Earthworm
Lumbricus terrestris, the Common European Earthworm
Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Annelida Class: Oligochaeta Order: Haplotaxida Suborder: Lumbricina
Families
Acanthodrilidae   Criodrilidae   Eudrilidae   Glossoscolecidae   Lumbricidae   Megascolecidae

Earthworm is the usual name for the largest members of Oligochaeta (which is either a class or subclass depending on the author) in the phylum Annelida. Lumbricus terrestris (L is a large reddish Worm native to Europe, but now also widely distributed elsewhere around the world (along with several The annelids, collectively called Annelida (from Latin anellus "little ring" are a large phylum of Animals comprising For the plant Genus from the sunflower family ( Asteraceae) see Oligochaeta (plant. The Haplotaxida is one of two orders within the subclass Oligochaeta, the other being the Lumbriculida it is also related with the earthworm Acanthodrilidae is an ancient and widely distributed family of Earthworms which has native representatives in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa The family Criodrilidae is represented by genera Criodrilus and Biwadrilus that are limicolous (mud-dwelling and/or aquatic Earthworms Eudrilid Earthworms are African earthworms with one species Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg 1867 widely distributed around the warmer parts of the world Glossoscolecidae is a large family of Earthworms which has native representatives in South and Central America The Lumbricidae is a family of Earthworms which includes most of the earthworm species well-known to Europeans Megascolecidae is a large family of Earthworms which has native representatives in Australia, New Zealand, Southeast and East Asia and For the plant Genus from the sunflower family ( Asteraceae) see Oligochaeta (plant. The annelids, collectively called Annelida (from Latin anellus "little ring" are a large phylum of Animals comprising In classical systems they were placed in the order Opisthopora, on the basis of the male pores opening posterior to the female pores, even though the internal male segments are anterior to the female. Theoretical cladistic studies have placed them instead in the suborder Lumbricina of the order Haplotaxida, but this may again soon change. Cladistics is the hierarchical classification of Species based on evolutionary ancestry Folk names for the earthworm include "dew-worm", "rainworm", "night crawler" and "angleworm" (due to its use as fishing bait).

Earthworms are also called megadriles (or big worms), as opposed to the microdriles (or small worms) in the families Tubificidae, Lumbriculidae, and Enchytraeidae, among others. The Lumbriculidae are a family of Microdrile Oligochaetes common in fresh-water environments including streams lakes marshes wells and ground-water The Enchytraeidae (See Enchytraeus) are a Microdrile oligochaete family and include both terrestrial species known as potworms that live The megadriles are characterized by having a multilayered clitellum (which is much more obvious than the single-layered one of the microdriles), a vascular system with true capillaries, and male pores behind the female pores. In Earthworms and some other Annelids, the clitellum is a thickened Glandular section of the body wall that secretes a Viscid sac in which the

Contents 1 Anatomy 2 Reproduction 3 Regeneration 4 Behavior 4.1 Rainstorms 5 Locomotion and importance to soil 6 Benefits 7 Earthworms as invasive species 7.1 North America 7.2 Australia 8 Special habitats 9 Ecology 10 Economic impact 11 Taxonomy and main geographic origins of earthworms 12 References 13 Further reading 14 See also 15 External links

Anatomy

Earthworms have a simple circulatory system. They have two main blood vessels that extend through the length of their body: a ventral blood vessel which leads the blood to the posterior end, and a dorsal blood vessel which leads to the anterior end. In fields of Anatomy, anatomical terms of location are descriptive terms to help identify relative positions or directions within a species In fields of Anatomy, anatomical terms of location are descriptive terms to help identify relative positions or directions within a species The dorsal vessel is contractile and pumps blood forward, where it is pumped into the ventral vessel by a series of "hearts" (aortic arches) which vary in number in the different taxa. A typical lumbricid will have 5 pairs of hearts. The Lumbricidae is a family of Earthworms which includes most of the earthworm species well-known to Europeans The blood is distributed from the ventral vessel into capillaries on the body wall and other organs and into a vascular sinus in the gut wall where gases and nutrients are exchanged. This arrangement may be complicated in the various groups by suboesophageal, supraoesophageal, parietal and neural vessels, but the basic arrangement holds in all earthworms. Earthworms eat in a unique way: their mouth cavity connects directly into the digestive tract without any intermediate processes. Most earthworms are decomposers feeding on undecayed leaf and other plant matter, others are more geophagous. Geophagy is the practice of eating earthy or soil-like substances such as Clay, and Chalk, in order to obtain essential nutrients such as sulfur and phosphorus from

