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For the journal, see Ecology (journal). Ecology is a Scientific journal (not to be confused with the Journal of Ecology) concerning Ecology.
Eugenius Warming founded ecology as a scientific discipline
Eugenius Warming founded ecology as a scientific discipline

Ecology (from Greek: οίκος, oikos, "household"; and λόγος, logos, "knowledge") is the scientific study of the distribution and abundance of life and the interactions between organisms and their environment. Johannes Eugenius Bülow Warming ( November 3, 1841 &ndash April 2, 1924) known as Eugen Warming, was a Danish botanist Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an Effect upon one another The environment of an organism includes physical properties, which can be described as the sum of local abiotic factors such as insolation (sunlight), climate, and geology, and biotic factors, which are other organisms that share its habitat. In Biology, abiotic components are non-living Chemical and Physical factors in the environment. Insolation is a measure of Solar radiation energy received on a given surface area in a given time Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit A habitat (which is Latin for "it inhabits" is an Ecological or environmental area that is inhabited by a particular Species.

The word "ecology" is often used more loosely in such terms as social ecology and deep ecology and in common parlance as a synonym for the natural environment or environmentalism. Social Ecology is a philosophy developed by French geographer and anarchist Élisée Reclus and revived by Murray Bookchin in the 1960s Deep ecology is a recent branch of ecological Philosophy ( Ecosophy) that considers Humankind an integral part of its environment. See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. Likewise "ecologic" or "ecological" is often taken in the sense of environmentally friendly. Environmental friendly, eco-friendly, and nature friendly are synonyms used to refer to Goods and services considered to inflict minimal harm

The term ecology or oekologie was coined by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866, when he defined it as "the comprehensive science of the relationship of the organism to the environment. Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany ( ˈbʊndəsʁepuˌbliːk ˈdɔʏtʃlant is a Country in Central Europe. Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel ( February 16, 1834 — August 9, 1919)also written von Haeckel, was an eminent German "[1] Haeckel did not elaborate on the concept, and the first significant textbook on the subject (together with the first university course) was written by the Danish botanist, Eugenius Warming. The Kingdom of Denmark ( ˈd̥ænmɑɡ̊ (archaic ˈd̥anmɑːɡ̊ commonly known as Denmark, is a country in the Scandinavian region of northern Europe Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Johannes Eugenius Bülow Warming ( November 3, 1841 &ndash April 2, 1924) known as Eugen Warming, was a Danish botanist For this early work, Warming is often identified as the founder of ecology. [2]

Contents

Scope

Ecology is usually considered a branch of biology, the general science that studies living organisms. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Organisms can be studied at many different levels, from proteins and nucleic acids (in biochemistry and molecular biology), to cells (in cellular biology), to individuals (in botany, zoology, and other similar disciplines), and finally at the level of populations, communities, and ecosystems, to the biosphere as a whole; these latter strata are the primary subjects of ecological inquiry. Proteins are large Organic compounds made of Amino acids arranged in a linear chain and joined together by Peptide bonds between the Carboxyl A nucleic acid is a Macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric Nucleotides In Biochemistry these Molecules carry Genetic information Biochemistry is the study of the chemical processes in living Organisms It deals with the Structure and function of cellular components such as Molecular biology is the study of Biology at a molecular level The cell is the structural and functional unit of all known living Organisms It is the smallest unit of an organism that is classified as living and is often called See also List of basic cell biology topics. Cell biology (also called cellular biology or formerly cytology, from the Botany, plant science(s, phytology, or plant biology is a branch of Biology and is the scientific study of plant Life Zoology (from Greek ζῷον, zoon, "animal" + λόγος, " Logos " "knowledge" is the branch of In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. Ecology is a multi-disciplinary science. In Academia, Pedagogy, Physical sciences, Earth sciences, Human sciences and Social sciences Because of its focus on the higher levels of the organization of life on earth and on the interrelations between organisms and their environment, ecology draws heavily on many other branches of science, especially geology and geography, meteorology, pedology, genetics, chemistry, and physics. Life on Earth A Natural History by David Attenborough is a groundbreaking television Natural history series made by the BBC in association with See also Natural environment The '''biophysical''' environment is the symbiosis between the physical environment and the Biological Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary Pedology (from Greek πέδον pedon, "soil" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of soils in their natural environment Genetics (from Ancient Greek grc-Latn genetikos, “genitive” and that from grc-Latn genesis, “origin” a discipline of Biology, is Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Thus, ecology is considered by some to be a holistic science, one that over-arches older disciplines such as biology which in this view become sub-disciplines contributing to ecological knowledge. Holism in science, or Holistic science, is an approach to Research that emphasizes the study of Complex systems. In support of viewing ecology as a subject in its own right as opposed to a sub-discipline of biology, Robert Ulanowicz stated that "The emerging picture of ecosystem behavior does not resemble the worldview imparted by an extrapolation of conceptual trends established in other sciences. Robert E Ulanowicz (born September 17, 1943 in Baltimore) is an American theoretical ecologist and Philosopher who is best known "[3]

