The term Eastern world refers very broadly to the various cultures, social structures and philosophical systems of "the East", namely Asia and East Europe (including Russia, China, Nepal, India, Japan, Persia, the Middle East, and surrounding regions). Culture (from the Latin cultura stemming from colere, meaning "to cultivate" generally refers to patterns of human activity and the symbolic A society is a Population of Humans characterized by patterns of relationships between individuals that share a distinctive Culture and Institutions Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Nepal (नेपाल) is a Landlocked country in South Asia. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Japan topics. The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East.
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Concept of "the East"
The division between "East" and "West" is a product of European cultural history, and of the distinction between European Christendom and the alien cultures beyond it to the East. The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings Christendom usually refers to Christianity as a territorial phenomenon Before the discovery of the Americas and the exploration of Sub-Saharan Africa by the Europeans, only North Africa and other Islamic countries to the East were known in detail, though India and China were vaguely known of. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America Sub-Saharan Africa is a geographical term used to describe the area of the African continent which lies south of the Sahara, or those African countries India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National The crusades established what became a border between "Eastern" and "Western" peoples. The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents With the European colonization of the Americas the East/West distinction became global. The concept of an Eastern, "Indian" (Indies) or "Oriental" sphere was emphasized by ideas of racial as well as religious and cultural differences. The Indies or East Indies (or East India) is a term often used to refer to the islands of SE Asia, especially the Malay Archipelago The Orient is a term which simply means the " East " It originated in Western Asia to describe that part of the world Such distinctions were articulated by Westerners in the scholarly tradition known as Orientalism and Indology. Orientalism refers to the imitation or depiction of aspects of Eastern cultures in the West by writers designers and artists and can also refer to a sympathetic stance Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies People from the East are known by certain regions in the West as "Oriental". The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings Before the arrival of Islam in India, people from the Indian subcontinent were generally known as Hindus and the subcontinent was known as Hindustan or Bharat. A Hindu ( Devanagari: हिन्दू is an adherent of the philosophies and scriptures of Hinduism, a set of religious, Philosophical Hindustan (हिन्दुस्तान, ہندوستان,) is one of the popular Names of India. During the Cold War, the term "Eastern world" was sometimes used as an extension of Eastern bloc, connoting the Soviet Union, China and their communist allies, while the term "Western world" often connoted the United States and its NATO allies such as the United Kingdom and France. Cold War is the state of conflict tension and competition that existed between the United States and the Soviet Union (USSR and their respective allies from the During the Cold War, the term Communist Bloc (or Soviet Bloc) was used to refer to the Soviet Union and countries it either controlled or that were The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR was a constitutionally Socialist state that existed in Eurasia from 1922 to 1991 China ( Wade-Giles ( Mandarin) Chung¹kuo² is a cultural region, an ancient Civilization, and depending on perspective a National Communism is a Socioeconomic structure that promotes the establishment of an egalitarian, classless, stateless Society based The United States of America —commonly referred to as the The North Atlantic Treaty The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located This article is about the country For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic France topics. The concept is often another term for the Far East—a region that bears considerable cultural and religious commonality. The Far East is a term often used by people in the Western world to refer to the countries of East Asia. Eastern philosophy, art, literature, and other traditions, are often found throughout the region in places of high importance, such as popular culture, architecture and traditional literature. The spread of Buddhism and Hindu Yoga is partly responsible for this. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Yoga ( Sanskrit: योग, IAST: yóga, joːgə refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines originating in India, to the
Problems of the concept