Reproduction

Earthworms are hermaphrodites (both female and male organs within the same individual). A hermaphrodite is an organism having both male and female reproductive organs They have testes, seminal vesicles and pores which produce, store and release the sperm into . The seminal vesicles ( glandulae vesiculosae) are a pair of simple tubular glands posteroinferior to the Urinary bladder of males , and ovaries and ovipores. However, most also have one or more pairs of spermathecae (depending on the species) that are internal sacs which receive and store sperm from the other worm in copulation. The spermatheca (plural spermathecae) is an organ of the female reproductive tract in Insects some Mollusks and certain other Invertebrates Some species use external spermatophores for transfer instead. A spermatophore is a capsule or mass created by males of various Animal species containing Spermatozoa and transferred in entirety to the female's Ovipore Copulation and reproduction are separate processes in earthworms. Sexual intercourse, in its biological sense is the act in which the male reproductive organ (in humans and other higher animals enters the female reproductive tract Reproduction is the Biological process by which new individual Organisms are produced The mating pair overlap front ends ventrally and each exchanges sperm with the other. In fields of Anatomy, anatomical terms of location are descriptive terms to help identify relative positions or directions within a species The cocoon, or egg case, is secreted by the clitellum, the external glandular band which is near the front of the worm, but behind the spermathecae. In Earthworms and some other Annelids, the clitellum is a thickened Glandular section of the body wall that secretes a Viscid sac in which the Some time after copulation, long after the worms have separated, the clitellum secretes the cocoon which forms a ring around the worm. The worm then backs out of the ring, and as it does so, injects its own eggs and the other worm's sperm into it. As the worm slips out, the ends of the cocoon seal to form a vaguely lemon-shaped incubator (cocoon) in which the embryonic worms develop. A pupa ( Latin pupa for doll pl pupae or pupas) is the life stage of some Insects undergoing transformation They emerge as small, but fully formed earthworms, except for a lack of the sexual structures, which develop later in about 60 to 90 days. They attain full size in about one year. Several common earthworm species are mostly parthenogenetic, that is, with asexually reproduction resulting in clones. Parthenogenesis (from the Greek παρθένος parthenos, "virgin" + γένεσις genesis, "creation" is an asexual form

Regeneration

Earthworms have the facility to replace or replicate lost segments, but this ability varies between species and depends on the extent of the damage. . Stephenson (1930) devoted a chapter of his monograph to this topic, while G. E. Gates spent 20 years studying regeneration in a variety of species, but “because little interest was shown”, Gates (1972) only published a few of his findings that, nevertheless, show it is theoretically possible to grow two whole worms from a bisected specimen in certain species. Gates’s reports included:

• Eisenia fetida (Savigny, 1826) with head regeneration, in an anterior direction, possible at each intersegmental level back to and including 23/24, while tails were regenerated at any levels behind 20/21 [1]. Eisenia fetida, known under various Common names, including redworms, brandling worms, "tiger worms" and Red wiggler
• Lumbricus terrestris Linneus, 1758 replacing anterior segments from as far back as 13/14 and 16/17 but tail regeneration was never found.
• Perionyx excavatus Perrier, 1872 readily regenerated lost parts of the body, in an anterior direction from as far back as 17/18, and in a posterior direction as far forward as 20/21.
• Lampito mauritii Kinberg, 1867 with regeneration in anterior direction at all levels back to 25/26 and tail regeneration from 30/31; head regeneration was sometimes believed to be caused by internal amputation resulting from Sarcophaga sp. Flies of the Diptera family Sarcophagidae (from the Greek sarco- = Flesh, phage = eating the same roots as the word " Sarcophagus larval infestation.
• Criodrilus lacuum Hoffmeister, 1845 also has prodigious regenerative capacity with ‘head’ regeneration from as far back as. 40/41. [2]

An unidentified Tasmanian earthworm shown growing a second head is reported here: [3].

