An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants, animals and micro-organisms (biotic factors) in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical (abiotic) factors of the environment. In Biology, abiotic components are non-living Chemical and Physical factors in the environment. ^[1]

Contents 1 Overview 1.1 Examples 2 Ecosystem topics 2.1 Classification 2.2 Ecosystem services 2.3 Ecosystem legal rights 2.4 Function and biodiversity 3 The study of ecosystems 3.1 Ecosystem dynamics 3.2 Ecosystem ecology 3.3 Systems ecology 3.4 The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 4 See also 5 References 6 Further reading 7 External links

Overview

The term ecosystem was coined in 1930 by Roy Clapham, to denote the physical and biological components of an environment considered in relation to each other as a unit. Year 1930 ( MCMXXX) was a Common year starting on Wednesday (link will display 1930 calendar of the Gregorian calendar. Arthur Roy Clapham, CBE FRS ( 24 May 1904 - 18 December 1990) was a British botanist British ecologist Arthur Tansley later refined the term, describing it as the interactive system established between biocoenosis (a group of living creatures) and their biotope (the environment in which they live). Sir Arthur George Tansley ( August 15, 1871 - November 25, 1955) was an English Botanist who was a pioneer in the science

Central to the ecosystem concept is the idea that living organisms are continually engaged in a set of relationships with every other element constituting the environment in which they exist. Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism See also Natural environment The '''biophysical''' environment is the symbiosis between the physical environment and the Biological Eugene Odum, one of the founders of the science of ecology, stated: "Any unit that includes all of the organisms (ie: the "community") in a given area interacting with the physical environment so that a flow of energy leads to clearly defined trophic structure, biotic diversity, and material cycles (ie: exchange of materials between living and nonliving parts) within the system is an ecosystem. "^[2] The human ecosystem concept is then grounded in the deconstruction of the human/nature dichotomy, and the emergent premise that all species are ecologically integrated with each other, as well as with the abiotic constituents of their biotope. A dichotomy is any splitting of a whole into exactly two non-overlapping parts Biotope is an area of uniform environmental conditions providing a living place for a specific assemblage of plants and animals.

Ecosystems can be bounded and discussed with tremendous variety of scope, and describe any situation where there is relationship between organisms and their environment. A system as small as a household or university, or as large as a nation state, may then be suitably discussed as a human ecosystem. Human ecosystems are complex cybernetic systems that are increasingly being used by Ecological Anthropologists and other scholars to examine the ecological While they may be bounded and individually discussed, (human) ecosystems do not exist independently, but interact in a complex web of human and ecological relationships connecting all (human) ecosystems to make up the biosphere. The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. As virtually no surface of the earth today is free of human contact, all ecosystems can be more accurately considered as human ecosystems.

Examples

Examples of ecosystem include:

Ecosystem topics

Classification

Ecosystems have become particularly important politically, since the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) - ratified by more than 175 countries - defines "the protection of ecosystems, natural habitats and the maintenance of viable populations of species in natural surroundings" as one of the binding commitments of the ratifying countries. An aquatic ecosystem is an Ecosystem located in water bodies. Chaparral is a Shrubland or heathland Plant community found primarily in the U Coral reefs are Aragonite structures produced by living organisms found in marine waters with little to no nutrients in the water A desert is a Landscape or region that receives very little precipitation. Greater Yellowstone is the last remaining large nearly intact Ecosystem in the northern Temperate zone of the Earth and is partly located in Yellowstone Human ecosystems are complex cybernetic systems that are increasingly being used by Ecological Anthropologists and other scholars to examine the ecological Large marine ecosystem s (LMEs are regions of the world's Oceans encompassing coastal areas from river basins and estuaries to the seaward boundaries of continental Littoral refers to the coast of an ocean or sea or to the banks of a river lake or estuary Marine ecosystems are among of the earth's Aquatic ecosystems They include Oceans Salt marshes estuaries Lagoons, rocky Subtidal Rainforests are Forests characterized by high Rainfall with definitions setting minimum normal annual rainfall between 1750–2000 mm (68-78 inches A savanna or savannah is a Tropical or Subtropical Grassland or Woodland Ecosystem. Subsurface Lithoautotrophic Microbial Ecosystems, or "SLIMEs" (also abbreviated "SLMEs" or "SLiMEs" are defined by Edward O Taiga (ˈtaɪgə from Turkic or Mongolian) is a Biome characterized by Coniferous forests In physical Geography, tundra is an area where the Tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons Urban ecosystems are the cities, Towns and urban strips constructed by Humans This growth in the urban population and the supporting built infrastructure The Convention on Biological Diversity, known informally as the Biodiversity Convention, is an international Treaty that was adopted in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992 This has created the political necessity to spatially identify ecosystems and somehow distinguish among them. The CBD defines an "ecosystem" as a "dynamic complex of plant, animal and micro-organism communities and their non-living environment interacting as a functional unit".

