Early Islamic philosophy or classical Islamic philosophy is considered influential in the rise of modern philosophy. Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language The classical period of Islamic philosophy refers to the Islamic Golden Age. This period starts with al-Kindi in 9th and finishes with Averroes at the end of 12th century. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European The death of Ibn Rushd effectively marks the end of a particular discipline of Islamic philosophy usually called the Peripatetic Arabic School, and philosophical activity declined significantly in western Islamic countries, namely in Spain and North Africa, though it persisted for much longer in the Eastern countries, in particular Iran and India which tend to Mystical philosophy and Transcendent Theosophy. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iran topics. India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Sufi cosmology (الكوزمولوجية الصوفية is a general term for cosmological doctrines associated with the mysticism of Sufism. Transcendent theosophy or al-hikmat al-muta’li ( حكمت متعالي) the doctrine and Philosophy that has been developed and perfected by the
Some of the significant achievements of early Muslim philosophers included the development of a strict science of citation, the isnad or "backing"; the development of a method of open inquiry to disprove claims, the ijtihad, which could be generally applied to many types of questions (although which to apply it to is an ethical question); the willingness to both accept and challenge authority within the same process; recognition that science and philosophy are both subordinate to morality, and that moral choices are prior to any investigation or concern with either; the separation of theology (kalam) and law (shariah) during the early Abbasid period, a precursor to secularism;[1] the distinction between religion and philosophy, marking the beginning of secular thought; the beginning of a peer review process; early ideas on evolution; the beginnings of the scientific method, an important contribution to the philosophy of science; the first forms of non-Aristotelian logic and the introduction of temporal modal logic and inductive logic; the beginning of social philosophy, including the formulation of theories on social cohesion and social conflict; the beginning of the philosophy of history; the development of the philosophical novel and concepts of empiricism and tabula rasa and distinguishing between essence and existance. This is a subarticle to Islamic philosophy and Islamic scholars A Muslim philosopher is a person that professes Islam and engaged in the Scientific Citation is the Process by which Conclusions of previous Scientists are used to justify experimental Procedures Apparatus A Hadith was originally just an Arabic story As the stories began to be used formally it became common to provide their chain of transmitters (or sanad سند plural Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Ijtihad (Arabic اجتهاد is a technical term of Islamic law that describes the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Law is a system of rules enforced through a set of Institutions used as an instrument to underpin civil obedience politics economics and society Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting an author's scholarly work research or Ideas to the scrutiny of others who are eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. The Organon is the name given by Aristotle 's followers the Peripatetics to the standard collection of his six works on Logic. In Logic, the term temporal logic is used to describe any system of rules and symbolism for representing and reasoning about propositions qualified in terms of Time A modal logic is any system of formal logic that attempts to deal with modalities. Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed Social philosophy is the philosophical study of questions about social Behavior (typically of Humans. Structural cohesion is the sociological and Graph theory conception and measurement of Cohesion for maximal Social group or graphical boundaries where related Social conflict is a Conflict or Confrontation of social powers. Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History. Philosophical novels are works of Fiction in which a significant proportion of the novel is devoted to a discussion of the sort of questions normally addressed in discursive In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Tabula rasa ( Latin: blank slate) refers to the epistemological thesis that individual human beings are born with no built-in mental content In Philosophy, essence is the attribute or set of attributes that make an object or substance what it fundamentally is and which it has by necessity In common usage existence is the world of which we are aware through our senses but in Philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning and is often contrasted with
Thomas Aquinas knew of at least some of the Mutazilite work, and the Renaissance and the use of empirical methods were inspired at least in part by Arabic works translated into Latin during the Renaissance of the 12th century, and taken during the Reconquista in 1492. Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Empirical method is generally taken to mean the collection of data on which to base a Theory or derive a conclusion in Science. The Renaissance of the 12th century saw a major search by European scholars for new learning which led them to the Arabic fringes of Europe especially to Islamic The Renaissance of the 12th century was a period of many changes during the High Middle Ages. The Reconquista (a Spanish and Portuguese word for "Reconquest" Arabic: الاسترداد, "Recapturing" was a period
Early Islamic philosophy can be divided into clear sets of influences, branches, schools, and fields, as described below.
Contents |
Origin
Muhammad
The life of Muhammad or sira which generated both the Qur'an (revelation) and hadith (his daily utterances and discourses on social and legal matters), during which philosophy was defined by Muslims as consisting in acceptance or rejection of his message. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Together the sira and hadith constitute the sunnah and are validated by isnad ("backing") to determine the likely truth of the report of any given saying of Muhammad. Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” A Hadith was originally just an Arabic story As the stories began to be used formally it became common to provide their chain of transmitters (or sanad سند plural Key figures are Imam Jaffar as-Sadegh (AS), Imam Bukhari, Imam Muslim, Al-Tirmidhi, Ibn Majah, Abu Dawud and Al-Nasa'i. Muhammad ibn Ismail al-Bukhari, popularly known as Al-Bukhari ( البخاري) or Imam Bukhari (810-870 was a famous Sunni Abul Husayn Muslim ibn al-Hajjaj Qushayri al-Nisapuri ( Arabic: أبو الحسين مسلم بن الحجاج القشيري النيشابوري (lived c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Tirmidhī (ترمذی also transliterated as Tirmizi, full name TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Maja, full name Abu `Abdallah Muhammad ibn Yazid Ibn Majah al-Rab`i al-Qazwini TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu Da'ud or Abu Dawod, full name Abu Da'ud Sulayman ibn Ash`ath TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Al-Nasā'ī (214 -- 303 AH) full name Aḥmad ibn Shu`ayb ibn Alī ibn Each sifted through literally millions of hadith to accept a list of under 10,000. This work, which was not completed until the 10th century, began shortly after The Farewell Sermon in 631, after which Muhammad could not mediate disputes. The The Farewell Sermon ( خطبة الوداع, Khuṭbatu l-Wadā') also known as the Prophet's final sermon or The Last Sermon is a famous Events By Place Europe The Battle of Wogastisburg is fought between the Slavs led by Samo, and the Franks After his death Abu Bakr began to collect all fragments of his sayings. Early life Abu Bakr was born at Mecca some time in the year 573 CE, in the Banu Taym branch of the Quraysh tribe
Branches
Kalam
With Kalam, questions about the sira and hadith, as well as science (Islamic science) and law (fiqh and sharia), began to be investigated beyond the scope of Muhammad's beliefs. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. This period is characterized by emergence of ijtihad and the first fiqh. Ijtihad (Arabic اجتهاد is a technical term of Islamic law that describes the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the As the Sunnah became published and accepted, philosophy separate from Muslim theology was discouraged due to a lack of participants. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. During this period, traditions similar to Socratic method began to evolve, but philosophy remained subordinate to religion. The Socratic Method (or Method of Elenchus or Socratic Debate) named after the Classical Greek philosopher Socrates, is a form of "Kalam" generally referred to the Islamic tradition of seeking theological principles through dialectic. Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective In classical Philosophy, dialectic (διαλεκτική is controversy the exchange of arguments and counter-arguments respectively advocating Propositions
Independent minds exploiting the methods of ijtihad sought to investigate the doctrines of the Qur'an, which until then had been accepted in faith on the authority of divine revelation. Ijtihad (Arabic اجتهاد is a technical term of Islamic law that describes the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran One of first debates was that between partisan of the Qadar (Arabic: qadara, to have power), who affirmed free will, and the Jabarites (jabar, force, constraint), who maintained the belief in fatalism. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The question of free will Fatalism is a Philosophical doctrine emphasizing the subjugation of all events or actions to fate or inevitable predetermination
At the second century of the Hijra, a new movement arose in the theological school of Basra, Iraq. This article is about Islamic Calendar and how it was formed, for the event of hijra see Migration to Medina. Basra ( BGN: AlBasrah also called Basorah Abillah and Uruk or IRAQ The name that British colony has adopted for Basra For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. A pupil, Wasil ibn Ata, who was expelled from the school because his answers were contrary to then orthodox Islamic tradition and became leader of a new school, and systematized the radical opinions of preceding sects, particularly those of the Qadarites. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Wasil ibn Ata (700–748 (واصل بن عطاء was a Muslim theologian This new school was called Mutazilite (from i'tazala, to separate oneself, to dissent). Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. Its principal dogmas were three:
- God is an absolute unity, and no attribute can be ascribed to Him.