Behavior

Rainstorms

Earthworms are seen on the surface after large rain storms flood the soil because, despite needing a moist environment to allow the diffusion of gases across their skin membrane, where the soil becomes saturated they begin to drown. To protect themselves they escape to the surface but if the ground is un-naturally hard they may become stranded and die from exposure. This is why they are seen in places like driveways after a storm. However, this theory is not applicable to certain earthworm species that can survive immersion for several days in oxygenated water.

An alternative theory concerning this behaviour is that as some species (notably Lumbricus terrestris) come to the surface to mate they may become stranded. Lumbricus terrestris (L is a large reddish Worm native to Europe, but now also widely distributed elsewhere around the world (along with several However, as this behaviour is limited to only a few species and L. terrestris is rarely, if ever, one of those found stranded on impermeable surfaces, this theory does not seem a very likely explanation.

Another theory is that the worms may be using the moist conditions on the surface to travel more quickly than they can underground, thus colonizing new areas more quickly. Since the relative humidity is higher during and after rain, they do not become dehydrated. This is a dangerous activity in the daytime, since earthworms die quickly when exposed to direct sunlight with its strong UV content, and are more vulnerable to predators such as birds. Ultraviolet ( UV) light is Electromagnetic radiation with a Wavelength shorter than that of Visible light, but longer than X-rays Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs.

A further theory is that, as there are many other organisms in the ground as well, and their respiration increases carbon dioxide, this gas may dissolve into the rainwater to form carbonic acid. Carbon dioxide ( Chemical formula:) is a Chemical compound composed of two Oxygen Atoms covalently bonded to a single Carbonic acid (ancient name acid of air or aerial acid) has the formula H2CO3 As the soil becomes too acidic for the worms, they seek a more neutral environment on the surface. In Computer science, ACID ( Atomicity Consistency Isolation Durability) is a set of properties that guarantee that Database transactions are

Locomotion and importance to soil

Earthworms travel underground by the means of waves of muscular contractions which alternately shorten and lengthen the body. The shortened part is anchored to the surrounding soil by tiny claw-like bristles (setae) set along its segmented length. Seta (plural setae) is a biological term derived from the Latin word for " Bristle " (Typically, earthworms have four pairs of setae for each segment but some genera are perichaetine, having a large number of setae on each segment. ) The whole burrowing process is aided by the secretion of lubricating mucus. Worms can make gurgling noises underground when disturbed as a result of the worm moving through its lubricated tunnels. They also work as biological "pistons' forcing air through the tunnels as they move. Thus earthworm activity aerates and mixes the soil, and is constructive to mineralization and nutrient uptake by vegetation. Certain species of earthworm come to the surface and graze on the higher concentrations of organic matter present there, mixing it with the mineral soil. Because a high level of organic matter mixing is associated with soil fertility, an abundance of earthworms is beneficial to the organic gardener. Organic horticulture is the science and art of growing fruits vegetables flowers or ornamental plants by following the essential principles of organic agriculture in soil In fact as long ago as 1881 Charles Darwin wrote: It may be doubted whether there are many other animals which have played so important a part in the history of the world, as have these lowly organized creatures ^[1]

Benefits

The major benefits of earthworm activities to soil fertility can be summarized as:

• Biological. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life In many soils, earthworms play a major role in converting large pieces of organic matter (e. g. dead leaves) into rich humus, and thus improving soil fertility. Humus (Origin 1790–1800 Latin: earth ground) is the organic material in Soil lending it a dark brown or black colouration This is achieved by the worm's actions of pulling down below any organic matter deposited on the dried dirt, such as leaf fall or manure, either for food or when it needs to plug its burrow. Once in the burrow, the worm will shred the leaf and partially digest it, then mingle it with the earth by saturating it with intestinal secretions. Worm casts (see below) can contain 40% more humus than the top 6" of soil in which the worm is living.