Agriculture, fisheries, forestry, medicine and urban development are among human activities that would fall within Krebs' (1972: 4) explanation of his definition of ecology: where organisms are found, how many occur there, and why.

Ecological knowledge such as the quantification of biodiversity and population dynamics have provided a scientific basis for expressing the aims of environmentalism and evaluating its goals and policies. Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. Population dynamics is the study of marginal and long-term changes in the numbers individual weights and age composition of individuals in one or several Populations and Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. Additionally, a holistic view of nature is stressed in both ecology and environmentalism. Distinguish from the suffix -holism, which describes addictions

Consider the ways an ecologist might approach studying the life of honeybees:

Disciplines of ecology

Main article: Ecology (disciplines)

Ecology is a broad discipline comprising many sub-disciplines. Ecology is a broad biological science and can thus be divided into many sub-disciplines using various criteria A common, broad classification, moving from lowest to highest complexity, where complexity is defined as the number of entities and processes in the system under study, is:

Ecology can also be sub-divided according to the species of interest into fields such as animal ecology, plant ecology, insect ecology, and so on. Evolutionary eco\logy lies at the intersection of Ecology and Evolutionary biology. Political ecology is the study of how political economic and social factors affect environmental issues Insect Ecology is the scientific study of how Insects individually or as a community interact with the surrounding environment Another frequent method of subdivision is by biome studied, e. A biome is a climatically and geographically defined area of ecologically similar climatic conditions such as communities of Plants Animals and g. , Arctic ecology (or polar ecology), tropical ecology, desert ecology, etc. Arctic Ecology is the scientific study of the relationships between Biotic and Abiotic factors in the Arctic, the region north of the Arctic Circle Polar ecology is the relationship between plants and animals in a polar environment In Ecology, desert ecology is the sum of the interactions between both biotic and abiotic factors of the Desert Biomes The biotic factors of desert The primary technique used for investigation is often used to subdivide the discipline into groups such as chemical ecology, genetic ecology, field ecology, statistical ecology, theoretical ecology, and so forth. Chemical ecology is the study of the Chemicals involved in the interactions of living Organisms It focuses on the production of and response to signaling molecules Theoretical ecology refers to several intellectual traditions These fields are not mutually exclusive.

History of ecology

Main article: History of ecology

Fundamental principles of ecology

Levels of ecological organization

Ecology can be studied at a wide range of levels, from a large to small scale. Ecology is generally spoken of as a new science having only become prominent in the second half of the 20th Century These levels of ecological organization, as well as an example of a question ecologists would ask at each level, include:

Biosphere

Main articles: Biosphere, Biodiversity, and Unified neutral theory of biodiversity

For modern ecologists, ecology can be studied at several levels: population level (individuals of the same species in the same or similar environment), biocoenosis level (or community of species), ecosystem level, and biosphere level. The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold something that is hotter generally has the greater temperature The article is about the geographic sense of the term For other uses including Regions and Regional, see Region (disambiguation. Landscape comprises the visible features of an area of land including physical elements such as Landforms living elements of flora and fauna abstract elements such as lighting An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( In biological terms a community is a group of interacting Organisms sharing an environment. Interaction is a kind of action that occurs as two or more objects have an Effect upon one another In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology Zebras are African Equids best known for their distinctive white and black stripes As commonly used, individual refers to a Person or to any specific object in a collection The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. The unified neutral theory of biodiversity and biogeography (here "Unified Theory" or "UNTB") is a theory and the title of a monograph by In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology A biocoenosis (alternatively biocoenose or biocenose) termed by Karl Möbius in 1877 describes all the interacting Organisms living together An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems.