Currently terms such as Western, Near East (or Middle East) and Far East are commonly used to distinguish different cultural spheres, based on the standard two-dimensional layout of the world-map, which has the Americas at the far left (West), Europe and Africa in the middle, and Asia to the right (East). The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings B Syria - Belka Woman from Damascus Arab from Baghdadjpg|thumb|Inhabitants of the Near East late nineteenth century The Middle East is a Subcontinent with no clear boundaries often used as a synonym to Near East, in opposition to Far East. The Far East is a term often used by people in the Western world to refer to the countries of East Asia. The Americas are the lands of the Western hemisphere or New World, consisting of the Continents of North America and South America This arrangement is arbitrary because the Earth is round, rather than flat (however this model does ensure that land regions are concentrated in the centre without Eurasia being split in two); therefore, by going west, one will eventually arrive in the east, and when one goes east, one will eventually arrive in the west, provided one keeps going long enough. This is true no matter where one is on the globe's surface (except the Poles, where all directions are either north or south). Because of this, the East/West division has been criticized for being Eurocentric, however the notional 'central-point' between East and West would be to the east of Europe itself. Eurocentrism is the practice of viewing the world from a European perspective with an implied belief either consciously or subconsciously in the preeminence of European (and Some countries, in particular Russia, do not fit neatly into this opposition. Russia (Россия Rossiya) or the Russian Federation ( Rossiyskaya Federatsiya) is a transcontinental Country extending
While Western Orientalist traditions included both Islamic and further Eastern cultures under the generic heading of "the East", the common Abrahamic traditions of Islam and Christianity mean that a case can be made that both Islam and Christianity together form a different cultural sphere from countries further to the East in which the concept of Dharma plays a far more important role than that of an authoritative God. The Sanskrit term ( Devanāgarī: धर्म Pali transliteration dhamma) is an Indian spiritual and religious God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. In recent years the concept of "Eastern culture" has increasingly become restricted to East Asian traditions. However, the existence of Islam and Christianity as powerful forces in countries such as Indonesia and the Philippines makes this usage problematic. The Republic of Indonesia ( (Republik Indonesia is a Country in Southeast Asia. The Philippines ( Filipino: Pilipinas, officially known as the Republic of the Philippines (fil ''Republika ng Pilipinas'' RP
Foundations of Eastern culture
Eastern culture has developed many themes and traditions. Some important ones are:
- Buddhism—contributed to a concept of self wherein the importance of ego was diminished, and that suffering was regarded as an accepted part of life. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices
- Confucianism—social hierarchy where position is based upon merit as determined through the imperial examination system. Confucianism ( is a Chinese ethical and philosophical system originally developed from the teachings of the fifth century B This social hierarchy promoted respect for elders and authority, and valued harmony within family.
- Hinduism—the oldest surviving religion, which contributed the concept of Dharma and served as the origin of the Dharmic religions. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. The Sanskrit term ( Devanāgarī: धर्म Pali transliteration dhamma) is an Indian spiritual and religious Indian religions, also called Dharmic religions, are the related religious traditions that originated in the Indian subcontinent, namely Hinduism,
- Islam—the majority of the world Muslim population have always lived in Asia, due to the influence of the Islamic civilization. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion
- Sikhism-A religion that developed in the warring plains of Punjab in an atmosphere of ideological clash between Islam and Hinduism. Sikhism ( IPA: or; ਸਿੱਖੀ sikkhī, IPA:) founded on the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus in fifteenth century Punjab ( ਪੰਜਾਬ پنجاب, पंजाब پنجاب also Panjab (پنجاب meaning "Land of the Five Rivers") (c For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Its followers retain spiritual as well as martial qualities.
- Martial arts
- Taoism—concepts of good and bad energy, the connectedness of mind and body and nature, etc. Martial arts are systems of codified practices and traditions of training for Combat. Taoism (pronounced /ˈdaʊɪzəm/ or /ˈtaʊɪzəm/ also spelled '''Daoism''') refers to a variety of related Philosophical and Religious traditions
- "Oriental Medicine"—reflexology, acupuncture, herbal medicine, etc. Reflexology, or zone therapy, is the practice of massaging squeezing or pushing on parts of the feet, or sometimes the Hands and Ears with History Antiquity In China, the practice of acupuncture can perhaps be traced as far back as Herbalism is a traditional Medicinal or Folk medicine practice based on the use of Plants and Plant extracts Herbalism is also known as
- Zoroastrianism—the oldest surviving monotheistic religion that was practiced in ancient Persia
Achievements of Eastern culture
Eastern culture, especially China, India, and the Middle East, had and still have a major impact on world civilization. Zoroastrianism (ˌzɔroʊˈæstriəˌnɪzəm is the religion and philosophy based on the teachings For the Celtic Frost album see Monotheist (album In Theology, monotheism (from Greek grc [[wiktμόνος μόνος]] The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia Chinese civilization originated in various city-states along the Yellow River ( valley in the Neolithic era This article is about the history of South Asia prior to the Partition of British India in 1947 See also Timeline of Middle Eastern history This article is a general overview of the history of the Middle East.