• Chemical. As well as dead organic matter, the earthworm also ingests any other soil particles that are small enough—including stones up to 1/20 of an inch (1. Organic matter (or organic material) is Matter that has come from a once-living Organism; is capable of 25mm) across—into its gizzard wherein minute fragments of grit grind everything into a fine paste which is then digested in the stomach. When the worm excretes this in the form of casts which are deposited on the surface or deeper in the soil, minerals and plant nutrients are made available in an accessible form. Investigations in the US show that fresh earthworm casts are 5 times richer in available nitrogen, 7 times richer in available phosphates and 11 times richer in available potash than the surrounding upper 6 inches (150 mm) of soil. The United States of America —commonly referred to as the Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 A phosphate, an Inorganic chemical, is a salt of Phosphoric acid. Potash (or carbonate of potash) is an impure form of Potassium carbonate ( K 2 CO3) In conditions where there is plenty of available humus, the weight of casts produced may be greater than 4. 5 kg (10 lb) per worm per year, in itself an indicator of why it pays the gardener or farmer to keep worm populations high.

• Physical. By its burrowing actions, the earthworm is of great value in keeping the soil structure open, creating a multitude of channels which allow the processes of both aeration and drainage to occur. Permaculture co-founder Bill Mollison points out that by sliding in their tunnels, earthworms "act as an innumerable army of pistons pumping air in and out of the soils on a 24 hour cycle (more rapidly at night)" ^[2]. The word permaculture, coined by Australians Bill Mollison and David Holmgren during the 1970s is a Portmanteau of perma nent agri' Bill Mollison (born 1928 in Tasmania, Australia) is a researcher author scientist teacher naturalist and has been called the 'father of Permaculture Thus the earthworm not only creates passages for air and water to traverse, but is itself a vital component in the living biosystem that is healthy soil.

See Bioturbation. In Oceanography and Limnology, bioturbation is the displacement and mixing of Sediment particles by benthic Fauna (animals or

The earthworm's existence cannot be taken for granted. Dr. W. E. Shewell Cooper observed "tremendous numerical differences between adjacent gardens" (Soil, Humus And Health), and worm populations are affected by a host of environmental factors, many of which can be influenced by good management practices on the part of the gardener or farmer. Dr Wilfred Edward Shewell-Cooper (1900 - 1982 was a British Organic gardener and pioneer of No dig gardening.

Darwin estimated that arable land contains up to 53,000 worms per acre (13/m²), but more recent research from Rothamsted Experimental Station has produced figures suggesting that even poor soil may support 250,000/acre (62/m²), whilst rich fertile farmland may have up to 1,750,000/acre (432/m²), meaning that the weight of earthworms beneath the farmer's soil could be greater than that of his livestock upon its surface. In Geography, arable land (from Latin arare, to Plough) is an agricultural term meaning land that can be used for The Rothamsted Experimental Station, one of the oldest agricultural research institutions in the world is located at Harpenden in Hertfordshire, England One thing is certain however: rich, fertile soil that is cared for organically and well-fed and husbanded by its steward will reap its reward in a healthy worm population, whilst denuded, overworked, and eroded land will almost certainly contain fewer, scrawny, undernourished specimens.

Earthworms as invasive species

North America

A total of approximately 182 earthworm taxa in 12 families are reported from America north of Mexico, i. e. , USA & Canada, of which 60 (ca. 33%) are exotic/introduced. Only two genera of Lumbricid earthworms are indigenous to North America while introduced genera have spread to areas where earthworms did not formerly exist, especially in the north where forest development relies on a large amount of undecayed leaf matter. The Lumbricidae is a family of Earthworms which includes most of the earthworm species well-known to Europeans When worms decompose that leaf layer, the ecology may shift making the habitat unsurvivable for certain species of trees, ferns and wildflowers. Currently there is no economically feasible method for controlling invasive earthworms in forests. Earthworms normally spread slowly, but can be quickly introduced by human activities such as construction earthmoving, or by fishermen releasing bait, or by plantings from other areas.

Australia

Australia has 650 known species of native earthworm that survive in both rich and in nutrient-poor conditions where they may be sensitive to changes in the environment. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Introduced species are commonly found in agricultural environments along with persistent natives. Most of the 75 or so exotics have been accidentally introduced into Australia. The total species numbers are predicted to exceed 2,000. ^[3]

