cardinal Désiré-Joseph Mercier In 1954 he became leader of the Husserl-Archives. Landgrebe is known as one of Husserl's closest associates, but also for his independent views relating to history, religion and politics as seen from the viewpoints of existentialist philosophy and metaphysics. .

Max Scheler met Husserl in Halle and found in his phenomenology a methodological breakthrough for his own philosophical endeavors. Max Scheler ( August 22, 1874, Munich – May 19, 1928, Frankfurt am Main) was a German Philosopher Even though Scheler later criticised Husserl's idealistic logical approach and proposed instead a "phenomenology of love", he states that he remained "deeply indebted" to Husserl throughout his work. Husserl also had some influence on Pope John-Paul II, which appears strongly in a work by the latter, The Acting Person, or Person and Act. Pope It was originally published in Polish in 1969 under his pre-papal name Karol Wojtyla (in collaboration with the polish phenomenologist: Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka)[2] and combined phenomenological work with Thomistic Ethics. [7]

Maurice Merleau-Ponty's Phenomenology of Perception is influenced by Edmund Husserl's work on perception and temporality, including Husserl's theory of retention and protention. Maurice Merleau-Ponty (mɔʁis mɛʁlopɔ̃ti in French March 14, 1908 – May 3, 1961) was a French phenomenological The Phenomenology of Perception was the Magnum opus of French phenomenological Philosopher Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Retention and Protention are key aspects of Edmund Husserl 's Phenomenology of Temporality.

Wilfrid Sellars, an influential figure in the so-called "Pittsburgh school" (Robert Brandom, John McDowell) had been a student of Marvin Farber, a pupil of Husserl, and was influenced by phenomenology through him:

Marvin Farber led me through my first careful reading of the Critique of Pure Reason and introduced me to Husserl. Wilfrid Stalker Sellars ( May 20, 1912 - July 2, 1989) was an American philosopher Robert Brandom (born 1950 is an American Philosopher who teaches at the University of Pittsburgh. John Henry McDowell (born 1942 in Boksburg, South Africa) is a Philosopher, formerly a Fellow of University College, Oxford Marvin Farber ( December 14, 1901, Buffalo New York - 1980 Minneapolis) was an American Philosopher. His combination of utter respect for the structure of Husserl's thought with the equally firm conviction that this structure could be given a naturalistic interpretation was undoubtedly a key influence on my own subsequent philosophical strategy. [8]

Husserl's formal analysis of language also inspired Stanisław Leśniewski and Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz in the development of categorial grammar. Stanisław Leśniewski ( March 30 1886 – May 13 1939) was a Polish Mathematician, Philosopher and Logician Kazimierz Ajdukiewicz ( December 12, 1890, Tarnopol, Galicia – April 12, 1963, Warsaw, Poland) was Categorial grammar is a term used for a family of formalisms in Natural language Syntax motivated by the principle of Compositionality and organized according [9]

Husserl also influenced Martin Heidegger. Heidegger's magnum opus Being and Time is dedicated to Husserl. Being and Time ( German: Sein und Zeit, 1927) is a book by German philosopher Martin Heidegger.

Kurt Gödel expressed very strong appreciation for Husserl's work, especially with regard to "bracketing" or epoche. Kurt Gödel (kʊɐ̯t ˈgøːdl̩ (April 28 1906 – January 14 1978 was an Austrian American Logician, Mathematician and Philosopher

The influence of the Husserlian phenomenological tradition in the 21st century is extending beyond the confines of the European and North American legacies. It has already started to impact (indirectly) scholarship in Eastern and Oriental thought, including research on the impetus of philosophical thinking in the history of ideas in Islam. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. [10][11]