China
- Further information: Culture of China, Chinese astronomy, and Chinese mathematics
It was China that invented paper, compass, gunpowder and printing (the Four Great Inventions of ancient China) that had profound effects on civilizations worldwide. The history of Science and Technology in China is both long and rich with many contributions to science and technology The history of Science and Technology in China is both long and rich with many contributions to science and technology The Culture of China (traditional Chinese 中國文化 simplified Chinese 中国文化 is home to one of the world's oldest and most complex Civilizations covering a history Astronomy in China has a very long history Oracle bones from the Shang Dynasty ( 2nd millennium BC) record eclipses and novae Mathematics in China emerged independently by the 11th century BC Paper is thin material mainly used for writing upon printing upon or packaging A compass, magnetic compass or mariner's compass is a navigational instrument for determining direction relative to the earth's Magnetic poles It consists Gunpowder is a an explosive mixture of Sulfur, Charcoal and Potassium nitrate (also known as saltpetre/saltpeter that burns rapidly producing volumes Printing is a process for reproducing text and image typically with ink on Paper using a printing press The Four Great Inventions of ancient China ( meaning "four great inventions" are four inventions that are celebrated in Chinese culture for their historical Among the technological accomplishments of China were early seismological detectors, dry docks, sliding calipers, the double-action piston pump, cast iron, the iron plough, the multi-tube seed drill, the wheelbarrow, the suspension bridge, the parachute, natural gas as fuel, the raised-relief map, the propeller, and the crossbow. A caliper ( British spelling also calliper) is a device used to measure the distance between two symmetrically opposing sides For information on Wikipedia project-related discussions see WikipediaVillage pump. Cast iron usually refers to grey cast iron, but identifies a large group of Ferrous Alloys which solidify with a Eutectic. The plough ( American spelling plow; both plaʊ is a Tool used in Farming for initial cultivation of soil in preparation for sowing seed A seed drill is a device for planting Seeds in the soil Before the introduction of the seed drill the common practice was to "broadcast" seeds by hand A wheelbarrow is a small hand-propelled vehicle usually with just one Wheel, designed to be pushed and guided by a single person using two handles to the rear or a sail This article is concerned with a particular type of suspension bridge the suspended-deck type A parachute is a device used to slow the motion of an object through an atmosphere by creating drag. Natural gas is a Gaseous Fossil fuel consisting primarily of Methane but including significant quantities of Ethane, Propane, A raised-relief map or terrain model is a three-dimensional representation usually of terrain A propeller is essentially a type of fan which transmits power by converting Rotational motion into Thrust for propulsion of a vehicle such as an A crossbow is a Weapon consisting of a bow mounted on a stock that shoots projectiles often called bolts Chinese astronomers were also among the first to record observations of a supernova. A supernova (plural supernovae or supernovas) is a stellar Explosion. It was eastern culture that first invented the abacus, planetarium, book, ink, first cannon, bomb (using gunpowder), nest cart, fireworks, cards, Paper money, toothbrush, [1] [2]. An abacus, also called a counting frame, is a calculating tool used primarily by Asians for performing arithmetic processes A planetarium is a Theatre built primarily for presenting educational and entertaining shows about Astronomy and the night sky or for training in Celestial navigation A Book is a set or collection of written printed illustrated or blank sheets made of Paper, Parchment, or other material usually fastened together An ink is a Liquid containing various Pigments and/or Dyes used for coloring a surface to produce an Image, text, or | NOTE Throughout this article "cannon" is used as BOTH the || singular and plural A bomb is any of a range of devices that typically rely on the Exothermic Chemical reaction of an Explosive material to produce an extremely "CARTS" redirects here For the transportation system see Capital Area Rural Transportation System, or Chautauqua CARTS. A firework is classified as a low explosive pyrotechnic device used primarily for aesthetic and entertainment purposes Paper Money is the second album by the band Montrose. It was released in 1974 and was the last album to feature Sammy Hagar as lead vocalist The toothbrush is an instrument consisting of a small Brush on a handle used to clean Teeth through Tooth brushing. In medicine, the elixir formulation, herbal medicine, craniotomy, and acupuncture are all attributed to the East. Herbalism is a traditional Medicinal or Folk medicine practice based on the use of Plants and Plant extracts Herbalism is also known as A craniotomy is a surgical operation in which part of the Skull, called a bone flap, is removed in order to access the brain History Antiquity In China, the practice of acupuncture can perhaps be traced as far back as
India
- Further information: Culture of India, Vedic Science, Indian astronomy, and Indian mathematics
