Earth science (also known as geoscience, the geosciences or the Earth Sciences), is an all-embracing term for the sciences related to the planet Earth. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 ^[1] It is arguably a special case in planetary science, the Earth being the only known life-bearing planet. Planetary science, also known as planetology and closely related to planetary astronomy, is the Science of Planets or Planetary systems Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism There are both reductionist and holistic approaches to Earth science. Reductionism can either mean (a an approach to understanding the nature of complex things by reducing them to the interactions of their parts or to simpler or more fundamental things Distinguish from the suffix -holism, which describes addictions There are four major disciplines in earth sciences, namely geography, geology, geophysics and geodesy. In its most general sense discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a Disciple. Geography (from Greek γεωγραφία - geografia) is the study of the Earth and its lands features inhabitants and phenomena Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit Geophysics, a major discipline of Earth sciences, is the study of the Earth by quantitative physical methods especially by seismic, electromagnetic Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals The major disciplines use physics, chemistry, biology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of the principal areas or spheres of the Earth system. In its most general sense discipline refers to systematic instruction given to a Disciple. Physics (Greek Physis - φύσις in everyday terms is the Science of Matter and its motion. Chemistry (from Egyptian kēme (chem meaning "earth") is the Science concerned with the composition structure and properties Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles Mathematics is the body of Knowledge and Academic discipline that studies such concepts as Quantity, Structure, Space and For the sciences that study the Earth's spheres see Earth science#Earth's spheres The Earth's spheres relates to the division of the Earth

Earth's spheres

Earth science generally recognizes 4 spheres, the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, and the biosphere. ^[2] These correspond to rocks, water, air, and life. Some practitioners include the cryosphere (ice) as a distinct portion of the hydrosphere and the pedosphere (soil) as an active, intermixed sphere as part of Earth's spheres.

Lava flows from the Kīlauea volcano into the ocean on the Island of Hawaii. Kīlauea (kiːlauea is an active Volcano in the Hawaiian Islands, one of five Shield volcanoes that together form the Island of Hawai{{okina}}i The Island of Hawaii, also called the Big Island or Hawaii Island, is a volcanic Island in the U