The outer layer of the planet Earth can be divided into several compartments: the hydrosphere (or sphere of water), the lithosphere (or sphere of soils and rocks), and the atmosphere (or sphere of the air). A hydrosphere (from Greek ύδωρ - hydor, " Water " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " The lithosphere (IPA, from the Greek λίθος for "rocky" + σφαίρα for "sphere" is the solid outermost shell of a rocky Planet. Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five The biosphere (or sphere of life), sometimes described as "the fourth envelope", is all living matter on the planet or that portion of the planet occupied by life. The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems. It reaches well into the other three spheres, although there are no permanent inhabitants of the atmosphere. Relative to the volume of the Earth, the biosphere is only the very thin surface layer which extends from 11,000 meters below sea level to 15,000 meters above.

It is thought that life first developed in the hydrosphere, at shallow depths, in the photic zone. The photic zone or euphotic zone ( Greek 'well lit' is the depth of the water in a Lake or Ocean, that is exposed to sufficient Sunlight (Recently, though, a competing theory has emerged, that life originated around hydrothermal vents in the deeper ocean. A hydrothermal vent is a Fissure in a planet's surface from which geothermally heated Water issues See Origin of life. In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic ) Multicellular organisms then appeared and colonized benthic zones. Benthos are the organisms which live on in or near the Seabed, also known as the Benthic zone. Photosynthetic organisms gradually produced the chemically unstable oxygen-rich atmosphere that characterizes our planet. Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a phylum of Bacteria that obtain their energy Terrestrial life developed later, after the ozone layer protecting living beings from UV rays formed. The photochemical mechanisms that give rise to the ozone layer were worked out by the British physicist Sidney Chapman in 1930 Ultraviolet ( UV) light is Electromagnetic radiation with a Wavelength shorter than that of Visible light, but longer than X-rays Diversification of terrestrial species is thought to be increased by the continents drifting apart, or alternately, colliding. Continental drift is the movement of the Earth 's Continents relative to each other Biodiversity is expressed at the ecological level (ecosystem), population level (intraspecific diversity), species level (specific diversity), and genetic level. Recently technology has allowed the discovery of the deep ocean vent communities. This remarkable ecological system is not dependent on sunlight but bacteria, utilising the chemistry of the hot volcanic vents, are at the base of its food chain.

The biosphere contains great quantities of elements such as carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen and oxygen. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Hydrogen (ˈhaɪdrədʒən is the Chemical element with Atomic number 1 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Other elements, such as phosphorus, calcium, and potassium, are also essential to life, yet are present in smaller amounts. Phosphorus, (ˈfɒsfərəs is the Chemical element that has the symbol P and Atomic number 15 Calcium (ˈkælsiəm is the Chemical element with the symbol Ca and Atomic number 20 Potassium (pəˈtæsiəm is a Chemical element. It has the symbol K (kalium from qalīy Atomic number 19 and Atomic mass 39 Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism At the ecosystem and biosphere levels, there is a continual recycling of all these elements, which alternate between the mineral and organic states.

While there is a slight input of geothermal energy, the bulk of the functioning of the ecosystem is based on the input of solar energy. Solar energy is the Light and radiant heat from the Sun that powers Earth 's Climate and Weather and sustains Life Plants and photosynthetic microorganisms convert light into chemical energy by the process of photosynthesis, which creates glucose (a simple sugar) and releases free oxygen. Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Glucose (Glc a Monosaccharide (or simple Sugar) also known as grape sugar, is an important Carbohydrate in Biology. Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Glucose thus becomes the secondary energy source which drives the ecosystem. Some of this glucose is used directly by other organisms for energy. Other sugar molecules can be converted to other molecules such as amino acids. In Chemistry, an amino acid is a Molecule containing both Amine and Carboxyl Functional groups In Biochemistry, this Plants use some of this sugar, concentrated in nectar to entice pollinators to aid them in reproduction. Nectar is a Sugar -rich liquid produced by plants It is produced either by the Flowers in which it attracts pollinating animals or by extrafloral

Cellular respiration is the process by which organisms (like mammals) break the glucose back down into its constituents, water and carbon dioxide, thus regaining the stored energy the sun originally gave to the plants. Cellular respiration is the set of the metabolic reactions and processes that take place in Organisms cells to convert biochemical energy from Mammals ( class Mammalia) are a class of Vertebrate Animals characterized by the presence of Sweat glands, including sweat glands Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single The proportion of photosynthetic activity of plants and other photosynthesizers to the respiration of other organisms determines the specific composition of the Earth's atmosphere, particularly its oxygen level. Global air currents mix the atmosphere and maintain nearly the same balance of elements in areas of intense biological activity and areas of slight biological activity. Airstream is a brand of luxury Recreational vehicle manufactured in Jackson Center Ohio, USA.