- Man is a free agent. It is on account of these two principles that the Mu'tazilities designate themselves the "Partisans of Justice and Unity".
- All knowledge necessary for the salvation of man emanates from his reason; humans could acquire knowledge before, as well as after, Revelation, by the sole light of reason. In Theology, salvation can mean three related things being saved from or Liberation from something such as Suffering or the punishment of This fact makes knowledge obligatory upon all men, at all times, and in all places.
The Mutazilities, compelled to defend their principles against the orthodox Islam of their day, looked for support in philosophy, and are one of the first to pursue a rational theology called Ilm-al-Kalam (Scholastic theology); those professing it were called Mutakallamin. Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language Natural theology is a branch of Theology based on Reason and ordinary Experience, explaining the gods rationally as part of the physical world Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries This appellation became the common name for all seeking philosophical demonstration in confirmation of religious principles. The first Mutakallamin had to debate both the orthodox and the non-Muslims, and they may be described as occupying the middle ground between those two parties. A Muslim (مسلم pronounced Muslim, not Muzlim) is an adherent of the Religion But subsequent generations were to large extent critical towards the Mutazilite school, especially after formation of the Asharite concepts. The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan
Falsafa
From the 9th century onwards, owing to Caliph al-Ma'mun and his successor, Greek philosophy and Hellenistic philosophy were introduced among the Persians and Arabs, and the Peripatetic and Neoplatonic schools began to find able representatives among them; such were al-Kindi, al-Farabi, Avicenna (Ibn Sina), and Averroes (Ibn Rushd), all of whose fundamental principles were considered as criticized by the Mutakallamin. The 9th century is the period from 801 to 900 in accordance with the Julian calendar in the Christian / Common Era. The Caliph is the Head of state in a Caliphate, and the title for the leader of the Islamic Ummah, an Islamic community ruled by the Shari'ah Abu Jafar al-Ma'mun ibn Harun (also spelled Almamon and el-Mâmoûn) ( September 14, 786 &ndash August 9, 833) (المأمون Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with Neoplatonism layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Peripatetics were members of a school of philosophy in Ancient Greece. Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European
During the Abbasid caliphate a number of thinkers and scientists, some of them heterodox Muslims or non-Muslims, played a role in transmitting Greek, Hellenistic, Indian and other pre-Islamic knowledge to the Christian West. Heterodoxy includes "any opinions or doctrines at variance with an official or orthodox position" The term Indian philosophy (Sanskrit Darshanas) may refer to any of several traditions of philosophical thought that originated in the Indian subcontinent A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth The term Western world, the West or the Occident ( Latin: occidens -sunset -west as distinct from the Orient) can have multiple meanings They contributed to making Aristotle known in Christian Europe. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Three speculative thinkers, the two Persians al-Farabi and Avicenna and the Arab al-Kindi, combined Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism with other ideas introduced through Islam. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Aristotelianism is a tradition of Philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by They were considered by many as highly unorthodox and a few even described them as non-Islamic philosophers.
From Spain Arabic philosophic literature was translated into Hebrew and Latin, contributing to the development of modern European philosophy. Spain () or the Kingdom of Spain (Reino de España is a country located mostly in southwestern Europe on the Iberian Peninsula. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The philosophers Moses Maimonides (a Jew born in Muslim Spain) and Ibn Khaldun (born in modern-day Tunisia), the father of sociology and historiography, were also important philosophers, though the latter did not identify himself as a falsafa, but rather a kalam author. Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and PLEASE TAKE NOTE************ Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 Tunisia (تونس Tūnis officially the Tunisian Republic ( is a country located in North Africa. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge"
Some differences between Kalam and Falsafa
Aristotle attempted to demonstrate the unity of God; but from the view which he maintained, that matter was eternal, it followed that God could not be the Creator of the world. A creator deity is a Deity in a Creation myth responsible for the creation of the World (or Universe) To assert that God's knowledge extends only to the general laws of the universe, and not to individual and accidental things, is tantamount to denying prophecy. Prophecy, generally describes the disclosing of Information that is not known to the Prophet by any ordinary means One other point shocked the faith of the Mutakallamin — the theory of intellect. The Peripatetics taught that the human soul was only an aptitude — a faculty capable of attaining every variety of passive perfection — and that through information and virtue it became qualified for union with the active intellect, which latter emanates from God. The Peripatetics were members of a school of philosophy in Ancient Greece. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living To admit this theory would be to deny the immortality of the soul. Immortality (or eternal life) is the concept of living in physical or spiritual form for an Infinite length of Time.
Wherefore the Mutakallamin had, before anything else, to establish a system of philosophy to demonstrate the creation of matter, and they adopted to that end the theory of atoms as enunciated by Democritus. They taught that atoms possess neither quantity nor extension. Originally atoms were created by God, and are created now as occasion seems to require. Bodies come into existence or die, through the aggregation or the sunderance of these atoms. But this theory did not remove the objections of philosophy to a creation of matter.