• Geology describes the rocky parts of the Earth's crust (or lithosphere) and its historic development. Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere In Geology, a crust is the outermost solid shell of a planet or moon The lithosphere (IPA, from the Greek λίθος for "rocky" + σφαίρα for "sphere" is the solid outermost shell of a rocky Planet. Major subdisciplines are mineralogy and petrology, geochemistry, geomorphology, paleontology, stratigraphy, structural geology, engineering geology and sedimentology. Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals In Geology, petrology (from Greek πέτρα petra, rock and λόγος logos, knowledge is the study of rocks and the conditions on which The field of geochemistry involves study of the chemical composition of the Earth and other Planets chemical processes and reactions that govern the composition Geomorphology (from Greek: γη ge, "earth" μορφή morfé, "form" and λόγος Logos, "knowledge" Palaeontology redirects here For the Scientific journal, see Palaeontology (journal. Stratigraphy, a branch of Geology, studies rock layers and layering ( stratification) Structural geology is the study of the three dimensional distribution of rock bodies and their planar or folded surfaces and their internal fabrics Engineering Geology is the application of the geologic sciences to engineering practice for the purpose of assuring that the geologic factors affecting the location design construction Sedimentology encompasses the study of modern Sediments such as sand, mud (silt and clay and understanding the processes that deposit them ^[3][4]
• Geophysics and Geodesy investigate the figure of the Earth, its reaction to forces and its magnetic and gravity fields. Geophysics, a major discipline of Earth sciences, is the study of the Earth by quantitative physical methods especially by seismic, electromagnetic Geodesy (dʒiːˈɒdɪsi also called geodetics, a branch of Earth sciences, is the scientific discipline that deals The expression figure of the Earth has various meanings in Geodesy according to the way it is used and the precision with which the Earth's size and shape is to be defined In Physics, a magnetic field is a Vector field that permeates space and which can exert a magnetic force on moving Electric charges A gravitational field is a model used within Physics to explain how gravity exists in the universe Geophysicists explore the Earth's core and mantle as well as the tectonic and seismic activity of the lithosphere. The inner core of the Earth, its innermost layer as detected by seismological studies, is a primarily solid Sphere about in radius only about 70% The mantle is a part of an Astronomical object. The interior of the Earth, similar to the other Terrestrial planets, is Chemically divided Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere Seismology (from Greek grc σεισμός seismos, "earthquake" and grc -λογία -logia) is the scientific study of Earthquakes ^[4][5][6]
• Soil science covers the outermost layer of the Earth's crust that is subject to soil formation processes (or pedosphere). Soil science is the study of Soil as a Natural resource on the surface of the Earth including soil formation, classification and mapping The pedosphere (from the Greek πέδον soil earth + σφαίρα sphere is the outermost layer of the Earth that is composed of Soil and subject to soil ^[7] Major subdisciplines include edaphology and pedology. Edaphology (from Greek grc ἔδαφος edaphos, "ground" and grc -λογία -logia) is one of two main divisions of Soil Pedology (from Greek πέδον pedon, "soil" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of soils in their natural environment ^[8]
• Oceanography and hydrology (includes limnology) describe the marine and freshwater domains of the watery parts of the Earth (or hydrosphere). Oceanography (from the greek words Ωκεανός meaning Ocean and γράφω meaning to write also called oceanology or Hydrology (from Greek Yδωρ hudōr, "water" and λόγος logos, "study" is the study of the movement distribution and quality of Limnology (from Greek Λίμνη limne, "lake" and λόγος logos, "knowledge" is the division of Hydrology that studies inland Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. A hydrosphere (from Greek ύδωρ - hydor, " Water " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " Major subdisciplines include hydrogeology and physical, chemical, and biological oceanography. Hydrogeology ( hydro- meaning water and -geology meaning the study of the Earth) is the area of Geology that deals with the distribution and Physical oceanography is the study of physical conditions and physical processes within the Ocean, especially the motions and physical properties of ocean waters Chemical oceanography is the study of the behavior of the Chemical elements within the Earth 's Oceans The ocean is unique in that it contains - in greater Marine biology is the scientific study of living Organisms in the Ocean or other marine or Brackish bodies of water
• Glaciology covers the icy parts of the Earth (or cryosphere). Glaciology (from Middle French dialect (Franco-Provençal glace, "ice" or Latin glacies, "frost ice" and Greek λόγος Ice is a Solid phase, usually crystalline, of a Non-metalic substance that is liquid or gas at Room temperature, such as Ammonia The cryosphere, derived from the Greek word kryo for " Cold " or "too cold" is the term which collectively describes the portions of
• Atmospheric sciences cover the gaseous parts of the Earth (or atmosphere) between the surface and the exosphere (~1000 km). Atmospheric sciences is an umbrella term for the study of the atmosphere, its processes the effects other systems have on the atmosphere and the effects of the atmosphere This page is about the physical properties of gas as a state of matter Temperature and layers The temperature of the Earth's atmosphere varies with altitude the mathematical relationship between temperature and altitude varies among five The exosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere. On Earth, its lower boundary at the edge of the Thermosphere is estimated to be 500 km to Major subdisciplines are meteorology, climatology, atmospheric chemistry and atmospheric physics. Meteorology (from Greek grc μετέωρος metéōros, "high in the sky" and grc -λογία -logia) is the Interdisciplinary Climatology (from Greek grc κλίμα klima, "region zone" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of Climate, scientifically Atmospheric chemistry is a branch of Atmospheric science in which the Chemistry of the Earth's atmosphere and that of other planets is studied Atmospheric physics is the application of Physics to the study of the atmosphere.
• A very important linking sphere is the biosphere, the study of which is biology. Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles The biosphere consists of all forms of life, from single-celled organisms to pine trees to people. Life is a state that distinguishes Organisms from non-living objects such as non-life and dead organisms being manifested by growth through Metabolism A microorganism (also spelled micro organism or micro-organism and also called a microbe) is an Organism that is Microscopic (usually This article is about the tree For other uses of the term "pine" see Pine (disambiguation. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus The interactions of Earth's other spheres - lithosphere/geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere and/or cryosphere and pedosphere - create the conditions that can support life.