With the need of protecting ecosystems, the political need arose to describe and identify them within a reasonable time and cost-effectively. Vreugdenhil et al. argued that this could be achieved most effectively by using a physiognomic-ecological classification system, as ecosystems are easily recognizable in the field as well as on satellite images. They argued that the structure and seasonality of the associated vegetation, complemented with ecological data (such as elevation, humidity, drainage, salinity of water and characteristics of water bodies), are each determining modifiers that separate partially distinct sets of species. This is true not only for plant species, but also for species of animals, fungi and bacteria. The degree of ecosystem distinction is subject to the physiognomic modifiers that can be identified on an image and/or in the field. Where necessary, specific fauna elements can be added, such as periodic concentrations of animals and the distribution of coral reefs. Coral reefs are Aragonite structures produced by living organisms found in marine waters with little to no nutrients in the water

Several physiognomic-ecological classification systems are available: Physiognomic-Ecological Classification of Plant Formations of the Earth (a system based on the 1974 work of Mueller-Dombois and Heinz Ellenberg, and developed by UNESCO), and the Land Cover Classification System (LCCS), developed by the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO). Heinz Ellenberg ( August 1, 1913 in Hamburg-Harburg - May 2, 1997 in Göttingen) was a German Biologist United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization ( UNESCO) is a specialized agency of the United Nations established on November 16 Several aquatic classification systems are available, and an effort is being made by the United States Geological Survey (USGS) and the Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network (IABIN) to design a complete ecosystem classification system that will cover both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. The United States Geological Survey ( USGS) is a scientific agency of the United States government. The Inter-American Biodiversity Information Network (IABIN is a network dedicated to the adoption and promotion of Ecoinformatics standards and protocols in all the countries

Ecosystem services

Ecosystem services are “fundamental life-support services upon which human civilization depends,”ⁱ and can be direct or indirect. Humankind benefits from a multitude of resources and processes that are supplied by natural Ecosystems. Example of direct ecosystem services are: pollination, wood, erosion prevention etc. Pollination in angiosperms and Gymnosperms is the process that transfers pollen grains, which contain the male Gametes (sperm to where the female Wood is hard fibrous lignified structural tissue produced as secondary Xylem in the stems of Woody plants notably trees but also shrubs Erosion is the carrying away or displacement of solids ( Sediment, Soil, rock and other particles usually by the agents of currents such as wind Indirect services could be considered climate moderation, nutrient cycles, detoxifying natural substances and many more. Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of In Ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a Chemical element or Molecule moves through both biotic

Ecosystem legal rights

The borough of Tamaqua, Pennsylvania passed a law giving ecosystems legal rights. Tamaqua is a borough in eastern Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania ( often colloquially referred to as PA (its abbreviation by natives and Northeasterners is a state located in the Northeastern The ordinance establishes that the municipal government or any Tamaqua resident can file a lawsuit on behalf of the local ecosystem. Tamaqua is a borough in eastern Schuylkill County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. ^[3] Other townships, such as Rush, followed suit and passed their own laws. ^[4]

This is part of a growing body of legal opinion proposing 'wild law'. See also Environmental law The term ‘ wild law ’ was first coined by Cormac Cullinan, to refer to human laws that are consistent with Earth Wild law, a term coined by Cormac Cullinan (a lawyer based in South Africa), would cover birds and animals, rivers and deserts. See also Environmental law The term ‘ wild law ’ was first coined by Cormac Cullinan, to refer to human laws that are consistent with Earth Cormac Cullinan is a practising environmental attorney and author based in Cape Town South Africa. ^[5]