Water is also exchanged between the hydrosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere and biosphere in regular cycles. The Earth 's Water is always in movement and the water cycle, also known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the continuous movement of water on above The oceans are large tanks, which store water, ensure thermal and climatic stability, as well as the transport of chemical elements thanks to large oceanic currents. An ocean current is continuous directed movement of Ocean water.

For a better understanding of how the biosphere works, and various dysfunctions related to human activity, American scientists simulated the biosphere in a small-scale model, called Biosphere II. Biosphere 2 is a 314-acre (127 ha) structure originally built to be an artificial closed ecological system in Oracle, Arizona ( USA

The ecosystem concept

Main article: Ecosystem

A central principle of ecology is that each living organism has an ongoing and continual relationship with every other element that makes up its environment. An ecosystem is a natural unit consisting of all plants animals and micro-organisms( Biotic factors in an area functioning together with all of the non-living physical ( The sum total of interacting living organisms (the biocoenosis) and their non-living environment (the biotope) in an area is termed an ecosystem. A biocoenosis (alternatively biocoenose or biocenose) termed by Karl Möbius in 1877 describes all the interacting Organisms living together Biotope is an area of uniform environmental conditions providing a living place for a specific assemblage of plants and animals. Studies of ecosystems usually focus on the movement of energy and matter through the system.

Almost all ecosystems run on energy captured from the sun by primary producers via photosynthesis. See also Primary production (economics Primary production is the production of Organic compounds from atmospheric or aquatic Carbon dioxide, Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. This energy then flows through the food chains to primary consumers (herbivores who eat and digest the plants), and on to secondary and tertiary consumers (either carnivores or omnivores). Herbivory is a form of Predation in which an Organism, known as a herbivore, consumes principally Autotrophs ref name=Campbell>Campbell Herbivory is a form of Predation in which an Organism, known as a herbivore, consumes principally Autotrophs ref name=Campbell>Campbell A carnivore (ˈkɑrnɪvɔər meaning 'meat eater' ( Latin carne meaning 'flesh' and vorare meaning 'to devour' is any animal with a diet consisting In Ecology, trophic dynamics is the system of trophic levels ( Greek trophē, food which describe the position that an organism occupies A carnivore (ˈkɑrnɪvɔər meaning 'meat eater' ( Latin carne meaning 'flesh' and vorare meaning 'to devour' is any animal with a diet consisting Omnivores (from Latin omne all everything vorare to devour are species that eat both Plants and Animals as their primary Energy is lost to living organisms when it is used by the organisms to do work, or is lost as waste heat. In Physics, mechanical work is the amount of Energy transferred by a Force. Waste heat refers to Heat produced by Machines and industrial processes for which no useful application is found and is regarded as a waste By-product

Matter is incorporated into living organisms by the primary producers. Photosynthetic plants fix carbon from carbon dioxide and nitrogen from atmospheric nitrogen or nitrates present in the soil to produce amino acids. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Much of the carbon and nitrogen contained in ecosystems is created by such plants, and is then consumed by secondary and tertiary consumers and incorporated into themselves. Nutrients are usually returned to the ecosystem via decomposition. Decomposition (or spoilage) refers to the break down of tissue of a formerly living Organism into simpler forms of matter The entire movement of chemicals in an ecosystem is termed a biogeochemical cycle, and includes the carbon and nitrogen cycle. In Ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a Chemical element or Molecule moves through both biotic The carbon cycle is the biogeochemical cycle by which carbon is exchanged among the Biosphere, Pedosphere, Geosphere, Hydrosphere, and The nitrogen cycle is the Biogeochemical cycle that describes the transformations of Nitrogen and nitrogen-containing compounds in nature

Ecosystems of any size can be studied; for example, a rock and the plant life growing on it might be considered an ecosystem. This rock might be within a plain, with many such rocks, small grass, and grazing animals, also an ecosystem. This plain might be in the tundra, which is also an ecosystem (although once they are of this size, they are generally termed ecozones or biomes). In physical Geography, tundra is an area where the Tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons An ecozone or biogeographic realm is the largest scale biogeographic division of the earth's surface based on the historic and evolutionary distribution patterns A biome is a climatically and geographically defined area of ecologically similar climatic conditions such as communities of Plants Animals and In fact, the entire terrestrial surface of the earth, all the matter which composes it, the air which is directly above it, and all the living organisms living within it can be considered as one, large ecosystem.