Four of the world's major religions, Hinduism, Buddhism, Jainism and Sikhism originated in India. The culture of India has been shaped by the long History of India, its unique geography and the absorption of customs traditions and ideas from some of its neighbors Indian astronomy —the earliest textual mention of which is given in the religious literature of India (2nd millennium BCE—became an established tradition by the 1st millennium BCE Indian mathematics &mdashwhich here is the mathematics that emerged in South Asia zero, Negative numbers, Arithmetic, and Algebra. Hinduism is a religious tradition that originated in the Indian subcontinent. Buddhism is a family of beliefs and practices Jainism, traditionally known as Jain Dharma / Shraman Dharma (जैन धर्म is an ancient religion of India. Sikhism ( IPA: or; ਸਿੱਖੀ sikkhī, IPA:) founded on the teachings of Nanak and nine successive gurus in fifteenth century Hinduism, the successor of the ancient Vedic religion, is considered to be the world's oldest existing religion. This article discusses the historical religious practices in the Vedic time period see Hinduism and Indian religions for details Though Buddhism originated in India, it is one of the most practiced religions in East Asia and South East Asia and helped spread Indian philosophical theories like Karma and Dharma to other parts of Asia. The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit Darshanas) may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent Karma ( Sanskrit: कर्म, kárman - "act action performance" Pali: kamma) is the concept of "action" The Sanskrit term ( Devanāgarī: धर्म Pali transliteration dhamma) is an Indian spiritual and religious Yoga, a family of ancient spiritual practices, originated in India and is one of the six schools of Hindu philosophy. Yoga ( Sanskrit: योग, IAST: yóga, joːgə refers to traditional physical and mental disciplines originating in India, to the Hindu philosophy is divided into six Sanskrit ''{{IAST|āstika}}'') schools of thought or darshanas (literally "views" Sankhya Indian thinkers made great work and effort in mathematics among others and Indian mathematics described and theorized many mathematical concepts and applications. Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and Indian mathematics &mdashwhich here is the mathematics that emerged in South Asia zero, Negative numbers, Arithmetic, and Algebra. Indians first invented the decimal notation that is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4. The decimal ( base ten or occasionally denary) Numeral system has ten as its base. . . etc.
India is home to some of the greatest and some of the earliest inventions in mathematical concepts, astronomy, physics, medicine, and applications. Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the It is now generally accepted that India was the birth place of several mathematical concepts, including zero, the decimal system, square root and cube root. In Mathematics, a square root of a number x is a number r such that r 2 = x, or in words a number r whose In Mathematics, a cube root of a number denoted \sqrt{x} or x1/3 is a number a such that a 3 = x It was Indians who theorized about gravity, determining sun is a star among others. Gravitation is a natural Phenomenon by which objects with Mass attract one another The Sun (Sol is the Star at the center of the Solar System. A star is a massive luminous ball of plasma. The nearest star to Earth is the Sun, which is the source of most of the Energy on Earth Aryabhatta is considered to be the first mathematician to use letters of the alphabet to denote unknown quantities and to conclude the pi is an irrational number. Āryabhaṭa ( Devanāgarī: आर्यभट (AD 476 &ndash 550 is the first in the line of great mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics IMPORTANT NOTICE Please note that Wikipedia is not a database to store the millions of digits of π please refrain from adding those to Wikipedia as it could cause technical problems Āryabhaṭa is widely regarded as one of the famous and influential thinkers, mathematicians and astronomers who for instance described the solar eclipse, who first described the reason for movement of stars, who first calculated the circumference of the earth with only 0. Āryabhaṭa ( Devanāgarī: आर्यभट (AD 476 &ndash 550 is the first in the line of great mathematician-astronomers from the classical age of Indian mathematics A solar eclipse occurs when the Moon passes between the Sun and the Earth so that the Sun is wholly or partially obscured The circumference is the distance around a closed Curve. Circumference is a kind of Perimeter. 2% difference from the current prediction. Other Indian mathematicians, such as Brahmagupta and Bhaskara too made significant contributions to field of mathematics. Brahmagupta ( (598–668 was an Indian mathematician and astronomer. Acharya Sushruta, author of Sushruta Samhita, is believed to be the first person to carry out a surgery. Sushruta was a surgeon and teacher of Ayurveda who flourished in the Indian city of Kashi by the 6th century BCE The Sushruta Samhita is a Sanskrit text on Surgery, attributed to Sushruta, (6th century BCE the "father of Surgery" Surgery (from the χειρουργική cheirourgikē, via chirurgiae meaning "hand work" is a medical specialty that uses operative manual and instrumental Ayurveda, an ancient Indian medical practice, depicts the achievements Indians had made in the field of medical science. Ayurveda ( Devanāgarī: आयुर्वॆद the 'science of life' is a system of Traditional medicine native to India, and practiced in other Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the The most commonly held view is that Chess originated in India. Chess is a recreational and competitive Game played between two players.