Function and biodiversity

From an anthropological point of view, many people see ecosystems as production units that of goods and services. Among some of the most common goods produced by ecosystems, is wood by forest ecosystems and grass for cattle by natural grasslands. Meat from wild animals, often referred to as bush meat in Africa, has proven to be extremely successful under well-controlled management schemes in South Africa and Kenya. Much less successful has been the discovery and commercialization of substances of wild organism for pharmaceutical purposes. Services derived from ecosystems are referred to as ecosystem services. They may include (1) facilitating the enjoyment of nature, which may generate many forms of income and employment in the tourism sector, often referred to as eco-tourisms, (2) water retention, thus facilitating a more evenly distributed release of water, (3) soil protection, open-air laboratory for scientific research, etc.

A greater degree of species diversity or biological diversity - popularly referred to as Biodiversity - of an ecosystem may contribute to greater resilience of an ecosystem, because there are more species present at a location to respond to a factor of change and thus "absorb" or reduce its effects, thus reducing the effect before its structure is fundamentally changed to a different state. Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. This is not universally the case and there is no proven relationship between the species diversity of an ecosystem and its ability to provide goods and services on a sustainable level: Humid tropical forest produce very little goods and direct services and are extremely vulnerable to change, while many temperate forests readily grow back to their previous state of development within a lifetime after felling or a forest fire. Some grasslands have been exploited sustainably for thousands of years (Mongolia, Africa, European peat and mooreland communities).

The study of ecosystems

Ecosystem dynamics

Introduction of new elements, whether biotic or abiotic, into an ecosystem tend to have a disruptive effect. In Biology, abiotic components are non-living Chemical and Physical factors in the environment. In some cases, this can lead to ecological collapse or "trophic cascading" and the death of many species belonging to the ecosystem in question. Under this deterministic vision, the abstract notion of ecological health attempts to measure the robustness and recovery capacity for an ecosystem; i. e. how far the ecosystem is away from its steady state.

Often, however, ecosystems have the ability to rebound from a disruptive agent. The difference between collapse or a gentle rebound is determined by two factors -- the toxicity of the introduced element and the resiliency of the original ecosystem. Toxicity is the degree to which a substance is able to damage an exposed organism In Ecology, resilience has been defined in two competing fashions that emphasize two different aspects of stability

Ecosystems are primarily governed by stochastic (chance) events, the reactions they provoke on non-living materials and the responses by organisms to the conditions surrounding them. Thus, an ecosystem results from the sum of myriad individual responses of organisms to stimuli from non-living and living elements in the environment. The presence or absence of populations merely depends on reproductive and dispersal success, and population levels fluctuate in response to stochastic events. As the number of species in an ecosystem is higher, the number of stimuli is also higher. Since the beginning of life, in this vision, organisms have survived continuous change through natural selection of successful feeding, reproductive and dispersal behavior. Through natural selection the planet's species have continuously adapted to change through variation in their biological composition and distribution. Mathematically it can be demonstrated that greater numbers of different interacting factors tend to dampen fluctuations in each of the individual factors. Given the great diversity among organisms on earth, most of the time, ecosystems only changed very gradually, as some species would disappear while others would move in. Locally, sub-populations continuously go extinct, to be replaced later through dispersal of other sub-populations. Stochastists do recognize that certain intrinsic regulating mechanisms occur in nature. Feedback and response mechanisms at the species level regulate population levels, most notably through territorial behaviour. Andrewatha and Birch (1954) suggest that territorial behaviour tends to keep populations at levels where food supply is not a limiting factor. Hence, stochastists see territorial behaviour as a regulatory mechanism at the species level but not at the ecosystem level. Thus, in their vision, ecosystems are not regulated by feedback and response mechanisms from the (eco)system itself and there is no such thing as a balance of nature.