Ecosystems can be roughly divided into terrestrial ecosystems (including forest ecosystems, steppes, savannas, and so on), freshwater ecosystems (lakes, ponds and rivers), and marine ecosystems, depending on the dominant biotope. Forest ecology is the scientific study of the interrelated patterns processes Flora, Fauna and ecosystems in Forests. In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced A savanna or savannah is a Tropical or Subtropical Grassland or Woodland Ecosystem. Marine ecosystems are among of the earth's Aquatic ecosystems They include Oceans Salt marshes estuaries Lagoons, rocky Subtidal

Dynamics and stability

Main articles: Biogeochemistry, Homeostasis, and Population dynamics

Ecological factors which affect dynamic change in a population or species in a given ecology or environment are usually divided into two groups: abiotic and biotic. The field of biogeochemistry involves scientific study of the chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes and reactions Homeostasis (from Greek: ὅμος hómos, "equal" and ιστημι istēmi, "to stand" lit Population dynamics is the study of marginal and long-term changes in the numbers individual weights and age composition of individuals in one or several Populations and In Biology a population is the collection of inter-breeding organisms of a particular Species; in Sociology In Biology, a species is one of the basic units of Biological classification and a Taxonomic rank. See also Natural environment The '''biophysical''' environment is the symbiosis between the physical environment and the Biological

Abiotic factors are geological, geographical, hydrological and climatological parameters. Ecohydrology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" grc ὕδωρ hydōr, "water" and grc -λογία -logia A biotope is an environmentally uniform region characterized by a particular set of abiotic ecological factors. Specific abiotic factors include:

Biocenose, or community, is a group of populations of plants, animals, micro-organisms. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. See also Natural environment The '''biophysical''' environment is the symbiosis between the physical environment and the Biological Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five Pollen is a fine to coarse powder consisting of microgametophytes ( pollen grains) which produce the male Gametes (sperm cells of In Biology, a spore is a reproductive structure that is adapted for dispersal and surviving for extended periods of time in unfavorable conditions Soil, often typeset as SOiL, is a four piece rock band from Chicago Illinois United States founded by Shaun Glass Tom Schofield Tim King and Adam Zadel pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. Soil salinity and Dryland salinity are two problems degrading the Environment of Australia. Temperature is a physical property of a system that underlies the common notions of hot and cold something that is hotter generally has the greater temperature Light, or visible light, is Electromagnetic radiation of a Wavelength that is visible to the Human eye (about 400–700 Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. A natural disaster is the consequence of a Natural hazard (eg Each population is the result of procreations between individuals of same species and cohabitation in a given place and for a given time. Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced Cohabitation is when people live together in an emotionally- and/or physically- Intimate relationship. When a population consists of an insufficient number of individuals, that population is threatened with extinction; the extinction of a species can approach when all biocenoses composed of individuals of the species are in decline. In small populations, consanguinity (inbreeding) can result in reduced genetic diversity that can further weaken the biocenose. Inbreeding is breeding between close Relatives whether plant or animal Genetic diversity is a level of Biodiversity that refers to the total number of genetic characteristics in the genetic makeup of a species

Biotic ecological factors also influence biocenose viability; these factors are considered as either intraspecific and interspecific relations.