For, indeed, if it be supposed that God commenced His work at a certain definite time by His "will," and for a certain definite object, it must be admitted that He was imperfect before accomplishing His will, or before attaining His object. God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. In order to obviate this difficulty, the Motekallamin extended their theory of the atoms to Time, and claimed that just as Space is constituted of atoms and vacuum, Time, likewise, is constituted of small indivisible moments. For other uses see Time (disambiguation Time is a component of a measuring system used to sequence events to compare the durations of Space is the extent within which Matter is physically extended and objects and Events have positions relative to one another The creation of the world once established, it was an easy matter for them to demonstrate the existence of a Creator, and that God is unique, omnipotent, and omniscient. Omnipotence ( Omni Potens: "all Power " is unlimited power Omniscience (ɒm'nɪsɪəns (or Omniscient Point-of-View in writing is the capacity to know everything infinitely or at least everything that can be known about a character
Main protagonists of Falsafa and their critics
The twelfth century saw the apotheosis of pure philosophy and the decline of the Kalam, which latter, being attacked by both the philosophers and the orthodox, perished for lack of champions. This supreme exaltation of philosophy may be attributed, in great measure, to Al-Ghazali (1005-1111) among the Persians, and to Judah ha-Levi (1140) among the Jews. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died Yehuda Halevi, in full Yehuda ben Shemuel Ha-Levi, also Judah Halevi, or Judah ben Samuel Halevi ( Hebrew: יהודה הלוי) (c It can be argued that the attacks directed against the philosophers by Ghazali in his work, "Tahafut al-Falasifa" (The Destruction of the Philosophers), not only produced, by reaction, a current favorable to philosophy, but induced the philosophers themselves to profit by his criticism. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died They thereafter made their theories clearer and their logic closer. The influence of this reaction brought forth the two greatest philosophers that the Islamic Peripatetic school ever produced, namely, Ibn Bajjah (Avempace) and Ibn Rushd (Averroes), both of whom undertook the defense of philosophy. Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European
Since no idea and no literary or philosophical movement ever germinated on Persian or Arabian soil without leaving its impress on the Jews, the Persian Ghazali found an imitator in the person of Judah ha-Levi. layout and formatting it should ensure no clashes with the top of the infobox Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died This poet also took upon himself to free his religion from what he saw as the shackles of speculative philosophy, and to this end wrote the "Kuzari," in which he sought to discredit all schools of philosophy alike. He passes severe censure upon the Mutakallamin for seeking to support religion by philosophy. He says, "I consider him to have attained the highest degree of perfection who is convinced of religious truths without having scrutinized them and reasoned over them" ("Kuzari," v. ). Then he reduced the chief propositions of the Mutakallamin, to prove the unity of God, to ten in number, describing them at length, and concluding in these terms: "Does the Kalam give us more information concerning God and His attributes than the prophet did?" (Ib. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. iii. and iv. ) Aristotelianism finds no favor in Judah ha-Levi's eyes, for it is no less given to details and criticism; Neoplatonism alone suited him somewhat, owing to its appeal to his poetic temperament. Yehuda Halevi, in full Yehuda ben Shemuel Ha-Levi, also Judah Halevi, or Judah ben Samuel Halevi ( Hebrew: יהודה הלוי) (c
Ibn Rushd (or Ibn Roshd or Averroës), the contemporary of Maimonides, closed the first great philosophical era of the Muslims. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Moses Maimonides ( March 30 1135 – December 13 1204) also known as the Rambam, was a Rabbi, Physician, and The theories of Ibn Rushd do not differ fundamentally from those of Ibn Bajjah and Ibn Tufail, who only follow the teachings of Ibn Sina and Al-Farabi. Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name Like all Islamic Peripatetics, Ibn Rushd admits the hypothesis of the intelligence of the spheres and the hypothesis of universal emanation, through which motion is communicated from place to place to all parts of the universe as far as the supreme world—hypotheses which, in the mind of the Arabic philosophers, did away with the dualism involved in Aristotle's doctrine of pure energy and eternal matter. His ideas on the separation of philosophy and religion, further developed by the Averroist school of philosophy, were later influential in the development of modern secularism. Averroism is the term applied to either of two philosophical trends among scholastics in the late 13th century, the first of which was based on the Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs [2][3] Ibn Rushd is thus regarded as the founding father of secular thought in Western Europe. Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' [4]
But while Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina, and other Persian and Muslim philosophers hurried, so to speak, over subjects that trenched on religious dogmas, Ibn Rushd delighted in dwelling upon them with full particularity and stress. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Thus he says, "Not only is matter eternal, but form is potentially inherent in matter; otherwise, it were a creation ex nihilo" (Munk, "Mélanges," p. 444). According to this theory, therefore, the existence of this world is not only a possibility, as Ibn Sina declared—in order to make concessions to the orthodox— but also a necessity.
Driven from the Islamic schools, Islamic philosophy found a refuge with the Jews, to whom belongs the honor of having transmitted it to the Christian world. A series of eminent men—such as the Ibn Tibbons, Narboni, Gersonides—joined in translating the Arabic philosophical works into Hebrew and commenting upon them. Ibn Tibbon ( Heb אבן תבון) is a family of Jewish rabbis and translators that lived principally in Provence in the twelfth and Levi ben Gershom ( לוי בן גרשום) better known as Gersonides or the Ralbag (1288-1344 was a famous Rabbi, philosopher Mathematician The works of Ibn Rushd especially became the subject of their study, due in great measure to Maimonides, who, in a letter addressed to his pupil Joseph ben Judah, spoke in the highest terms of Ibn Rushd's commentary. Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta (born about 1160 - died 1226 was a Jewish physician and poet and disciple of Moses Maimonides.