If ecosystems are indeed governed primarily by stochastic processes, they may be somewhat more resilient to sudden change, as each species would respond individually. In the absence of a balance of nature, the species composition of ecosystems would undergo shifts that would depend on the nature of the change, but entire ecological collapse would probably be less frequently occurring events.

The theoretical ecologist Robert Ulanowicz has used information theory tools to describe the structure of ecosystems, emphasizing mutual information (correlations) in studied systems. Theoretical ecology refers to several intellectual traditions Robert E Ulanowicz (born September 17, 1943 in Baltimore) is an American theoretical ecologist and Philosopher who is best known Information theory is a branch of Applied mathematics and Electrical engineering involving the quantification of Information. Drawing on this methodology, and prior observations of complex ecosystems, Ulanowicz depicts approaches to determining the stress levels on ecosystems, and predicting system reactions to defined types of alteration in their settings (such as increased or reduced energy flow, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in chemical Nutrients -- typically compounds containing Nitrogen or Phosphorus -- in an Ecosystem, and may occur ^[6] See also Relational order theories, as to fundamentals of life organization. A number of independent lines of research depict the universe including the social organization of living creatures which is of particular interest to humans as Systems or networks of

Ecosystem ecology

Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and abiotic components of ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework. Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and Abiotic components of Ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism In Biology, abiotic components are non-living Chemical and Physical factors in the environment. This science examines how ecosystems work and relates this to their components such as chemicals, bedrock, soil, plants, and animals. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. Bedrock is the native consolidated rock underlying the surface of a terrestrial planet usually the Earth. Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel Plants are living Organisms belonging to the kingdom Plantae. Ecosystem ecology examines physical and biological structure and examines how these ecosystem characteristics interact]]

The relationship between systems ecology and ecosystem ecology is complex. Much of systems ecology can be considered a subset of ecosystem ecology. Ecosystem ecology also utilizes methods that have little to do with the holistic approach of systems ecology. However, systems ecology more actively considers external influences such as economics that usually fall outside the bounds of ecosystem ecology. Whereas ecosystem ecology can be defined as the scientific study of ecosystems, systems ecology is more of a particular approach to the study of ecological systems and phenomena that interact with these systems.

Systems ecology

Systems ecology is an interdisciplinary field of ecology, taking a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems, especially ecosystems. Systems ecology is an Interdisciplinary field of Ecology, taking a holistic approach to the study of ecological systems especially Ecosystems Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Distinguish from the suffix -holism, which describes addictions Systems ecology can be seen as an application of general systems theory to ecology. Systems theory is an Interdisciplinary field of Science and the study of the nature of Complex systems in Nature, Society, and Central to the systems ecology approach is the idea that an ecosystem is a complex system exhibiting emergent properties. This article describes complex system as a type of system For other meanings see Complex systems. Systems ecology focuses on interactions and transactions within and between biological and ecological systems, and is especially concerned with the way the functioning of ecosystems can be influenced by human interventions. It uses and extends concepts from thermodynamics and develops other macroscopic descriptions of complex systems. In Physics, thermodynamics (from the Greek θερμη therme meaning " Heat " and δυναμις dynamis meaning "

The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

In 2005, the largest ever assessment^[7] of the earth's ecosystems was conducted by a research team of over 1,000 scientists. The findings of the assessment were published in the multi volume Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, which concluded that in the past 50 years humans have altered the earth's ecosystems more than any other time in our history. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA is a research program that focuses on Ecosystem changes over the course of decades and projecting those changes into the future

