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Edgard Victor Achille Charles Varèse (December 22, 1883 – November 6, 1965) was an innovative French-born composer who spent the greater part of his career in the United States. Events 1790 - The Turkish fortress of Izmail is stormed and captured by Suvorov and his Russian armies Year 1883 ( MDCCCLXXXIII) was a Common year starting on Monday (link will display the full calendar of the Gregorian calendar (or a Common Events 355 - Roman Emperor Constantius II promotes his cousin Julian to the rank of Caesar, entrusting him with Year 1965 ( MCMLXV) was a Common year starting on Friday (link will display full calendar of the 1965 Gregorian calendar. This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. A composer (literally meaning 'one who puts together' is a person who creates Music, usually in the medium of notation, for Interpretation and Performance The United States of America —commonly referred to as the After he arrived in the U. S. A. he commonly used the form 'Edgar' for his first name but reverted to 'Edgard', not entirely consistently, from the 1940s. [1] Varèse's music features an emphasis on timbre and rhythm. In Music, timbre (ˈtæm-bər' like timber, or, from Fr timbre tɛ̃bʁ is the quality of a Musical note or sound that distinguishes different Rhythm (from Greek ῥυθμός - rhythmos, "any measured flow or movement symmetry" is the variation of the length and accentuation of He was the inventor of the term "organized sound", a phrase meaning that certain timbres and rhythms can be grouped together, sublimating into a whole new definition of sound. His use of new instruments and electronic resources led to his being known as the "Father of Electronic Music" while Henry Miller described him as "The stratospheric Colossus of Sound". Electronic music is music that employs Electronic musical instruments and Electronic Music technology in its production Henry Valentine Miller (December 26 1891 &ndash June 7 1980 was an American writer and painter.

Contents

Biography

Early life

Edgard Victor Achille Charles Varèse was born in Paris, but after only a few weeks was sent to be raised by his great-uncle's family in the small town of Villars in Burgundy. Villars may refer to In France Villars Dordogne Villars Eure-et-Loir Villars Loire Burgundy (Bourgogne Burgund is a region historically situated in modern-day France and Switzerland, inhabited in turn by Celts ( Gauls) There he developed an intense attachment to his maternal grandfather, Claude Cortot. Through his mother's family he was related to the pianist Alfred Cortot. Alfred Denis Cortot ( Nyon, Switzerland September 26, 1877 &ndash Lausanne June 15, 1962) was a Franco-Swiss Pianist His affection for his grandfather outshone anything he would ever feel for his own parents. In fact, from his earliest years Varèse's relationship with his father Henri was extremely antagonistic, developing into what could fairly be called a firm and life-long hatred. Reclaimed by his parents in the late 1880's, in 1893 young Edgard was forced to relocate with them to Turin, Italy. It was here that he had his first real musical lessons, with the long-time director of Turin's conservatory, Giovanni Bolzoni. Never comfortable with Italy, and given his oppressive home-life, a physical altercation with his father forced the situation and Varèse left home for Paris in 1903.

From 1904 he was a student at the Schola Cantorum (founded by pupils of César Franck), where his teachers included Albert Roussel; afterwards he went to study composition with Charles Widor at the Paris Conservatoire. This article is about the Parisian musical institute For other organizations called Schola Cantorum see Schola Cantorum (disambiguation. César Franck (December 10 1822 – November 8 1890 a Composer, Organist and music teacher of Belgian and German origin who lived in France WikipediaWikiProject Composers#Lead section --> Albert Charles Paul Marie Roussel ( April 5 1869 - August 23 Charles-Marie Jean Albert Widor (February 21 1844 &ndash March 12 1937 was a French organist, Composer and teacher The Conservatoire de Paris is an institution of higher education that has played an important role in the development of Music in France and Western Europe From this period he composed a number of ambitious orchestral works, but these were only performed by Varèse in piano transcriptions, such as his Rhapsodie romane of about 1905, inspired by the Romanesque architecture of the cathedral of St. Philibert in Tournus. Saint Philibert of Jumièges (c 608&ndash684 was an Abbot and monastic founder particularly associated with Jumièges Abbey. Tournus is a commune of the Saône-et-Loire département, in east-central France. He moved to Berlin in 1907 and in the same year married the actress Suzanne Bing. Berlin is the capital city and one of sixteen states of Germany. Suzanne Bing ( March 10, 1885 &ndash November 22, 1967) was a French Actress. They had one child, a daughter. They divorced in 1913.