It should be mentioned that this depiction of intellectual tradition in Islamic Lands is mainly dependent upon what West could understand (or was willing to understand) from this long era. In contrast, there are some historians and philosophers who do not agree with this account and describe this era in a completely different way. Their main point of dispute is on the influence of different philosophers on Islamic Philosophy, especially the comparative importance of eastern intellectuals such as Ibn Sina and of western thinkers such as Ibn Rushd. [5]
Judeo-Islamic philosophy
The oldest Jewish religio-philosophical work preserved is that of Saadia Gaon (892-942), Emunot ve-Deot, "The Book of Beliefs and Opinions". This article covers the influence of Jewish and Islamic philosophy on each other focusing especially on the period from 800-1400 CE Events By Place Europe Poppo of Thuringia, count of the march in Thuringia, is deposed by the German Carolingian king Events By Place Asia Kaminarimon the eight-pillared gate to Japan 's Kinryuzan Sensouji Temple, is erected Emunoth ve-Deoth (he אמונות ודעות Hebrew: "Beliefs and Opinions" written by Rabbi Saadia Gaon - originally Kitab al-Amanat wal-l'tikadat In this work Saadia treats the questions that interested the Mutakallamin, such as the creation of matter, the unity of God, the divine attributes, the soul, etc. Saadia criticizes other philosophers severely. For Saadia there was no problem as to creation: God created the world ex nihilo, just as the Bible attests; and he contests the theory of the Mutakallamin in reference to atoms, which theory, he declares, is just as contrary to reason and religion as the theory of the philosophers professing the eternity of matter. The Latin phrase ex nihilo means "out of nothing" It often appears in conjunction with the concept of Creation, as in creatio ex nihilo Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin
To prove the unity of God, Saadia uses the demonstrations of the Mutakallamin. Only the attributes of essence (sifat al-dhatia) can be ascribed to God, but not the attributes of action (sifat-al-fi'aliya). The soul is a substance more delicate even than that of the celestial spheres. Here Saadia controverts the Mutakallamin, who considered the soul an "accident" 'arad (compare Guide for the Perplexed i. This page refers to the 12th century book by Maimonides For the 1977 book by E 74), and employs the following one of their premises to justify his position: "Only a substance can be the substratum of an accident" (that is, of a non-essential property of things). Saadia argues: "If the soul be an accident only, it can itself have no such accidents as wisdom, joy, love," etc. Saadia was thus in every way a supporter of the Kalam; and if at times he deviated from its doctrines, it was owing to his religious views; just as the Jewish and Muslim Peripatetics stopped short in their respective Aristotelianism whenever there was danger of wounding orthodox religion.
Schools
Avicennism
In the Islamic Golden Age, due to Avicenna's (Ibn Sina's) successful reconciliation between Aristotelianism and Neoplatonism along with Kalam, Avicennism eventually became the leading school of Islamic philosophy by the 12th century. Avicennism ( is a school of Early Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Aristotelianism is a tradition of Philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. Neoplatonism (also Neo-Platonism) is the modern term for a school of religious and mystical Philosophy that took shape in the 3rd century AD founded by Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings Avicenna had become a central authority on philosophy by then, and several scholars in the 12th century commented on his strong influence at the time:[6]
"People nowadays [believe] that truth is whatever [Ibn Sina] says, that it is inconceivable for him to err, and that whoever contradicts him in anything he says cannot be rational. "
Avicennism was also infuential in medieval Europe, particularly his doctrines on the nature of the soul and his existence-essence distinction, along with the debates and censure that they raised in scholastic Europe. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living In common usage existence is the world of which we are aware through our senses but in Philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning and is often contrasted with In Philosophy, essence is the attribute or set of attributes that make an object or substance what it fundamentally is and which it has by necessity Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries This was particularly the case in Paris, where Avicennism was later proscribed in 1210. Paris (ˈpærɨs in English; in French) is the Capital of France and the country's largest city Not to be confused with prescription and other meanings of proscription. Nevertheless, his psychology and theory of knowledge influenced William of Auvergne and Albertus Magnus, and his metaphysics had an impact on the thought of Thomas Aquinas. Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and William of Auvergne can refer to several people William of Auvergne Bishop of Paris (1228-1249 William IV of Auvergne (989–1016 (also Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science [7]
Averroism
Averroes (Ibn Rushd) is most famous for his commentaries on Aristotle's works and for writing The Incoherence of the Incoherence in which he defended the falasifa against al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers. Averroism is the term applied to either of two philosophical trends among scholastics in the late 13th century, the first of which was based on the Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. The Incoherence of the Incoherence by Andalusian Arab, Polymath and philosopher Averroes ( Ibn Rushd) (1126 - 1198 is an Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic While he had very little influence in the Islamic world, which was then dominated by Avicennian philosophy and Ash'ari theology, Averroism became very infuential in medieval Europe, especially among the Scholastics. The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries Averroism eventually led to the development of modern secularism,[2][3] for which Ibn Rushd is considered as the founding father of secular thought in Western Europe. Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' [4]
Ethics
Environmental philosophy
Perhaps due to resource scarcity in most Islamic nations, there was an emphasis on limited (and some claim also sustainable) use of natural capital, i. Islamic ethics ( akhlāq) defined as "good character" historically took shape gradually from the 7th century and was finally established by the 11th Natural capital is the extension of the economic notion of capital (manufactured means of production to environmental goods and services e. producing land. Traditions of haram and hima and early urban planning were expressions of strong social obligations to stay within carrying capacity and to preserve the natural environment as an obligation of khalifa or "stewardship". The Arabic term ḥaram has a meaning of "sanctuary" or "holy site" in Islam. The supportable Population of an Organism, given the food habitat, water and other necessities available within an environment is known as the environment's See also Nature The natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, is a terminology that is comprised of all living and [8]
Muhammad is considered a pioneer of environmentalism for his teachings on environmental preservation. IMPORTANT PLEASE READ ##### For all questions relating to the addition of (pbuh peace be upon him or other honorifics Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. Environmental preservation is the strict setting aside of natural resources for their aesthetic value rather than letting them be modified for economic gain His hadiths on agriculture and environmental philosophy were compiled in the "Book of Agriculture" of the Sahih Bukhari, which included the following saying:[9]
"There is none amongst the believers who plants a tree, or sows a seed, and then a bird, or a person, or an animal eats thereof, but it is regarded as having given a charitable gift [for which there is great recompense]. Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Agriculture refers to the production of goods through the growing of plants and fungi and the raising of domesticated Animals The study of agriculture Environmental philosophy is a branch of Philosophy that is concerned with the Natural environment and our place within it "[10]