See also

References

1. ^ Christopherson, Robert W. This article is about a conservation biology topic For other uses of BAP see BAP (disambiguation. In Ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a Chemical element or Molecule moves through both biotic A biome is a climatically and geographically defined area of ecologically similar climatic conditions such as communities of Plants Animals and The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. Biosphere 2 is a 314-acre (127 ha) structure originally built to be an artificial closed ecological system in Oracle, Arizona ( USA Ecological economics is a Transdisciplinary field of academic research within Economics that aims to address the interdependence between human economies and natural Ecological yield is the harvestable Population growth of an Ecosystem. An ecoregion ( ecological region) sometimes called a bioregion, is an ecologically and geographically defined area smaller than a "realm" or " Ecosystem diversity refers to the diversity of a place at the level of Ecosystems See Biodiversity. Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of biotic and Abiotic components of Ecosystems and their interactions within an ecosystem framework An ecosystem engineer is any Organism that creates or modifies habitats. Ecosystem models, or ecological models, are mathematical representations of Ecosystems Typically they simplify complex foodwebs down to their Humankind benefits from a multitude of resources and processes that are supplied by natural Ecosystems. Ecosystem valuation is a widely used tool in determining the impact of human activities on an environmental system by assigning an economic value to an Ecosystem or its An edge effect in Biology is the effect of the Juxtaposition of contrasting environments on an Ecosystem. Eugene Pleasants Odum ( September 17, 1913 - August 10, 2002) was an American Scientist known for his pioneering work Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. Introduced species|Weed Invasive species is a phrase with several definitions Landscape ecology is the science and art of studying and improving the relationship between spatial pattern and ecological processes on a multitude of scales and organizational levels (Wu 2006 2008 In Botany, a leaf is an above-ground Plant organ specialized for Photosynthesis. (1997). Geosystems: An Introduction to Physical Geography, 3rd (in english), Upper Saddle River, NJ, USA: Prentice Hall Inc. . ISBN 0-13-505314-5.  
2. ^ Odum EP (1971) Fundamentals of ecology, third edition, Saunders New York
3. ^ Tamaqua Law Recognizes Rights of Nature
4. ^ Rush Township Strips Sludge Corporation "Rights"
5. ^ http://www.celdf.org/News/WildLawTheGuardianUnlimited/tabid/398/Default.aspx]
   http://environment.guardian.co.uk/conservation/story/0,,2049023,00.html]
6. ^ Robert Ulanowicz (1997). Ecology, the Ascendant Perspective. Columbia Univ. Press. ISBN 0-23-110828-1.
7. ^ http://www.maweb.org

Further reading

• Andrewartha, H. G. , and L. C. Birch. 1954. The distribution and abundance of animals. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, IL.
• Boer, P. J. den, and J. Reddingius. 1996. Regulation and stabilization paradigms in population ecology. Population and Community Biology Series 16. Chapman and Hall, New York. 397 pg.
• Ecological Society of America, Ecosytem Services, Ecological Society of America. 25 May 2007
• Ehrlich, Paul; Walker, Brian “Rivets and Redundancy”. BioScience. vol. 48. no. 5. May 1998. pp. 387. American Institute of Biological Sciences.
• Grime, J. P. "Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function: The Debate Deepens. " Science Vol. 277. no. 533029 Aug 1997 pp. 1260 - 1261. 25 May 2007
• Groom , Martha J. , and Gary K. Meffe. Principles of Conservation Biology. 3. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc, 2006.
• Lawton, John H. , What Do Species Do in Ecosystems?], Oikos, December, 1994. vol. 71,no. 3.
• Lindeman, R. L. 1942. The trophic-dynamic aspect of ecology. Ecology 23: 399-418.
• Ranganathan, J & Irwin, F. (2007, May 7). Restoring Nature's Capital: An Action Agenda to Sustain Ecosystem Services
• Patten, B. C. 1959. An Introduction to the Cybernetics of the Ecosystem: The Trophic-Dynamic Aspect. Ecology 40, no. 2. : 221-231.
• Tansley, A. G. 1935. The use and abuse of vegetational concepts and terms. Ecology 16: 284-307.
• Tansley, A. G. 1939. The British Islands and their Vegetation. Volume 1 of 2. University Press, Cambridge, Cambridge, United Kingdom. 484 pg.
• Vreugdenhil, D. , Terborgh, J. , Cleef, A. M. , Sinitsyn, M. , Boere, G. C. , Archaga, V. L. , Prins, H. H. T. , 2003, Comprehensive Protected Areas System Composition and Monitoring, IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 106 pg.

External links

• The Ecosystem
• Bering Sea Climate and Ecosystem: current status
• Arctic Climate and Ecosystem: current status
• Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005)
• Teaching about Ecosystems
• The State of the Nation's Ecosystems (U.S.)
• Ecosystem Services
• ECOTRON

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