Intraspecific relations are those which are established between individuals of the same species, forming a population. They are relations of co-operation or competition, with division of the territory, and sometimes organization in hierarchical societies. Distinguish from Corporation. Cooperation, co-operation, or coöperation is the process of working or acting together Competition is a rivalry between individuals groups nations or animals for territory or resources
An antlion lies in wait under its pit trap, built in dry dust under a building, awaiting unwary insects that fall in. Many pest insects are partly or wholly controlled by other insect predators.
An antlion lies in wait under its pit trap, built in dry dust under a building, awaiting unwary insects that fall in. Antlions are a family of Insects in the order Neuroptera with the Scientific name Myrmeleontidae (sometimes misspelled as Many pest insects are partly or wholly controlled by other insect predators. Biological control of pests in Agriculture is a method of controlling pests (including Insects Mites Weeds and plant diseases
Interspecific relations—interactions between different species—are numerous, and usually described according to their beneficial, detrimental or neutral effect (for example, mutualism (relation ++) or competition (relation --). Biological interactions result from the fact that Organisms in an Ecosystem interact with each other in the natural world no organism is an autonomous entity isolated Mutualism is a Biological interaction between individuals of two different Species, where both individuals derive a fitness benefit for example increased Competition is a rivalry between individuals groups nations or animals for territory or resources The most significant relation is the relation of predation (to eat or to be eaten), which leads to the essential concepts in ecology of food chains (for example, the grass is consumed by the herbivore, itself consumed by a carnivore, itself consumed by a carnivore of larger size). Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. A high predator to prey ratio can have a negative influence on both the predator and prey biocenoses in that low availability of food and high death rate prior to sexual maturity can decrease (or prevent the increase of) populations of each, respectively. Selective hunting of species by humans which leads to population decline is one example of a high predator to prey ratio in action. Other interspecific relations include parasitism, infectious disease and competition for limiting resources, which can occur when two species share the same ecological niche. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. An infectious disease is a clinically evident Disease resulting from the presence of Pathogenic microbial agents including Pathogenic viruses Pathogenic In Ecology, a niche (pronounced nich nēsh or nish A shorthand definition of niche is how an organism makes a living

The existing interactions between the various living beings go along with a permanent mixing of mineral and organic substances, absorbed by organisms for their growth, their maintenance and their reproduction, to be finally rejected as waste. These permanent recyclings of the elements (in particular carbon, oxygen and nitrogen) as well as the water are called biogeochemical cycles. Carbon (kɑɹbən is a Chemical element with the symbol C and its Atomic number is 6 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. In Ecology and Earth science, a biogeochemical cycle is a circuit or pathway by which a Chemical element or Molecule moves through both biotic They guarantee a durable stability of the biosphere (at least when unchecked human influence and extreme weather or geological phenomena are left aside). See also List of extreme weather events Extreme weather includes Weather phenomena that are at the extremes of the historical distribution especially This self-regulation, supported by negative feedback controls, ensures the perenniality of the ecosystems. Feedback is a circular causal Process whereby some proportion of a system's output is returned (fed back to the Input. It is shown by the very stable concentrations of most elements of each compartment. This is referred to as homeostasis. Homeostasis (from Greek: ὅμος hómos, "equal" and ιστημι istēmi, "to stand" lit The ecosystem also tends to evolve to a state of ideal balance, reached after a succession of events, the climax (for example a pond can become a peat bog). Ecological succession, a fundamental concept in Ecology, refers to more-or-less predictable and orderly changes in the composition or structure of an ecological community The term climax community, also described as a climatic climax community, is an ecological term for a biological community of Plants and A bog or mire is a Wetland type that accumulates Acidic Peat, a deposit of dead plant material &ndash usually Mosses but also

Spatial relationships and subdivisions of land

Main articles: Biome and ecozone

Ecosystems are not isolated from each other, but are interrelated. A biome is a climatically and geographically defined area of ecologically similar climatic conditions such as communities of Plants Animals and An ecozone or biogeographic realm is the largest scale biogeographic division of the earth's surface based on the historic and evolutionary distribution patterns For example, water may circulate between ecosystems by the means of a river or ocean current. Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. "Riverine" redirects here For the use of that term in Maritime geography, see there An ocean current is continuous directed movement of Ocean water. Water itself, as a liquid medium, even defines ecosystems. Some species, such as salmon or freshwater eels move between marine systems and fresh-water systems. Salmon is the common name for several species of Fish of the family Salmonidae. True eels ( Anguilliformes) are an order of Fish, which consists of four suborders 19 families 110 Genera and approximately 600 These relationships between the ecosystems lead to the concept of a biome.

A biome is a homogeneous ecological formation that exists over a large region as tundra or steppes. A biome is a climatically and geographically defined area of ecologically similar climatic conditions such as communities of Plants Animals and In physical Geography, tundra is an area where the Tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons In physical Geography, a steppe ( German, from степь - "a flat and arid land" степ - /stɛp/ тал - tal дала - /dɑlɑ/ pronounced The biosphere comprises all of the Earth's biomes -- the entirety of places where life is possible -- from the highest mountains to the depths of the oceans. The biosphere is the broadest level of ecological study the global sum of all Ecosystems.