Bibliography

Primary literature

Secondary literature

References

  1. ^ Simons, Peter, Parts: A Study in Ontology, Oxford University Press 
  2. ^ This assumption led Husserl to an idealistic position (which he originally had tried to overcome or avoid). Peter Simons, FBA, (born 23 March 1950) is a Professor of Philosophy at the University of Leeds. On Husserl's phenomenological idealism see Hans Köchler, Die Subjekt-Objekt-Dialektik in der transzendentalen Phänomenologie. Hans Köchler (born October 18 1948 in Schwaz, Tyrol, Austria) is Full Professor of Philosophy and Chairman Das Seinsproblem zwischen Idealismus und Realismus. (Monographien zur philosophischen Forschung, Vol. 112. ) Meisenheim a. G. : Anton Hain, 1974.
  3. ^ Crisis of European Humanity, Pt. II, 1935
  4. ^ a b "Nur noch ein Gott kann uns retten". Der Spiegel. 31 May 1967.
  5. ^ Consider Jitendra Nath Mohanty "The Development of Husserl’s Thought" in Barry Smith & David Woodruff Smith, ed. The Cambridge Companion to Husserl. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1995. For further commentaries on the review, see Dallas Willard Logic and the Objectivity of Knowledge (Athens [Ohio]: Ohio University, 1984, p. 63; J. Philip Miller Numbers in Presence and Absence. Phaenomenologica 90 (Den Haag: Nijhoff, 1982), p. 19 ff. and Jitendra Nath Mohanty "Husserl, Frege and the Overcoming of Psychologism" in Philosophy and Science in phenomenological Perspective, Phaenomenologica 95, ed. Kay Kyung Cho (Dordrecht/Boston/Lancaster: Nijhoff, 1984), p. 145.
  6. ^ Husserl-Chronik, p. 25-26
  7. ^ Wojtyla, Karol (2002), The Acting Person: A Contribution to Phenomenological Anthropology, Springer, ISBN 90-277-0985-8 
  8. ^ Sellars, Wilfrid (1975), “Autobiographical Reflections”, in Hector-Neri Castañeda, Action, Knowledge, and Reality: Critical Studies in Honor of Wilfrid Sellars, Indianapolis: The Bobbs-Merrill Company 
  9. ^ Cf. Pope Wilfrid Stalker Sellars ( May 20, 1912 - July 2, 1989) was an American philosopher Smith, Barry (1989), “On the Origins of Analytic Philosophy”, Grazer Philosophische Studien 34: 153–173, <http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/articles/dummett.pdf> 
  10. ^ See for instance: Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest Between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, N. Barry Smith (born 4 June 1952) is Julian Park Distinguished Professor of Philosophy in the University at Buffalo (New York USA and Research TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Martin Heidegger ( September 26, 1889 &ndash May 26, 1976) (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ was an influential German philosopher Y. : Global Publications SUNY at Binghamton, 2000); and also refer to: Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna’s De Anima between Aristotle and Husserl," in The Passions of the Soul in the Metamorphosis of Becoming, ed. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Edmund Gustav Albrecht Husserl (ˈhʊsɛrl April 8 1859 – April 26 1938) was a philosopher, known as the father of Anna-Teresa Tymieniecka (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers, 2003), pp. 67-89
  11. ^ Refer also to the book-series published by SPRINGER on phenomenology and Islamic philosophy: [1]

External links

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Persondata
NAME Husserl, Edmund
ALTERNATIVE NAMES Husserl, Edmund Gustav Albrecht
SHORT DESCRIPTION German philosopher, known as the father of phenomenology
DATE OF BIRTH April 8, 1859(1859-04-08)
PLACE OF BIRTH Prostějov, Moravia, Czech Republic
DATE OF DEATH April 26, 1938
PLACE OF DEATH Freiburg, Germany
Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Events 217 - Roman Emperor Caracalla is Assassinated (and succeeded by his Praetorian Year 1859 ( MDCCCLIX) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Prostějov ('proscɛjof German: Prossnitz) is a city in the Olomouc Region of the Czech Republic. Moravia (Morava; Morawy Moravie Moravia is a historical region in central Europe in the east of the Czech Republic, one of the former Czech lands. The Czech Republic ( ˈt͡ʃɛskaː ˈrɛpuˌblɪka short form in Česko ˈt͡ʃɛskɔ also called Czechia, Events 1467 - The miraculous image in Our Lady of Good Counsel appear in Genazzano, Italy. Year 1938 ( MCMXXXVIII) was a Common year starting on Saturday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe.
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