During these years, Varèse became acquainted with Satie, Richard Strauss, Debussy and Busoni, the last two being particular influences on him at the time. Alfred Éric Leslie Satie ( Honfleur, 17 May 1866 – Paris, 1 July 1925) was a French Composer and Richard Georg Strauss (11 June 1864 &ndash 8 September 1949 was a German Composer of the late Romantic era and early modern era particularly noted Achille-Claude Debussy (aʃil klod dəbysi (August 22 1862 &ndash March 25 1918 was a French Composer. Ferruccio Dante Michelangiolo Benvenuto Busoni (April 1 1866 &ndash July 27 1924 was an Italian Composer, Pianist, musical educator and conductor. He also gained the friendship and support of Romain Rolland and Hugo von Hofmannsthal, whose Oedipus und die Sphinx he began setting as an opera that was never completed. Romain Rolland ( 29 January 1866 – 30 December 1944) was a French Dramatist, Essayist, Art historian Hugo von Hofmannsthal ( February 1, 1874 – July 15, 1929) was an Austrian Novelist, librettist, Poet The first performance of his symphonic poem Bourgogne in Berlin in 1910, the only one of his early orchestral works to be properly performed, caused a scandal. A symphonic poem or tone poem is a piece of Orchestral Music in one movement in which some extramusical program provides a narrative or illustrative element After being invalided out of the French Army during World War I, he moved to the United States in 1915. World War I (abbreviated WWI; also known as the First World War, the Great War, and the War to End All The United States of America —commonly referred to as the In 1917 Varèse made his debut in America conducting the Grand Messe des Morts by Berlioz. The Grande Messe des morts, Op. 5 (or Requiem) by Hector Berlioz was composed in 1837.

Early years in the United States

He spent the first few years in the United States, where he was a Romany Marie's café regular[2] in Greenwich Village, meeting important contributors to American music, promoting his vision of new electronic art music instruments, conducting orchestras, and founding the New Symphony Orchestra, which was short-lived. Marie Marchand ( May 17 1885 — February 20 1961) known as Romany Marie, was a Greenwich Village doyenne and restaurateur Greenwich Village (ˌgrɛnɪtʃ ˈvɪlɪdʒ often simply called the Village, is a largely residential area on the west side of downtown (southern Manhattan Conducting is the act of directing a Musical performance by way of visible gestures An orchestra is an instrumental ensemble, usually fairly large with string brass woodwind sections and possibly a percussion section as well

It was also about this time that Varèse began work on his first composition in the United States, Amériques, which was finished in 1921 but would remain unperformed until 1926. Amériques is a musical composition by the French -born composer Edgard Varèse. Virtually all the works he had written in Europe were either lost or destroyed in a Berlin warehouse fire, so in the USA he was starting again from scratch. The only surviving work from his early period appears to be the song Un grand sommeil noir, a setting of Verlaine. For the French poet see Paul Verlaine; for the Television guitarist and solo artist see Tom Verlaine. (He still retained Bourgogne, but destroyed the score in a fit of depression many years later. ) It was at the completion of this work that Varèse, along with Carlos Salzedo, founded the International Composers' Guild, dedicated to the performances of new compositions of both American and European composers. Carlos Salzedo (1885-1961 was a Harpist, Composer and conductor, born in Arcachon, France, after whom the Salzedo Harp Colony in The ICG's manifesto in July 1921 included the statement that

"The present day composers refuse to die. They have realised the necessity of banding together and fighting for the right of each individual to secure a fair and free presentation of his work". [3]

In 1922, Varèse visited Berlin where he founded a similar German organisation with Busoni. Ferruccio Dante Michelangiolo Benvenuto Busoni (April 1 1866 &ndash July 27 1924 was an Italian Composer, Pianist, musical educator and conductor.

Varèse composed many of his pieces for orchestral instruments and voices for performance under the auspices of the ICG during its 6 year existence. Specifically, during the first half of the 1920s, he composed Offrandes, Hyperprism, Octandre, and Intégrales.

He took American citizenship in October 1927. [4]

Life in Paris

In 1928, Varèse returned to Paris to alter one of the parts in Amériques to include the recently constructed Ondes Martenot. The ondes Martenot (IPA maʀtəno French for "Martenot waves" also known as the ondium Martenot, Martenot and ondes musicales) is an early Around 1930, he composed his most famous non-electronic piece entitled Ionisation, the first to feature solely percussion instruments. Ionisation (1929 - 1931 is a Musical composition by Edgard Varèse written for thirteen percussionists, the first concert hall composition for Although it was composed with pre-existing instruments, Ionisation was an exploration of new sounds and methods to create them.