Special habitats

While, as the name earthworm suggests, the main habitat of earthworms is in soil, the situation is more complicated than that. The brandling worm Eisenia fetida lives in decaying plant matter and manure. Eisenia fetida, known under various Common names, including redworms, brandling worms, "tiger worms" and Red wiggler Arctiostrotus vancouverensis from Vancouver Island and the Olympic Peninsula is generally found in decaying conifer logs or in extremely acidic humus. Vancouver Island is a large Island in British Columbia, Canada, one of several North American regions named after George Vancouver, the British Geography The Olympic Peninsula is home to some of the only Temperate rain forests in the world including the Hoh, Queets, and Quinault Aporrectodea limicola and Sparganophilus and several others are found in mud in streams. Sparganophilus, the only genus in the family Sparganophilidae is a group of long slender limicolous (mud-dwelling Earthworms native to North America Some species are arborial. Even in the soil species, there are special habitats, such as soils derived from serpentine which have an earthworm fauna of their own. The serpentine group describes a group of common rock-forming hydrous Magnesium Iron phyllosilicate (()3 Minerals they

Ecology

Earthworms are classified into three main ecophysiological categories: (1) epigeic, or leaf litter/compost dwelling worms, e. g. Eisenia fetida; (2) endogeic, or worms that live in the main soil horizon; and (3) anecic worms that construct permanent deep burrows through which they visit the surface to obtain plant material for food, e. g. Lumbricus terrestris. Individual authors have sometimes considered worms as intermediate between categories, e. g Lumbricus rubellus (epigeic/endogeic).

Earthworm populations depend on both physical and chemical properties of the soil, such as soil temperature, moisture, pH, salts, aeration and texture, as well as available food, and the ability of the species to reproduce and disperse. One of the most important environmental factors is pH, but earthworms vary in their preferences. pH is the measure of the acidity or alkalinity of a Solution. Most earthworms favor neutral to slightly acidic soil. However, Lumbricus terrestris are still present in a pH of 5. 4 and Dendrobaena octaedra at a pH of 4. 3 and some Megascolecidae are present in extremely acid humic soils. Megascolecidae is a large family of Earthworms which has native representatives in Australia, New Zealand, Southeast and East Asia and Soil pH may also influence the numbers of worms that go into diapause. Diapause is a Physiological state of Dormancy with very specific triggering and releasing conditions The more acid the soil, the sooner worms go into diapause, and remain in diapause the longest time at a pH of 6. 4.

Earthworms form the base of many food chains. They are preyed upon by many species of birds, e. Birds ( class Aves) are bipedal endothermic ( Warm-blooded) Vertebrate animals that lay eggs. g. starlings, thrushes, gulls, crows, and both European Robins and American Robins. Starlings are small to medium-sized Passerine Birds in the family Sturnidae. See also other birds with "thrush" in their name Waterthrush, Shrike-thrush, Thrush Nightingale The Thrushes, Gulls (often informally Seagulls) are birds in the family Laridae The true crows are large Passerine Birds that comprise the Genus Corvus in the family Corvidae. The European Robin ( Erithacus rubecula) or in Anglophone Europe, simply Robin, is a small Insectivorous Passerine The American Robin, Turdus migratorius, is a migratory Songbird of the thrush family Some snakes feed on them and mammals such as bears, foxes, hedgehogs and moles eat many earthworms as well. A hedgehog is any of the small spiny Mammals of the Subfamily Erinaceinae and the order Erinaceomorpha. Earthworms are also eaten by many invertebrates such as ground beetles and other beetles, snails, slugs. Ground beetles or carabids are collective terms for the Beetle family Carabidae. Beetles are the group of Insects with the largest number of known Species. The word snail is a Common name that can be used for almost all members of the Molluscan class Gastropoda which have coiled shells in the Slug is a common non-scientific word which is often applied to any Gastropod mollusk whatsoever that has a very reduced shell a small internal shell Earthworms have many internal parasites including Protozoa, Platyhelminthes, Nematodes. Parasitism is a type of symbiotic relationship between Organisms of different Species. Protozoa (in Greek πρῶτον proton "first" and ζῷα zoia "animals" are unicellular Eukaryotes (singular The flatworms (Phylum Platyhelminthes from the Greek πλατύ platy, meaning "flat" and ἕλμινς (root ἑλμινθ- helminth- The nematodes or roundworms ( Phylum Nematoda from Greek (nema "thread" + -ode "like" are one of the most common They are found in many parts of earthworms' bodies such as blood, seminal vesicles, coelom, intestine, or in the cocoons. The coelom (pronounced "seal-um" is a fluid filled cavity formed within the Mesoderm. In Anatomy, the intestine is the segment of the alimentary canal extending from the Stomach to the Anus and in humans and other mammals consists