Middle East
- Islamic Golden Age and Arab Empire
Other Eastern civilizations
Japan is one of the leading nations in the fields of scientific research, particularly technology, machinery and biomedical research. The Ancient Near East refers to early Civilizations within a region roughly corresponding to the modern Middle East: Mesopotamia (modern Iraq Mesopotamia (from the Greek meaning "land between the rivers" is an area geographically located between the Tigris and Euphrates rivers largely corresponding The Sumerians were a people who lived in Mesopotamia (modern-day Iraq) from the 4th millennium BC to the 3rd millennium BC. See also History of architecture Assyria flourished from the Old Assyrian period in the Middle Bronze Age until the Neo-Assyrian Empire During the period when they were competing for dominance in Mesopotamia the neighbouring sister-states of Babylonia and Assyria differed essentially in character Babylonian astronomy refers to the astronomical theories and methods that were developed in ancient Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris Archaeological material for the study of Babylonian law is singularly extensive Babylonian literature is one of the world's oldest Drawing on the traditions of Sumerian literature, the Babylonians compiled a vast textual tradition of mythological Babylonian mathematics refers to any mathematics of the peoples of Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) from the days of the early Sumerians to the fall of The Persian Empire was a series of Iranian empires that ruled over the Iranian plateau, the original Persian homeland and beyond in Western Asia The Iranian cultural region - consisting of the modern nations of Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Azerbaijan, Uzbekistan, and Architecture in " Greater Iran " has a continuous history from at least 5000BCE to the present with characteristic examples distributed over a vast area from Syria Persian literature ( spans two and a half millennia though much of the pre- Islamic material has been lost Middle Persian literature is Persian literature of the 1st millennium AD, especially of the Sassanid period Science and technology in Iran, formerly known as Persia, have a history like the country itself Islamic art encompasses the arts produced from the 7th century onwards by people (not necessarily Muslim) who lived within the territory that was inhabited by culturally Islamic architecture has encompassed a wide range of both secular and religious styles from the foundation of Islam to the present day influencing the design and construction Islamic literature refers to literature written with an Islamic perspective in any language Arabic literature ( Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is a period of intense philosophical development beginning in the 2nd century AH of the Islamic calendar See also Islamic philosophy Contemporary Islamic philosophy refers to the situation of Islamic philosophy in the 20th century Ophthalmology was one of the foremost branches in medieval Islamic medicine. The Islamic Golden Age from the 8th century to the 13th century witnessed a fundamental transformation in Agriculture known as the Arab Agricultural Technologically Japan is well known for its Automotive and Electronics industries throughout the world and Japanese electronic products account for a large share Nearly 700,000 researchers share a US$130 billion research and development budget, the third largest in the world.
One of the best known artifacts of Korea's history of science and technology is Cheomseongdae(첨성대, 瞻星臺), a 9. Like most other regions in the world science and technology in Korea has experienced periods of intense growth as well as long periods of stagnation 4-meter high observatory built in 634. It is considered to be one of the world's oldest surviving astronomical observatories.
The world's first metal mechanical movable type printing was developed in Korea in 1232 by Choe Yun-ui during the Goryeo Dynasty, modeled after widespread Chinese clay (Bi Sheng in 1041), several hundred years before Johann Gutenberg developed his metal letterset type (Cumings 1997: 65). Though the block printing was used much earlier, metal movable type printing press marked a significant development in printing allowing the same tools to be used for more diverse printings. The Jikji is the world's earliest remaining movable metal printed book, printed in Korea in 1377. The world's earliest known surviving example of woodblock printing is the Mugujeonggwang Great Dharani Sutra. It is believed to have been printed in Korea in 750-751 AD which, if correct, would make it older than the Diamond Sutra.
During the Joseon period the earliest ironclad warships, the Geobukseon (Turtle Ship) were invented,[34] as well as other weapons such as the Bigyeokjincheolloe (비격진천뢰, 飛擊震天雷) and the hwacha.
References
- Ankerl, Guy [2000]. Global communication without universal civilization, INU societal research Vol. 1: Coexisting contemporary civilizations : Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
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