In 1933, while Varèse was still in Paris, he wrote to the Guggenheim Foundation and Bell Laboratories in an attempt to receive a grant to develop an electronic music studio. Bell Laboratories (also known as Bell Labs and formerly known as AT&T Bell Laboratories and Bell Telephone Laboratories) is the Research organization His next composition, Ecuatorial, completed in 1934, contained parts for fingerboard theremin cellos, and Varèse, anticipating the successful receipt of one of his grants, eagerly returned to the United States to finally realize his electronic music.

Back in the United States

Varèse wrote his Ecuatorial for two fingerboard Theremins, bass singer, winds and percussion in the early 1930s. Bass (ˈbɛɪs as in base) when used as an adjective is used to describe tones of low Frequency or range. A wind instrument is a Musical instrument that contains some type of Resonator (usually a tube in which a column of air is set into vibration by the player blowing It was premiered on April 15 1934, under the baton of Nicolas Slonimsky. Nicolas Slonimsky (b &ndash d December 25, 1995) was a Russian American composer conductor musician Music critic lexicographer Then Varèse left New York City, where he had lived since 1915, and moved to Santa Fe, San Francisco and Los Angeles. The City of New York The City and County of San Francisco is the fourth most populous city Los Angeles (lɑˈsændʒələs los ˈaŋxeles in Spanish) is the largest City in the state of California and the American West In 1936 he wrote Density 21.5. Density 215 is a piece of music for solo Flute written by Edgard Varèse in 1936 and revised in 1946 By the time Varèse returned in late 1938, Leon Theremin had returned to Russia. Léon Theremin (born Lev Sergeyevich Termen, Лев Сергеевич Термен ( August 15 1896 Julian calendar = 1896-08-27 This devastated Varèse, who had hoped to work with Theremin on a refinement of his instrument. Varèse had also promoted the theremin in his Western travels, and demonstrated one at a lecture at the University of New Mexico in Albuquerque on November 12 1936. The University of New Mexico has an RCA theremin, which may be the same instrument. The University of New Mexico ( UNM) is a Public University in Albuquerque, New Mexico.

He was approached by music producer Jack Skurnick resulting in EMS Recordings #401. Jack Skurnick (March 1910- September 1952 was the founder and director of EMS Recordings and publisher and editor of the highly regarded music review Just Records EMS Recordings was founded in 1949 by Jack Skurnick in New York City The record was the first release of Integrales, Density 21. 5, Ionization and Octandre and featured Rene le Roy, flute, the Julliard Percussion Orchestra and the New York Wind Ensemble conducted by Frederic Waldman. The recording is said to have influenced Frank Zappa. Frank Vincent Zappa (December 21 1940 – December 4 1993 was an American Composer, Electric guitarist Record producer and Film director

When, in the late 1950s, Varèse was approached by a publisher about making Ecuatorial available, there were very few theremins—let alone fingerboard theremins—to be found, so he rewrote/relabelled the part for Ondes Martenot. The ondes Martenot (IPA maʀtəno French for "Martenot waves" also known as the ondium Martenot, Martenot and ondes musicales) is an early This new version was premiered in 1961.

Louise Varèse, American-born wife of the composer, was a celebrated translator of French poetry whose versions of the work of Arthur Rimbaud for James Laughlin's New Directions imprint were particularly influential. "Rimbaud" redirects here For other uses see Rimbaud (disambiguation Jean Nicolas Arthur Rimbaud (ræm'boʊ or in French aʁtyʁ James Laughlin ( 30 October, 1914 – 12 November, 1997) was an American Poet and literary book publisher who founded New Directions Publishing Corp was founded in 1936 by James Laughlin, then a Harvard University sophomore