Several such statements concerning the environment are also found in the Qur'an, such as the following:[11]
"And there is no animal in the earth nor bird that flies with its two wings, but that they are communities like yourselves. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran "[12]
The earliest known treatises dealing with environmentalism and environmental science, especially pollution, were Arabic medical treatises written by al-Kindi, Qusta ibn Luqa, al-Razi, Ibn Al-Jazzar, al-Tamimi, al-Masihi, Avicenna, Ali ibn Ridwan, Ibn Jumay, Isaac Israeli ben Solomon, Abd-el-latif, Ibn al-Quff, and Ibn al-Nafis. Environmentalism is a broad philosophy and Social movement centered on a concern for the conservation and improvement of the environment. Environmental science is the study of interactions among physical chemical and biological components of the environment. Pollution is the introduction of contaminants into an environment that causes instability disorder harm or discomfort to the physical systems or living organisms they are in ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c Qusta ibn Luqa (820-912 ( Costa ben Luca, Constabulus) was a Melkite physician scientist and translator of Byzantine Greek extraction Abu Ja'far Ahmad bin Abi Khalid Ibn al-Jazzar Al-Qayrawani (circa 898-980 ( أبو جعفر أحمد بن أبي خالد بن الجزار القيرواني) was a 10th century This is not the Sub-clan of Quraish, for that see Banu Taim Banī Tamīm or Banu Tamim or Banu Tameem Abu Sahl Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi al-Jurjani (ابو سهل عيسى بن يحيى المسيحي الگرگاني was a Christian physician from Gorgan, east of the Caspian TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abu'l Hasan Ali ibn Ridwan Al-Misri (988–c 1061 was an Egyptian Muslim physician, astrologer and astronomer, born in Giza. Isaac Israeli Ben Solomon (in Hebrew Yitzhaq ben Sh'lomo ha-Yisra'eli; in Arabic Abu Ya'qub Ishaq ibn Suleiman al-Isra'ili; also known as Abd-al-latif, Abd-el-latif or Abd-ul-Latif (1162 &ndash 1231 also known as al-Baghdadi ( Arabic, عبداللطيف البغدادي TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution such as air pollution, water pollution, soil contamination, municipal solid waste mishandling, and environmental impact assessments of certain localities. Air pollution is the human introduction into the atmosphere of Chemicals Particulate matter, or Biological materials that cause harm or discomfort Water pollution is the contamination of Water bodies such as Lakes Rivers Oceans and Groundwater caused by human activities Soil contamination is caused by the presence of man-made chemicals or other alteration in the natural soil environment An ( EIA) is an assessment of the possible impact&ndashpositive or negative&ndashthat a proposed project may have on the Natural environment. [13] Cordoba, al-Andalus also had the first waste containers and waste disposal facilities for litter collection. ||-||-||} Córdoba ( Cordova in English is a City in Andalusia, southern Spain, and the capital of the province of Córdoba. Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or 'Wastebin' redirects here For the temporary deletion of a computer file see Recycle bin (computing. Waste management is the collection Transport, processing, Recycling or disposal of Waste materials Litter is Waste disposed in the wrong place by Unlawful human action and can vary in size of incident occurrence or items [14]
Medical ethics
The ethical standards of Muslim physicians was first laid down in the 9th century by Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi, who wrote the Adab al-Tabib (Conduct of a Physician), the first treatist dedicated to medical ethics. Bimaristan is a Middle Persian and modern Persian ( بیمارستان bīmārestān) word meaning Hospital, with Bimar- Ethics is a major branch of Philosophy, encompassing right conduct and good life Medical ethics is primarily a field of Applied ethics, the study of Moral values and judgments as they apply to Medicine. He regarded physicians as "guardians of souls and bodies", and wrote twenty chapters on various topics related to medical ethics, including:[15]
- What the physician must avoid and beware of
- The manners of visitors
- The care of remedies by the physician
- The dignity of the medical profession
- The examination of physicians
- The removal of corruption among physicians
Humanism
Many medieval Muslim thinkers pursued humanistic, rational and scientific discourses in their search for knowledge, meaning and values. A physician, medical practitioner or medical doctor who practices Medicine, and is concerned with maintaining or restoring human Health For the Catholic equivalent see Canonical visitation, and for other uses see Visitor (disambiguation A Visitor, in United This brief article is about how the term dignity is used The article presents dignity as it is used by international organizations governments bioethicists academics and The term profession is applied to those persons who have specialized and technical skill or knowledge which they apply for a fee to certain tasks that ordinary and unqualified people cannot To examine somebody or something is to inspect it closely hence an examination is a detailed inspection or analysis of an object or person Humanism is a broad category of ethical philosophies that affirm the dignity and worth of all people based on the ability to determine right and wrong by appealing to universal In Epistemology and in its broadest sense rationalism is "any view appealing to Reason as a source of knowledge or justification" (Lacey 286 Discourse (L discursus, "running to and from" means either "written or spoken communication or debate" or "a formal discussion Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding A personal and cultural value is a Relative ethic value, an assumption upon which implementation can be extrapolated A wide range of Islamic writings on love poetry, history and philosophical theology show that medieval Islamic thought was open to the humanistic ideas of individualism, occasional secularism, skepticism and liberalism. History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology Philosophical theology is the disciplined employment of philosophical methods in developing or analyzing theological concepts Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs In ordinary usage skepticism or scepticism ( Greek 'σκέπτομαι' skeptomai, to look about to consider see also spelling differences Liberalism is a broad array of related ideas and theories of Government that consider individual Liberty to be the most important political goal [16]
Another reason the Islamic world flourished during the Middle Ages was an early emphasis on freedom of speech, as summarized by al-Hashimi (a cousin of Caliph al-Ma'mun) in the following letter to one of the religious opponents he was attempting to convert through reason:[17]
"Bring forward all the arguments you wish and say whatever you please and speak your mind freely. Freedom of speech is the freedom to speak freely without Censorship or Limitation. Abu Jafar al-Ma'mun ibn Harun (also spelled Almamon and el-Mâmoûn) ( September 14, 786 &ndash August 9, 833) (المأمون Religious conversion is the adoption of a new religious identity or a change from one religious identity to another Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Now that you are safe and free to say whatever you please appoint some arbitrator who will impartially judge between us and lean only towards the truth and be free from the empery of passion, and that arbitrator shall be Reason, whereby God makes us responsible for our own rewards and punishments. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Herein I have dealt justly with you and have given you full security and am ready to accept whatever decision Reason may give for me or against me. For "There is no compulsion in religion" (Qur'an 2:256) and I have only invited you to accept our faith willingly and of your own accord and have pointed out the hideousness of your present belief. Sura Al-Baqara ( سورة البقرة, Sūratu al-Baqarah, "The Cow" is the second and the longest Sura (chapter of the Peace be with you and the blessings of God!"