The application of chemical fertilizers, sprays and dusts can have a disastrous effect on earthworm populations. Nitrogenous fertilizers tend to create acid conditions, which are fatal to the worms, and often dead specimens are to be found on the surface following the application of substances like DDT, lime sulphur and lead arsenate. Soil pH is the PH of soil water It is based on the measurement of pH which depends on the activity of Hydrogen Ions (H+ in a solution DDT (from its trivial name D ichloro- D iphenyl- T richloroethane is one of the best known synthetic Pesticides It is a chemical with a long In Horticulture, lime sulfur ( British spelling lime sulphur) is a mixture of Calcium Polysulfides formed by reacting Calcium hydroxide Lead hydrogen arsenate, also called lead arsenate, acid lead arsenate or LA, chemical formula PbHAsO4 is an inorganic Insecticide In Australia, the use of superphosphate on pastures almost completely wiped out the giant Gippsland earthworm. For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Australia topics. Superphosphate is a Fertilizer produced by the action of concentrated Sulfuric acid on powdered Phosphate rock. Pasture is land with Herbaceous vegetation cover used for grazing of Ungulate Livestock as part of a Farm or Ranch. The giant Gippsland earthworm, Megascolides australis, is one of Australia 's 1000 native Earthworm Species.

Therefore, the most reliable way to maintain or increase the levels of worm population in the soil is to avoid the application of artificial chemicals. Adding organic matter, preferably as a surface mulch, on a regular basis will provide them with their food and nutrient requirements, and also creates the optimum conditions of heat (cooler in summer and warmer in winter) and moisture to stimulate their activity.

A recent threat to earthworm populations in the UK is the New Zealand Flatworm (Artiposthia triangulata), which feeds upon the earthworm, but in the UK has no natural predator itself. The United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, commonly known as the United Kingdom, the UK or Britain,is a Sovereign state located The New Zealand flatworm ( Arthurdendyus triangulatus) is a large Flatworm native to New Zealand. At present sightings of the New Zealand flatworm have been mainly localised, but this is no reason for complacency as it has spread extensively since its introduction in 1960 through contaminated soil and plant pots. Any sightings of the flatworm should be reported to the Scottish Crop Research Institute, which is monitoring its spread. The Scottish Crop Research Institute, known as SCRI, is Scotland’s leading crop research institute

Economic impact

Various species of worms are used in vermiculture, the practice of feeding organic waste to earthworms to decompose (digest) it, a form of composting by the use of worms. Vermicompost (also called worm Compost, vermicast worm castings worm humus or worm manure is the end-product of the breakdown of Organic matter by some Compost (ˈkɒmpɒst or US /ˈkɒmpoʊst/ also known as brown manure is the aerobically decomposed remnants of Organic matter. These are usually Eisenia fetida (or its close relative Eisenia andrei) or the Brandling worm, also known as the Tiger worm or Red Wiggler, and are distinct from soil-dwelling earthworms. Eisenia fetida, known under various Common names, including redworms, brandling worms, "tiger worms" and Red wiggler

Earthworms are sold all over the world. The earthworm market is sizable. According to Doug Collicut (see "Nightcrawler" link below), "In 1980, 370 million worms were exported from Canada, with a Canadian export value of $13 million and an American retail value of $54 million. "

Earthworms are also sometimes sold as food for human consumption. Noke is a culinary term used by the Māori of New Zealand to refer to earthworms which are considered delicacies. Noke is a culinary term used by the Māori of New Zealand to refer to Earthworms some types of native worms are local delicacies This article discusses the Māori people of New Zealand For their language see Māori language, and for other meanings see Māori (disambiguation. New Zealand is an Island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses (the North Island and the South Island

A report on biodiversity published by the Irish Government in May 2008 estimated the activities of the earthworm to be worth a minimum of €723 millon per annum to Irish agriculture.