Unfinished projects

From the late 1920s to the end of the 1930s Varèse's principal creative energies went into two ambitious projects which were never realized, and much of whose material was destroyed, though some elements from them seem to have gone into smaller works. One was a large-scale stage work called different things at different times, but principally The One-All-Alone or Astronomer (L’Astronome). This was originally to be based on North American Indian legends; later it became a futuristic drama of world catastrophe and instantaneous communication with the star Sirius. For indigenous peoples in the United States other than Hawaii and Alaska see also Native Americans in the United States. Sirius is the brightest star in the night sky with a visual Apparent magnitude of &minus1 This second form, on which Varèse worked in Paris in 1928–1932, had a libretto by Alejo Carpentier, Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes and Robert Desnos. Alejo Carpentier y Valmont ( December 26, 1904 – April 24, 1980) was a Cuban novelist essay writer and musicologist who greatly Georges Ribemont-Dessaignes ( June 19 1884 - July 9 1974) was a French writer and artist associated with the Dada movement Robert Desnos ( 4 July 1900 - 8 June 1945) was a French Surrealist poet who played a key role in the surrealistic movement of his day According to Carpentier, a substantial amount of this work was written but Varèse abandoned it in favour of a new treatment in which he hoped to collaborate with Antonin Artaud. Antoine Marie Joseph Artaud, better known as Antonin Artaud ( September 4, 1896, in Marseille – March 4, 1948 in Artaud's libretto Il n’ya plus de firmament was written for Varèse's project and sent to him after he had returned to the USA but by this time Varèse had turned to a second huge project.

This second project was to be a choral symphony entitled Espace. In its original conception the text for the chorus was to be written by André Malraux. André Malraux (3 November 1901 – 23 November 1976 was a French Author, adventurer and Statesman, and a dominant figure in French politics and culture Later Varèse settled on a multi-lingual text of hieratic phrases to be sung by choirs situated in Paris, Moscow, Peking and New York, synchronized to create a global radiophonic event. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Moscow (Москва́ romanised: Moskvá, IPA: see also other names) is the Capital and the largest city of New York ( is a state in the Mid-Atlantic and Northeastern regions of the United States and is the nation's third most populous Varèse sought input on the text from Henry Miller, who suggests in The Air-Conditioned Nightmare that this grandiose conception – also ultimately unrealized – eventually metamorphosed into Déserts. Henry Valentine Miller (December 26 1891 &ndash June 7 1980 was an American writer and painter. With both these huge projects Varèse felt ultimately frustrated by the lack of electronic instruments to realize his aural visions. Nevertheless he used some of the material from Espace in his short Étude pour Espace, virtually the only work that had appeared from his pen for over ten years when it was premiered in 1947.

International recognition

By the early 1950s, Varèse was in dialogue with a new generation of composers, such as Boulez and Dallapiccola. WikipediaWikiProject Classical music#Biographical_infoboxes --> Pierre Boulez (pjɛʁ buˈlɛz (b Luigi Dallapiccola ( February 3, 1904 &ndash February 19, 1975) was an Italian Composer known for his lyrical twelve-tone When he returned to France to finalize the tape sections of Déserts, Pierre Schaeffer helped arrange for suitable facilities. Pierre Henri Marie Schaeffer ( August 14, 1910 &ndash August 19, 1995) was a French The first performance of the combined orchestral and tape sound composition came as part of an ORTF broadcast concert, between pieces by Mozart and Tchaikovsky and received a hostile reaction. The Office de Radiodiffusion-Télévision Française ( ORTF) was the national agency charged between 1964 and 1974 with providing public radio and television in France

Le Corbusier was commissioned by Philips to present a pavilion at the 1958 World Fair and insisted (against the sponsors' resistance) on working with Varèse, who developed his Poème électronique for the venue, where it was heard by an estimated two million people. Charles-Édouard Jeanneret-Gris, who chose to be known as Le Corbusier ( October 6, 1887 – August 27, 1965) was a Swiss Koninklijke Philips Electronics NV ( Royal Philips Electronics Inc. Expo 58, also known as the Brussels World’s Fair, Brusselse Wereldtentoonstelling or Exposition Universelle et Internationale de Bruxelles, was held from Poème électronique (English Translation "Electronic Poem" is a piece of Electronic music by Composer Edgard Varèse. Using 400 speakers separated throughout a series of rooms, Varèse created a sound and space installation geared towards experiencing sound as you move through space. Received with mixed reviews, this piece challenged audience expectations and traditional means of composing, breathing life into electronic synthesis and presentation.

In 1962 he was asked to join the Royal Swedish Academy, and in 1963 he received the premier Koussevitzky International Recording Award.