Evolution
Early Muslim scientists and philosophers developed theories on evolution, and the transmutation of species, which were widely taught in medieval Islamic schools. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 Transmutation of species is a term to describe the altering of one Species into another "Madrasa" and "Medrese" redirect here For the village in Azerbaijan see Mədrəsə. John William Draper, a contemporary of Charles Darwin, wrote the following on what he called the "Mohammedan theory of evolution" in 1878:[18]
"Sometimes, not without surprise, we meet with ideas which we flatter ourselves have originated in our own times. John William Draper ( May 5, 1811, &ndash January 4, 1882) was an American ( English -born Scientist, Philosopher Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Mohammedan (variant forms Muhammadan Mahommedan or Mahometan is a term used as both a Noun and an Adjective meaning belonging or relating to either Thus our modern doctrines of evolution and development were taught in their schools. In fact, they carried them much farther than we are disposed to do, extending them even to inorganic or mineral things. Traditionally inorganic compounds are considered to be of mineral not biological origin A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific The fundamental principle of alchemy was the natural process of development of metalline bodies. The M acro E xpansion T emplate A ttribute L anguage complements TAL, providing macros which allow the reuse of code across "[19]
Al-Jahiz and the struggle for existence
The Mu'tazili scientist and philosopher al-Jahiz (c. Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. Al-Jāḥiẓ (in Arabic الجاحظ (real name Abu Uthman Amr ibn Bahr al-Kinani al-Fuqaimi al-Basri) (born in Basra, c 776-869) was the first of the Muslim biologists and philosophers to develop an early theory of evolution. eVolution is the third Album by eLDee, it was due to be released in 2008 He speculated on the influence of the environment on animals, considered the effects of the environment on the likelihood of an animal to survive, and first described the struggle for existence, a precursor to natural selection. Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species (published 24 November 1859) is a seminal work in Scientific literature and arguably the Natural selection is the process by which favorable Heritable traits become more common in successive Generations of a Population of [20][21] Al-Jahiz wrote the following on the struggle for existence in his work, Book of Animals:
"Animals engage in a struggle for existence; for resources, to avoid being eaten and to breed. In common usage existence is the world of which we are aware through our senses but in Philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning and is often contrasted with Natural resources are naturally occurring substances that are considered valuable in their relatively unmodified ( natural) form See Breed (song for the song by Nirvana. See Breed (video game for the video game by Brat Designs Environmental factors influence organisms to develop new characteristics to ensure survival, thus transforming into new species. Animals that survive to breed can pass on their successful characteristics to offspring. "[22]
Ibn Miskawayh and the Brethren of Purity
Ibn Miskawayh's al-Fawz al-Asghar and the Brethren of Purity's Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa) developed theories on evolution that later had an influence on Charles Darwin and his inception of Darwinism. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu 'Ali Ahmad ibn Muhammad ibn Ya'qub Ibn Miskawayh, (Persian ابن مسكوويه The Brethren of Purity ( Arabic اخوان الصفا Ikhwan al-Safa; also translated as Brethren of Sincerity) were a mysterious The Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity (also variously known as the Epistles of the Brethren of Sincerity, the Epistles of the Brethren of Purity or Epistles Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life Darwinism is a term used for various different movements or concepts related to a greater or lesser extent to Charles Darwin 's work on Evolution. Muhammad Hamidullah describes their evolutionary ideas as follows:
"[These books] state that God first created matter and invested it with energy for development. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Hamidullah or Muhammad Hameedullah, D Phil, D God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. Matter is commonly defined as being anything that has mass and that takes up space. In Physics and other Sciences energy (from the Greek grc ἐνέργεια - Energeia, "activity operation" from grc ἐνεργός Matter, therefore, adopted the form of vapour which assumed the shape of water in due time. A vapor or vapour (see Spelling differences) is a substance in the Gas phase at a Temperature lower than its Critical temperature Water is a common Chemical substance that is essential for the survival of all known forms of Life. The next stage of development was mineral life. A mineral is a naturally occurring substance formed through geological processes that has a characteristic chemical composition a highly ordered atomic structure and specific Different kinds of stones developed in course of time. In Geology, rock is a naturally occurring aggregate of Minerals and/or Mineraloids The Earth's outer solid layer the ‘ Lithosphere Their highest form being mirjan (coral). Corals are Marine organisms from the class Anthozoa and exist as small Sea anemone –like Polyps typically in colonies of many It is a stone which has in it branches like those of a tree. A tree is a perennial Woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or After mineral life evolves vegetation. Vegetation is a general term for the plant life of a region it refers to the Ground cover provided by plants The evolution of vegetation culminates with a tree which bears the qualities of an animal. A tree is a perennial Woody plant. It is most often defined as a woody plant that has many secondary branches supported clear of the ground on a single main stem or This is the date-palm. The Date Palm ( Phoenix dactylifera) is a palm in the genus Phoenix, extensively cultivated for its edible Fruit. It has male and female genders. Male (♂ refers to the sex of an organism or part of an organism which produces small mobile Gametes called spermatozoa. Female (♀ is the Sex of an Organism, or a part of an organism which produces ova (egg cells It does not wither if all its branches are chopped but it dies when the head is cut off. The date-palm is therefore considered the highest among the trees and resembles the lowest among animals. Then is born the lowest of animals. It evolves into an ape. This is not the statement of Darwin. This is what Ibn Maskawayh states and this is precisely what is written in the Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa. The Muslim thinkers state that ape then evolved into a lower kind of a barbarian man. "Barbarian" is a pejorative term for an uncivilized person either in a general reference to a member of a nation or Ethnos perceived A man is a Male Human. The term man (irregular plural He then became a superior human being. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus Man becomes a saint, a prophet. A saint (from the Latin sanctus) is a human being to whom has been attributed (and who has generally demonstrated a high level of Holiness and Sanctity In Religion, a prophet (or prophetess) is a person who has encountered the Supernatural or the divine and serves as an intermediary He evolves into a higher stage and becomes an angel. An angel is a Spiritual Supernatural being found in many Religions Although the nature of angels and the tasks given to them vary from tradition to tradition The one higher to angels is indeed none but God. Everything begins from Him and everything returns to Him. "[23]
Eloise Hart also describes the evolutionary thought in the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity as follows:
"Another section describes the creation of worlds and the evolution of life in details that would have impressed Darwin. It explains how manifestation unfolds through successive layers, or stratified planes down to the mineral kingdom. Where, in this lowest kingdom, the most developed mineral entities live within its highest strata and blend imperceptibly into the next higher or vegetable kingdom. Likewise the vegetable kingdom contacts, at its highest level, the animal kingdom, whose culmination is man. The most evolved men contact higher spheres and, standing between the angelic and animal orders, serve on earth as vicegerents of God. "[24]