Earth's interior

A volcano is the release of stored energy from below the surface of Earth, originating from radioactive decay and gravitational sorting in the Earth's core and mantle, and residual energy gained during the Earth`s formation. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the ^[9]

Plate tectonics, mountain ranges, volcanoes, and earthquakes are geological phenomena that can be explained in terms of energy transformations in the Earth's crust. Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere A mountain is a Landform that extends above the surrounding Terrain in a limited area with a peak Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth 's crust that creates Seismic waves Earthquakes are recorded with a Seismometer Geology (from Greek γη gê, "earth" and λόγος Logos, "speech" lit In Physics and Engineering, energy transformation or energy conversion, is any process of transforming one form of Energy to another In Geology, a crust is the outermost solid shell of a planet or moon ^[10]

Beneath the earth's crust lies the mantle which is heated by the radioactive decay of heavy elements. The lithosphere (IPA, from the Greek λίθος for "rocky" + σφαίρα for "sphere" is the solid outermost shell of a rocky Planet. The mantle is a part of an Astronomical object. The interior of the Earth, similar to the other Terrestrial planets, is Chemically divided The mantle is not quite solid and consists of magma which is in a state of semi-perpetual convection. Magma (Plurals magmas and magmata) is molten rock that sometimes forms beneath the surface of the Earth (or any other Terrestrial planet This convection process causes the lithospheric plates to move, albeit slowly. The resulting process is known as plate tectonics. Plate tectonics (from Greek τέκτων tektōn "builder" or "mason" describes the large scale motions of Earth 's Lithosphere ^{[11][12][13][14]}

Plate tectonics might be thought of as the process by which the earth resurfaces itself. Through a process called spreading ridges (or seafloor spreading), the earth creates new crust by allowing magma underneath the lithosphere to come to the surface where it cools and solidifies--becoming new crust, and through a process called subduction, excess crust is pushed underground--beneath the rest of the lithosphere--where it comes into contact with magma and melts--rejoining the mantle from which it originally came. Seafloor spreading occurs at Mid-ocean ridges where new Oceanic crust is formed through volcanic activity and then gradually moves away from the ridge In Geology, a subduction zone is an area on Earth where two tectonic plates meet and move towards one another with one sliding underneath the other ^[12][14][15]

Areas of the crust where new crust is created are called divergent boundaries, and areas of the crust where it is brought back into the earth are called convergent boundaries. ^[16][17] Earthquakes result from the movement of the lithospheric plates, and they often occur near covergent boundaries where parts of the crust are forced into the earth as part of subduction. An earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth 's crust that creates Seismic waves Earthquakes are recorded with a Seismometer ^[18]

Volcanoes result primarily from the melting of subducted crust material. Plate tectonics and hotspots Divergent plate boundaries At the Crust material that is forced into the Asthenosphere melts, and some portion of the melted material becomes light enough to rise to the surface--giving birth to volcanoes. The asthenosphere (from an invented Greek a + ' sthenos "without strength" and Greek word σφαίρα (sphera meaning globe is the ^[12][18]

Earth's electromagnet

Current flowing around an iron core creates an electromagnet.

Earth is an electromagnet.

An electromagnet is a magnet that is created by a current that flows around a soft-iron core. An electromagnet is a type of Magnet in which the Magnetic field is produced by the flow of an electric current. ^[19] The earth has a soft iron core surrounded by semi-liquid materials from the mantle that move in continuous currents around the core;^[20] therefore, the earth is an electromagnet. The interior of Earth, similar to the other Terrestrial planets, is Chemically divided into layers This is referred to as the dynamo theory of earth's magnetism. The dynamo theory proposes a mechanism by which a celestial body such as the Earth generates a Magnetic field. ^[21][22] The fact that earth is an electromagnet helps with the earth's maintenance of an atmosphere suitable for life.

Atmosphere

The magnetosphere shields the surface of the Earth from the charged particles of the solar wind. A magnetosphere' is a highly magnetized region around and possessed by an Astronomical object. The solar wind is a Stream of charged particles&mdasha plasma &mdashthat are ejected from the upper atmosphere of the Sun. It is compressed on the day (Sun) side due to the force of the arriving particles, and extended on the night side. (Image not to scale. )

The earth is blanketed by an atmosphere consisting of 78. An atmosphere (from Greek ατμός - atmos, " Vapor " + σφαίρα - sphaira, " Sphere " 0% nitrogen, 20. 9% oxygen, and 1% Argon. ^[23] The atmosphere has five layers: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere, and exosphere; and 75% of the atmosphere's gases are in the bottom-most layer, the troposphere. The troposphere is the lowest portion of Earth's atmosphere. It contains approximately 75% of the atmosphere's mass and almost all of its Water vapor and The stratosphere is the second major layer of Earth's atmosphere, just above the Troposphere, and below the Mesosphere. This article is about the atmospheric mesosphere for the Earth's mantle see Mesosphere (mantle. The thermosphere is the layer of the Earth's atmosphere directly above the Mesosphere and directly below the Exosphere. The exosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere. On Earth, its lower boundary at the edge of the Thermosphere is estimated to be 500 km to ^[23]