Early musical influences

Visitors to Varèse's childhood village of La Villars, deep in the Burgundian countryside, sometimes meet locals who remember him. If they call at the actual house they are shown up to Varèse's own bedroom. From the window they instantly gain an insight into the young Varèse's musical influences: the rural scene stretches to the horizon but immediately beneath the window is the railway line and just beyond that the busy waterway with its chugging cargo boats. In his formative years he was greatly impressed by Medieval and Renaissance Music (in his career he founded and conducted several choirs devoted to this repertoire) and the music of Scriabin, Satie, Debussy, Berlioz and Richard Strauss. Alexander Nikolayevich Scriabin (Алекса́ндр Никола́евич Скря́бин Aleksandr Nikolaevič Skrjabin; sometimes transliterated as Skriabin Alfred Éric Leslie Satie ( Honfleur, 17 May 1866 – Paris, 1 July 1925) was a French Composer and Achille-Claude Debussy (aʃil klod dəbysi (August 22 1862 &ndash March 25 1918 was a French Composer. Richard Georg Strauss (11 June 1864 &ndash 8 September 1949 was a German Composer of the late Romantic era and early modern era particularly noted There are also clear influences or reminiscences of Stravinsky's early works, specifically Petrushka and The Rite of Spring, on Arcana. Igor Fyodorovich Stravinsky (Игорь Фёдорович Стравинский) ( &ndash 6 April 1971 was a Russian born Composer, considered by many to [5] He claimed to have been inspired by the writings on music of Józef Maria Hoene-Wroński, and especially the Polish savant's statement that the object of music is 'the corporealization of the intelligence that is in sound'. Józef Maria Hoëne-Wroński ( August 23, 1778 – August 8, 1853) was a Polish Messianist philosopher who worked in many [6] He was also impressed by the ideas of Busoni, who christened him L'illustro futuro.

Students and influence

According to George Perle [7] "his partitioning of the octave in the first ten bars places Varèse with Scriabin and the Schoenberg circle among the revolutionary composers whose work initiates the beginning of a new mainstream tradition in the music of our century. George Perle (born May 6, 1915 in Bayonne New Jersey) is a Composer and music theorist. "

Students

Varèse's best known student is the Chinese-born composer Chou Wen-chung (b. Chou Wen-chung ( 周[[wikt 1923), who met Varèse in 1949 and assisted him in his later years. He became the executor of Varèse's estate following the composer's death and edited and completed a number of Varèse's works. He is professor emeritus of composition at Columbia University. Columbia University is a private University in the United States and a member of the Ivy League. Other pupils were Colin McPhee and André Jolivet. Colin McPhee ( February 15, 1900, in Montreal or Toronto – January 7, 1964, in Los Angeles) was a André Jolivet (8 August 1905 &ndash 20 December 1974 was a French composer

Influence in contemporary classical music

Composers who have claimed, or can be demonstrated to have been influenced by Varèse include Harrison Birtwistle, Pierre Boulez, John Cage, Morton Feldman, Roberto Gerhard, Luigi Nono, Karlheinz Stockhausen, Iannis Xenakis, Frank Zappa, and William Grant Still. Sir Harrison Paul Birtwistle CH (born 15 July, 1934) is a British contemporary Composer. WikipediaWikiProject Classical music#Biographical_infoboxes --> Pierre Boulez (pjɛʁ buˈlɛz (b WikipediaWikiProject Composers#Lead section --> John Milton Cage Jr Morton Feldman (January 12 1926 – September 3 1987 was an American Composer, born in New York City. Luigi Nono ( January 29, 1924 – May 8, 1990) was an Italian Avant-garde Composer of Classical music Iannis Xenakis (Ιάννης Ξενάκης (May 29 1922 - February 4 2001 was a Greek modernist composer musical theoretician and architect Frank Vincent Zappa (December 21 1940 – December 4 1993 was an American Composer, Electric guitarist Record producer and Film director William Grant Still ( May 11, 1895 - December 3, 1978) was an African-American classical composer who wrote more than 150 compositions

Influence in pop music

Varèse's emphasis on timbre, rhythm, and new technologies was an inspiration to a whole generation of musicians who came of age during the 1960's and 1970's. One of Varèse's biggest fans was the American guitarist and composer Frank Zappa, who, upon hearing a copy of The Complete Works of Edgard Varèse, Vol. A guitarist is a Musician who plays the Guitar. Guitarists may perform solo pieces or play with ensembles and bands of a wide variety of genres Frank Vincent Zappa (December 21 1940 – December 4 1993 was an American Composer, Electric guitarist Record producer and Film director 1, which included Intégrales, Density 21. 5, Ionisation, and Octandre, became obsessed with the composer's music. On his 15th birthday, December 21, 1955, Zappa's mother, Rosemarie, allowed him a call to Varèse as a present. At the time Varèse was in Brussels, Belgium, so Zappa spoke to Varèse's wife Louise instead. Brussels (Bruxelles pronounced; Brussel pronounced) officially the Brussels Capital-Region, is The Kingdom of Belgium is a Country in northwest Europe. It is a founding member of the European Union and hosts its headquarters as well as those Eventually Zappa and Varèse spoke on the phone, and they discussed the possibility of meeting each other, although this meeting never took place. Zappa also received a letter from Varèse. Varèse's spirit of experimentation and redefining the bounds of what was possible in music lived on in Zappa's long and prolific career[8]. Zappa's final project was The Rage and the Fury a recording of the works of Varèse. Frank Vincent Zappa (December 21 1940 – December 4 1993 was an American Composer, Electric guitarist Record producer and Film director