English translations of the Encyclopedia of the Brethren of Purity were available from 1812,[25] while Arabic manuscripts of the al-Fawz al-Asghar and The Epistles of Ikhwan al-Safa were also available at the University of Cambridge by the 19th century. English is a West Germanic language originating in England and is the First language for most people in the United Kingdom, the United States Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language A manuscript is any Document that is Written by hand as opposed to being printed or reproduced in some other way The University of Cambridge (often Cambridge University) located in Cambridge, England, is the second-oldest university in the These works likely had an influence on 19th century evolutionists, and possibly Charles Darwin, who may have been a student of Arabic. Charles Robert Darwin (February 12 1809 &ndash April 19 1882 was an English naturalist, who realised and demonstrated that all Species of life [23][24]
Al-Khazini and the transmutation of species
In the 12th century, al-Khazini wrote the following on how evolution in alchemy and biology were perceived by natural philosophers and common people in the Islamic world at the time:
"When common people hear from natural philosophers that gold is a body which has attained to perfection of maturity, to the goal of completeness, they firmly believe that it is something which has gradually come to that perfection by passing through the forms of all other metallic bodies, so that its gold nature was originally lead, afterward it became tin, then brass, then silver, and finally reached the development of gold; not knowing that the natural philosophers mean, in saying this, only something like what they mean when they speak of man, and attribute to him a completeness and equilibrium in nature and constitution - not that man was once a bull, and was changed into an ass, and afterward into a horse, and after that into an ape, and finally became a man. Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist Foundations of modern biology There are five unifying principles For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 Characteristics Lead has a dull luster and is a dense, Ductile, very soft highly Tin is a Chemical element with the symbol Sn (stannum and Atomic number 50 Brass is any Alloy of Copper and Zinc; the proportions of zinc and copper can be varied to create a range of brasses with varying properties Silver (ˈsɪlvɚ is a Chemical element with the symbol " Ag " (argentum from the Ancient Greek: ἀργήντος - argēntos gen Gold (ˈɡoʊld is a Chemical element with the symbol Au (from its Latin name aurum) and Atomic number 79 For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from A man is a Male Human. The term man (irregular plural Cattle, colloquially referred to as cows, are domesticated Ungulates a member of the Subfamily Bovinae of the family The horse ( Equus caballus) is a hoofed ( Ungulate) Mammal, one of eight living species of the family Equidae. "[19]
Other supporters
The Ash'ari polymath Ibn al-Haytham later wrote a book in which he argued for evolutionism (although not natural selection), and numerous other Islamic scholars and scientists, including the polymaths Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī, al-Khazini, Nasir al-Din Tusi, and Ibn Khaldun, discussed and developed these ideas. The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan A polymath ( Greek polymathēs, πολυμαθής "having learned much" is a person whose knowledge is not restricted to one subject area TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized In the Creation-evolution controversy, those who accept the Scientific theory of biological Evolution by Natural selection or Genetic drift are Abd al-Rahman al-Khazini ( عبدالرحمن الخزيني) (flourished 1115–1130 was a Muslim scientist, physicist, astronomer, biologist Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 Translated into Latin, these works began to appear in the West after the Renaissance and may have had an impact on Western philosophy and science. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere Western philosophy is a term that refers to philosophical thinking in the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding
Logic
In early Islamic philosophy, logic played an important role. Logic ( Arabic: Mantiq) played an important role in Early Islamic philosophy. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Islamic law placed importance on formulating standards of argument, which gave rise to a novel approach to logic in Kalam, but this approach was later displaced by ideas from Greek philosophy and Hellenistic philosophy with the rise of the Mu'tazili philosophers, who highly valued Aristotle's Organon. Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Ancient Greek philosophy focused on the role of Reason and Inquiry. Hellenistic philosophy is the period of Western philosophy that was developed in the Hellenistic civilization following Aristotle and ending with Neoplatonism Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. The Organon is the name given by Aristotle 's followers the Peripatetics to the standard collection of his six works on Logic. The works of Hellenistic-influenced Islamic philosophers were crucial in the reception of Aristotelian logic in medieval Europe, along with the commentaries on the Organon by Averroes. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European The works of al-Farabi, Avicenna, al-Ghazali and other Muslim logicians who often criticized and corrected Aristotelian logic and introduced their own forms of logic, also played a central role in the subsequent development of European logic during the Renaissance. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died The Renaissance (from French Renaissance, meaning "rebirth" Italian: Rinascimento, from re- "again" and nascere
According to the Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy:
"For the Islamic philosophers, logic included not only the study of formal patterns of inference and their validity but also elements of the philosophy of language and even of epistemology and metaphysics. The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy is an Encyclopedia of Philosophy edited by Edward Craig that was first published by Routledge in Inference is the act or process of deriving a Conclusion based solely on what one already knows Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science Because of territorial disputes with the Arabic grammarians, Islamic philosophers were very interested in working out the relationship between logic and language, and they devoted much discussion to the question of the subject matter and aims of logic in relation to reasoning and speech. In the area of formal logical analysis, they elaborated upon the theory of terms, propositions and syllogisms as formulated in Aristotle's Categories, De interpretatione and Prior Analytics. In Logic and Philosophy, proposition refers to either (a the content or Meaning of a meaningful Declarative sentence A syllogism, or logical appeal, (συλλογισμός &mdash "conclusion" "inference" (usually the categorical syllogism) is a kind of In the spirit of Aristotle, they considered the syllogism to be the form to which all rational argumentation could be reduced, and they regarded syllogistic theory as the focal point of logic. Even poetics was considered as a syllogistic art in some fashion by most of the major Islamic Aristotelians. "
Important developments made by Muslim logicians included the development of "Avicennian logic" as a replacement of Aristotelian logic. Avicenna's system of logic was responsible for the introduction of hypothetical syllogism, temporal modal logic and inductive logic. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born In formal logic, a formal system (also called a logical system, a logistic system, or simply a logic Formal systems in mathematics consist In Logic, a hypothetical syllogism has two uses In Propositional logic it expresses a rule of inference while in the History of logic, it is a short-hand In Logic, the term temporal logic is used to describe any system of rules and symbolism for representing and reasoning about propositions qualified in terms of Time A modal logic is any system of formal logic that attempts to deal with modalities. Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed Other important developments in early Islamic philosophy include the development of a strict science of citation, the isnad or "backing", and the development of a scientific method of open inquiry to disprove claims, the ijtihad, which could be generally applied to many types of questions. Scientific Citation is the Process by which Conclusions of previous Scientists are used to justify experimental Procedures Apparatus A Hadith was originally just an Arabic story As the stories began to be used formally it became common to provide their chain of transmitters (or sanad سند plural Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Ijtihad (Arabic اجتهاد is a technical term of Islamic law that describes the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources
Logic in Islamic law and theology