Biomes correspond rather well to subdivisions distributed along the latitudes, from the equator towards the poles, with differences based on to the physical environment (for example, oceans or mountain ranges) and to the climate. The equator (sometimes referred to colloquially as "the Line") is the intersection of the Earth 's surface with the plane perpendicular to the A geographical pole, or geographic pole, is either of two fixed points on the surface of a spinning body or Planet, at 90 degrees from the Equator, based Climate encompasses the temperatures humidity rainfall atmospheric particle count and numerous other meteorogical factors in a given region over long periods of Their variation is generally related to the distribution of species according to their ability to tolerate temperature and/or dryness. For example, one may find photosynthetic algae only in the photic part of the ocean (where light penetrates), while conifers are mostly found in mountains. Photosynthesis is a Metabolic pathway that converts Light Energy into Chemical energy. Algae ( sing. alga are a large and diverse group of simple typically Autotrophic organisms ranging from Unicellular to Multicellular forms

Though this is a simplification of more complicated scheme, latitude and altitude approximate a good representation of the distribution of biodiversity within the biosphere. Latitude, usually denoted symbolically by the Greek letter phi ( Φ) gives the location of a place on Earth (or other planetary body north or south of the Altitude is the Elevation of a point or object from a known level or datum (plural data Biodiversity is the variation of Life forms within a given Ecosystem, Biome or for the entire Earth. Very generally, the richness of biodiversity (as well for animal than plant species) is decreasing most rapidly near the equator and less rapidly as one approaches the poles. The equator (sometimes referred to colloquially as "the Line") is the intersection of the Earth 's surface with the plane perpendicular to the

The biosphere may also be divided into ecozones, which are very well defined today and primarily follow the continental borders. An ecozone or biogeographic realm is the largest scale biogeographic division of the earth's surface based on the historic and evolutionary distribution patterns The ecozones are themselves divided into ecoregions, though there is not agreement on their limits. An ecoregion ( ecological region) sometimes called a bioregion, is an ecologically and geographically defined area smaller than a "realm" or "

Ecosystem productivity

In an ecosystem, the connections between species are generally related to food and their role in the food chain. Food is any substance usually composed primarily of Carbohydrates Fats water and/or Proteins that can be eaten or drunk by an Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. There are three categories of organisms:

These relations form sequences, in which each individual consumes the preceding one and is consumed by the one following, in what are called food chains or food networks. Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem. An ecological network is a representation of the biotic interactions in an Ecosystem, in which species (nodes are connected by pairwise interactions (links In a food network, there will be fewer organisms at each level as one follows the links of the network up the chain.

These concepts lead to the idea of biomass (the total living matter in a given place), of primary productivity (the increase in the mass of plants during a given time) and of secondary productivity (the living matter produced by consumers and the decomposers in a given time). Biomass, in Ecology, is the mass of living biological organisms in a given area or Ecosystem at a given time See also Primary production (economics Primary production is the production of Organic compounds from atmospheric or aquatic Carbon dioxide,

These two last ideas are key, since they make it possible to evaluate the load capacity -- the number of organisms which can be supported by a given ecosystem. In any food network, the energy contained in the level of the producers is not completely transferred to the consumers. And the higher one goes up the chain, the more energy and resources is lost and consumed. Thus, from an energy—and environmental—point of view, it is more efficient for humans to be primary consumers (to subsist from vegetables, grains, legumes, fruit, etc. ) than as secondary consumers (from eating herbivores, omnivores, or their products, such as milk, chickens, cattle, sheep, etc. ) and still more so than as a tertiary consumer (from consuming carnivores, omnivores, or their products, such as fur, pigs, snakes, alligators, etc. ). An ecosystem(s) is unstable when the load capacity is overrun and is especially unstable when a population doesn't have an ecological niche and overconsumers.

The productivity of ecosystems is sometimes estimated by comparing three types of land-based ecosystems and the total of aquatic ecosystems:

Humanity's actions over the last few centuries have seriously reduced the amount of the Earth covered by forests (deforestation), and have increased agro-ecosystems (agriculture). Deforestation is the conversion of Forested areas to non-forest land for use such as Arable land, Pasture, urban use logged area or wasteland Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture In recent decades, an increase in the areas occupied by extreme ecosystems has occurred (desertification). Desertification is the degradation of land in arid and dry sub-humid areas resulting primarily from human activities and influenced by climatic variations