The early music of Pink Floyd appears to show Varèse's influence, especially the title track from A Saucerful of Secrets, and parts of the studio album from Ummagumma. Pink Floyd are A Saucerful of Secrets is the second Album by rock band Pink Floyd, and marks the group's stylistic change from psychedelic to Ummagumma is a Progressive rock double album by Pink Floyd, released in 1969 Another admirer was the rock/jazz group Chicago, whose Pianist/keyboardist Robert Lamm credited Varèse with inspiring him to write many number one hits. Chicago is a Rock band formed in 1967 in Chicago Illinois. The band began as a politically charged sometimes experimental rock band and later moved to a predominately Robert William Lamm (born October 13, 1944) is an American Keyboardist, Singer and Songwriter best known for being a founding In tribute, one of Lamm's songs was called "A Hit By Varèse".

Tributes

Idée Fixe

Some of Edgard Varèse's later works make use of the 'Idée Fixe', a fixed theme, repeated certain times in a work. The 'Idée Fixe' is generally not transposed, differentiating it from the leitmotiv, used by Richard Wagner. In Music transposition refers to the process of moving a collection of notes ( pitches) up or down in pitch by a constant interval. A leitmotif (ˌlaɪtmoʊˈtiːf (also leitmotiv; lit "leading motif" is a recurring Musical theme, associated with a particular person place

Works

Listening

References

  1. ^ Malcolm MacDonald, Varèse, Astronomer in Sound (London, 2003), ISBN 1-871082-79-x p. Paul-Marie Verlaine (vɛʁˈlɛn March 30, 1844 &ndash January 8, 1896) was a French poet associated with the Symbolist Amériques is a musical composition by the French -born composer Edgard Varèse. Vicente García-Huidobro Fernández ( January 10, 1893 &ndash January 2, 1948) was a Chilean poet born to an aristocratic José Juan Tablada ( April 3, 1871 - August 2, 1945) was a Mexican Poet, Art critic, and Diplomat. Ionisation (1929 - 1931 is a Musical composition by Edgard Varèse written for thirteen percussionists, the first concert hall composition for Francisco Ximénez (1666-1729 was a Catholic priest who in 1702 translated the Popol Vuh into Spanish doing a careful side by side copy of the original text with his translation Density 215 is a piece of music for solo Flute written by Edgard Varèse in 1936 and revised in 1946 Poème électronique (English Translation "Electronic Poem" is a piece of Electronic music by Composer Edgard Varèse. Anaïs Nin ana'iːs nin (born Angela Anaïs Juana Antolina Rosa Edelmira Nin y Culmell) ( February 21 1903 - January 14 1977) was xi.
  2. ^ Robert Schulman. Romany Marie: The Queen of Greenwich Village (pp. Marie Marchand ( May 17 1885 — February 20 1961) known as Romany Marie, was a Greenwich Village doyenne and restaurateur Greenwich Village (ˌgrɛnɪtʃ ˈvɪlɪdʒ often simply called the Village, is a largely residential area on the west side of downtown (southern Manhattan 64-65). Louisville: Butler Books, 2006. ISBN 1-88453-274-8.
  3. ^ Ouellette, p66
  4. ^ Ouellette, p95
  5. ^ MacDonald, pp. 200-205.
  6. ^ MacDonald, pp. 52-53.
  7. ^ Perle, George (1990). The Listening Composer, p. 12. ISBN 0520069919.
  8. ^ Russo, Greg. Cosmik Debris: The Collected History and Improvisations of Frank Zappa. New York: Antique Trader Publications, Crossfire Publications, Chris Sansom, 1998, pp. 9-11

External links

Frank Vincent Zappa (December 21 1940 – December 4 1993 was an American Composer, Electric guitarist Record producer and Film director
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