Taxonomy and main geographic origins of earthworms

Main families :

• Lumbricidae : Temperate Northern Hemisphere from Vancouver Island, Canada to Japan, mostly Eurasia. The Lumbricidae is a family of Earthworms which includes most of the earthworm species well-known to Europeans
• Hormogastridae : Europe.
• Sparganophilidae : North America. Sparganophilus, the only genus in the family Sparganophilidae is a group of long slender limicolous (mud-dwelling Earthworms native to North America
• Almidae : Africa, South America. The animal family Almidae includes about six genera of segmented worms.
• Ocnerodrilidae : Central and South America, Africa.
• Acanthodrilidae : Africa, midland and southeastern North America, Central and South America, Australia and Oceania. Acanthodrilidae is an ancient and widely distributed family of Earthworms which has native representatives in Australia, New Zealand, South Africa
• Octochaetidae : Central/South America, western Africa, India, New Zealand, Australia.
• Exxidae : Central America/Caribbean.
• Megascolecidae : South East Asia, Australasia and Oceania, northwestern North America. Megascolecidae is a large family of Earthworms which has native representatives in Australia, New Zealand, Southeast and East Asia and
• Glossoscolecidae : Central and northern South America. Glossoscolecidae is a large family of Earthworms which has native representatives in South and Central America
• Eudrilidae : Tropical Africa. Eudrilid Earthworms are African earthworms with one species Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg 1867 widely distributed around the warmer parts of the world

References

1. ^ Charles Darwin, The formation of vegetable mould through the action of worms, with observations on their habits. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Found at Project Gutenberg Etext Formation of Vegetable Mould, by Darwin
2. ^ Mollison, Bill, Permaculture- A Designer's Manual, Tagari Press, 1988
3. ^ Blakemore, Rob, Diversity of exotic earthworms in Australia - a status report. Transactions of the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales, 1999

Further reading

Edwards, Clive A. (Ed. ) Earthworm Ecology. Boca Raton: CRC Press, 2004. Second revised edition. ISBN 084931819X

Lee, Keneth E. Earthworms: Their Ecology and Relationships with Soils and Land Use. Academic Press. Sydney, 1985. ISBN 0-12-440860-5

Stewart, Amy. The Earth Moved: On the Remarkable Achievements of Earthworms. Chapel Hill, N. C. : Algonquin Books, 2004. ISBN 1-56512-337-9

See also

• Drilosphere
• Lumbricidae
• Megascolecidae
• Sparganophilidae
• Soil life
• Gilbert White
• Noke
• Terra preta and its reference to peregrine earthworm Pontoscolex corethrurus

External links

• Earthworm Digest A great informational website and magazine
• Infography about Earthworms
• How to Make a Worm Farm Good for Composting and Fishing
• Kids Discovery
• Earthworm Information (UC Davis)
• earthworm on Encyclopedia.com
• Biology of the Night Crawler (Lumbricus terrestris)
• WormWatch - Field guide to earthworms
• New Zealand flatworm page (UK Govt.)
• New Zealand flatworm page (HDRA)
• Worm Watch Canadian worm awareness and appreciation site, with detailed worm anatomy. The drilosphere is the part of the Soil influenced by Earthworm secretions and castings The Lumbricidae is a family of Earthworms which includes most of the earthworm species well-known to Europeans Megascolecidae is a large family of Earthworms which has native representatives in Australia, New Zealand, Southeast and East Asia and Sparganophilus, the only genus in the family Sparganophilidae is a group of long slender limicolous (mud-dwelling Earthworms native to North America Soil life or soil biota is a collective term for all the organisms living within the soil This article is about the 18th-century English naturalist For the 20th-century American geographer see Gilbert F Noke is a culinary term used by the Māori of New Zealand to refer to Earthworms some types of native worms are local delicacies Terra preta (“dark soil” in Portuguese) refers to expanses of very dark fertile Anthropogenic Soils found in the Amazon Basin.
• Minnesota Invasive Earthworms Minnesota DNR information on the negative impacts of earthworms
• Lumbricidae keys and Dichogastrid checklist
• web-book: Earthworms of Hungary
• Opuscula Zoologica Budapest, online papers on earthworm taxonomy
• A Series of Searchable Texts on Earthworm Biodiversity, Ecology and Systematics from Various Regions of the World
• Earthworms as pests and otherwise hosted by the UNT Government Documents Department
• Third International Oligochaete Taxonomy Meeting, Platres, Cyprus, April 2nd to 6th, 2007
• Short comments on the Levant earthworm fauna

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