The magnetic field created by mantle's internal motions produces the magnetosphere which protects the earth's atmosphere from the solar wind. In Physics, a magnetic field is a Vector field that permeates space and which can exert a magnetic force on moving Electric charges The mantle is a part of an Astronomical object. The interior of the Earth, similar to the other Terrestrial planets, is Chemically divided A magnetosphere' is a highly magnetized region around and possessed by an Astronomical object. ^[24] It is theorized that the solar wind would strip away earth's atmosphere in a few million years were it not for the earth's electromagnet. And since earth is 4.5 billion years old,^[25] earth would not have an atmosphere by now if there were no magnetosphere. Modern geologists and Geophysicists consider the age of Earth to be around 4

The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen and 21% oxygen. Nitrogen (ˈnaɪtɹəʤɪn is a Chemical element that has the symbol N and Atomic number 7 and Atomic weight 14 Oxygen (from the Greek roots ὀξύς (oxys (acid literally "sharp" from the taste of acids and -γενής (-genēs (producer literally begetteris the The remaining one percent contains small amounts of other gases including CO₂ and water vapors. ^[23] Water vapors and CO₂ allow the earth's atmosphere to catch and hold the sun's energy through a phenomenon called the greenhouse effect. The Greenhouse effect refers to the change in the Thermal equilibrium temperature of a planet or moon by the presence of an Atmosphere containing gas that absorbs ^[26] This allows earth's surface to be warm enough to have liquid water and support life.

In addition to storing heat, the atmosphere also protects living organisms by shielding the earth's surface from cosmic rays. For the 1962 Bruce Conner film see Cosmic Ray (film Cosmic rays are energetic particles originating from space that impinge on Note that the level of protection is high enough to prevent cosmic rays from destroying all life on Earth, yet low enough to aid the mutations that have an important role in pushing forward diversity in the biosphere. In biology mutations are changes to the Nucleotide sequence of the Genetic material of an organism eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008

Methodology

Like all other scientists, Earth scientists apply the scientific method. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena They formulate hypotheses after observing events and gathering data about natural phenomena, and then they test hypotheses from such data. A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible

A contemporary idea within earth science is uniformitarianism. Uniformitarianism in the Philosophy of science, is the assumption that the natural processes operating in the past are the same as those that can be observed operating in the Uniformitarianism says that "ancient geologic features are interpreted by understanding active processes that are readily observed". Simply stated, this means that features of the Earth can be explained by the actions of gradual processes operating over long periods of time; for example, a mountain need not be thought of as having been created in a moment, but instead it may be seen as the result of continuous subduction, causing magma to rise and form continental volcanic arcs.

Partial list of the major Earth Science topics

Atmosphere

• Atmospheric chemistry
• Climatology
• Meteorology
  • Hydrometeorology
• Paleoclimatology

Biosphere

• Biogeography
• Paleontology
  • Palynology
  • Micropaleontology
• Geomicrobiology

Hydrosphere

• Hydrology
  • Limnology
• Hydrogeology
• Oceanography
  • Chemical oceanography
  • Marine biology
  • Marine geology
  • Paleoceanography
  • Physical oceanography

Lithosphere or geosphere

• Geology
  • Economic geology
  • Engineering geology
  • Environmental geology
  • Historical geology
    • Glaciology
    • Quaternary geology
  • Planetary geology
  • Sedimentology
  • Stratigraphy
  • Structural geology
• Geochemistry
• Geography
  • Physical geography
• Geomorphology
• Geophysics
  • Geochronology
  • Geodynamics (see also Tectonics)
  • Geomagnetics
  • Gravimetry (also part of Geodesy)
  • Seismology
• Hydrogeology
• Mineralogy
  • Crystallography
  • Gemology
• Petrology
• Volcanology

Pedosphere

• Soil science
  • Edaphology
  • Pedology

Systems

• Environmental science
• Geography
  • Human geography
  • Physical geography
• Gaia hypothesis

Others

• Cartography
• Geoinformatics (GIS)
• Geostatistics
• Geodesy and Surveying
• NASA Earth Science Enterprise

Notes and references