Ecological crisis

Generally, an ecological crisis occurs with the loss of adaptive capacity when the resilience of an environment or of a species or a population evolves in a way unfavourable to coping with perturbations that interfere with that ecosystem, landscape or species survival. An ecological crisis occurs when the environment of a Species or a Population changes in a way that destabilizes its continued survival Adaptive capacity is the capacity of a System to adapt if the environment where the system exists is changing In Ecology, resilience has been defined in two competing fashions that emphasize two different aspects of stability See also Natural environment The '''biophysical''' environment is the symbiosis between the physical environment and the Biological A perturbation of a biological system is an alteration of function induced by external or internal mechanisms It may be that the environment quality degrades compared to the species needs, after a change in an abiotic ecological factor (for example, an increase of temperature, less significant rainfalls). Ecology (from Greek grc οἶκος oikos, "house(hold" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of It may be that the environment becomes unfavourable for the survival of a species (or a population) due to an increased pressure of predation (for example overfishing). Lastly, it may be that the situation becomes unfavourable to the quality of life of the species (or the population) due to a rise in the number of individuals (overpopulation). Overpopulation refers to a condition where an Organism 's numbers exceed the Carrying capacity of its Habitat.

Ecological crises vary in length and severity, occurring within a few months or taking as long as a few million years. They can also be of natural or anthropic origin. They may relate to one unique species or to many species, as in an Extinction event. An extinction event (also known as mass extinction; extinction-level event, ELE is a sharp decrease in the number of Species in a relatively short period Lastly, an ecological crisis may be local (as an oil spill) or global (a rise in the sea level due to global warming). For the fictional character see Oil Slick (Transformers. An oil spill is the release of a Liquid Petroleum Hydrocarbon into Global warming is the increase in the average measured temperature of the

According to its degree of endemism, a local crisis will have more or less significant consequences, from the death of many individuals to the total extinction of a species. Whatever its origin, disappearance of one or several species often will involve a rupture in the food chain, further impacting the survival of other species. Food chains, also called food networks and/or trophic networks, describe the feeding relationships between species within an Ecosystem.

In the case of a global crisis, the consequences can be much more significant; some extinction events showed the disappearance of more than 90% of existing species at that time. However, it should be noted that the disappearance of certain species, such as the dinosaurs, by freeing an ecological niche, allowed the development and the diversification of the mammals. An ecological crisis thus paradoxically favored biodiversity.

Sometimes, an ecological crisis can be a specific and reversible phenomenon at the ecosystem scale. But more generally, the crises impact will last. Indeed, it rather is a connected series of events, that occur till a final point. From this stage, no return to the previous stable state is possible, and a new stable state will be set up gradually (see homeorhesy).

Lastly, if an ecological crisis can cause extinction, it can also more simply reduce the quality of life of the remaining individuals. Thus, even if the diversity of the human population is sometimes considered threatened (see in particular indigenous people), few people envision human disappearance at short span. The term Indigenous Peoples or autochthonous peoples can be used to describe any Ethnic group who inhabit a geographic region with which they have the earliest historical However, epidemic diseases, famines, impact on health of reduction of air quality, food crises, reduction of living space, accumulation of toxic or non degradable wastes, threats on keystone species (great apes, panda, whales) are also factors influencing the well-being of people. A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation The Air Quality Index ( AQI) is a standardized indicator of the Air Quality in a given location A famine is a widespread shortage of food that may apply to any Faunal species which phenomenon is usually accompanied by regional Malnutrition, Starvation A keystone species is a Species that has a disproportionate effect on its environment relative to its abundance Quality of life is the degree of well-being felt by an individual or group of people

Due to the increases in technology and a rapidly increasing population, humans have more influence on their own environment than any other ecosystem engineer. An ecosystem engineer is any Organism that creates or modifies habitats.

Some common examples of ecological crises are:

Bibliography

References

  1. ^ Frodin, D. G. (2001). Guide to Standard Floras of the World. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 72. ISBN 0-521-79077-8.  “[ecology is] a term first introduced by Haeckel in 1866 as Ökologie and which came into English in 1873” 
  2. ^ Goodland, R. J. (1975) The tropical origin of ecology: Eugen Warming’s jubilee. Oikos 26, 240-245.
  3. ^ R. Ulanowicz, Ecology: The Ascendent Perspective, Columbia (1997)
  4. ^ Ecology: Concepts & Applications. Fourth Edition Manuel C. Molles Jr. U of New Mexico. 2008 McGraw Hill Publishing. ISBN 978-0-07-305082-9

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Dictionary

ecology

-noun

  1. The branch of biology dealing with the relationships of organisms with their environment and with each other.
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