Early forms of analogical reasoning, inductive reasoning and categorical syllogism were introduced in Fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence), Sharia (Islamic law) and Kalam (Islamic theology) from the 7th century with the process of Qiyas, before the Arabic translations of Aristotle's works. Analogy is both the cognitive process of transferring Information from a particular subject (the analogue or source to another particular subject (the target and Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed A syllogism, or logical appeal, (συλλογισμός &mdash "conclusion" "inference" (usually the categorical syllogism) is a kind of Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Sharia ( Arabic: ar شريعة) is the body of Islamic Religious law. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. In Sunni Islamic jurisprudence,the qiyas ( Arabic قياس is the process of analogical reasoning in which the teachings of the Quran are compared Later during the Islamic Golden Age, there was a logical debate among Islamic philosophers, logicians and theologians over whether the term Qiyas refers to analogical reasoning, inductive reasoning or categorical syllogism. Debate ( American English) or debating ( British English) is a formal method of interactive and position representational Argument. Some Islamic scholars argued that Qiyas refers to inductive reasoning, which Ibn Hazm (994-1064) disagreed with, arguing that Qiyas does not refer to inductive reasoning, but refers to categorical syllogism in a real sense and analogical reasoning in a metaphorical sense. Ibn Hazm ( 7 November 994 &ndash 15 August 1064 was an Andalusian - Arab philosopher, litterateur Reality, in everyday usage means "the state of things as they actually exist" Metaphor (from the Greek: μεταφορά - metaphora, meaning "transfer" is language that directly compares seemingly unrelated subjects On the other hand, al-Ghazali (1058-1111) (and in modern times, Abu Muhammad Asem al-Maqdisi) argued that Qiyas refers to analogical reasoning in a real sense and categorical syllogism in a metaphorical sense. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died Abu Muhammad al-Maqdisi (أبو محمد المقدسي or more fully Abu Muhammad Asem al-Maqdisi (أبو محمد عصام المقدسي is the Other Islamic scholars at the time, however, argued that the term Qiyas refers to both analogical reasoning and categorical syllogism in a real sense. [26]
Aristotelian logic
The first original Arabic writings on logic were produced by al-Kindi (Alkindus) (805–873), who produced a summary on earlier logic up to his time. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c The first writings on logic with non-Aristotelian elements was produced by al-Farabi (Alfarabi) (873–950), who discussed the topics of future contingents, the number and relation of the categories, the relation between logic and grammar, and non-Aristotelian forms of inference. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi A number is an Abstract object, tokens of which are Symbols used in Counting and measuring. Logic is the study of the principles of valid demonstration and Inference. Grammar is the field of Linguistics that covers the Rules governing the use of any given natural language. Inference is the act or process of deriving a Conclusion based solely on what one already knows He is also credited for categorizing logic into two separate groups, the first being "idea" and the second being "proof. In Logic, an argument is a Set of one or more Declarative sentences (or "propositions") known as the Premises along "[27]
Averroes (1126–98) was the last major logician from al-Andalus, who wrote the most elaborate commentaries on Aristotelian logic. Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Al-Andalus (الأندلس was the Arabic name given to those parts of the Iberian Peninsula governed by Muslims or
Avicennian logic
Avicenna (980-1037) developed his own system of logic known as "Avicennian logic" as an alternative to Aristotelian logic. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born By the 12th century, Avicennian logic had replaced Aristotelian logic as the dominant system of logic in the Islamic world. [28]
The first criticisms of Aristotelian logic were written by Avicenna (980–1037), who produced independent treatises on logic rather than commentaries. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born He criticized the logical school of Baghdad for their devotion to Aristotle at the time. He investigated the theory of definition and classification and the quantification of the predicates of categorical propositions, and developed an original theory on "temporal modal" syllogism. A definition is a statement of the meaning of a Word or Phrase. Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring In Logic and Philosophy, proposition refers to either (a the content or Meaning of a meaningful Declarative sentence In Logic, the term temporal logic is used to describe any system of rules and symbolism for representing and reasoning about propositions qualified in terms of Time A modal logic is any system of formal logic that attempts to deal with modalities. Its premises included modifiers such as "at all times", "at most times", and "at some time".
While Avicenna (980-1037) often relied on deductive reasoning in philosophy, he used a different approach in medicine. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Deductive reasoning is Reasoning which uses deductive Arguments to move from given statements ( Premises to Conclusions which must be true if the Ibn Sina contributed inventively to the development of inductive logic, which he used to pioneer the idea of a syndrome. Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed In Medicine and Psychology, the term syndrome refers to the association of several clinically recognizable features signs (observed by a physician In his medical writings, Avicenna was the first to describe the methods of agreement, difference and concomitant variation which are critical to inductive logic and the scientific method. Mill's Methods are five methods of induction described by Philosopher John Stuart Mill in his 1843 book A System of Logic. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena [29]
Ibn Hazm (994-1064) wrote the Scope of Logic, in which he stressed on the importance of sense perception as a source of knowledge. Ibn Hazm ( 7 November 994 &ndash 15 August 1064 was an Andalusian - Arab philosopher, litterateur Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. [30] Al-Ghazali (Algazel) (1058–1111) had an important influence on the use of logic in theology, making use of Avicennian logic in Kalam. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died Theology is the study of a god or the gods from a religious perspective Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. [27] Despite the logical sophistication of al-Ghazali, the rise of the Ash'ari school in the from the 12th century slowly suffocated original work on logic in much of the Islamic world, though logic continued to be studied in some Islamic regions such as Persia and the Levant. Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan See Also Persian Empire History of Iran and Greater Iran (also referred to as the " Iranian Cultural Continent See also Names of the Levant The Levant (lə'vænt is a geographical term that denotes a large area in Western Asia, roughly bounded on the north by the
Fakhr al-Din al-Razi (b. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abu Abdullah Muhammad ibn Umar ibn al-Husayn al-Taymi al-Bakri al-Tabaristani Fakhr al-Din al-Razi ( Arabic / 1149) criticised Aristotle's "first figure" and developed a form of inductive logic, foreshadowing the system of inductive logic developed by John Stuart Mill (1806-1873). A syllogism, or logical appeal, (συλλογισμός &mdash "conclusion" "inference" (usually the categorical syllogism) is a kind of Induction or inductive reasoning, sometimes called inductive logic, is the process of Reasoning in which the premises of an argument are believed John Stuart Mill (20 May 1806 &ndash 8 May 1873 British Philosopher, political economist, civil servant and Member of Parliament, was an influential Systematic refutations of Greek logic were written by the Illuminationist school, founded by Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi (1155-1191), who developed the idea of "decisive necessity", an important innovation in the history of logical philosophical speculation. For other uses see Illuminati (disambiguation. Illuminationist Philosophy ( Arabic: حكمة الإشراق ḥikmah al-ishrāq, Persian Shahab al-Din Yahya as-Suhrawardi ( Persian شهاب الدين يحيى سهروردى, also known as Sohrevardi) was a Persian philosopher Sufi In Criminal law, necessity may be either a possible justification or an exculpation for breaking the Law. [30] Another systematic refutation of Greek logic was written by Ibn Taymiyyah (1263-1328), who wrote the ar-Radd 'ala al-Mantiqiyyin (Refutation of Greek Logicians), in which he gave a proof for induction being the only true form of argument, which had an important influence on the development of the scientific method of observation and experimentation. Taqi ad-Din Ahmad ibn Taymiyyah ( January 22, 1263 &ndash 1328 was a Sunni Islamic scholar born in Harran, located In Logic, an argument is a Set of one or more Declarative sentences (or "propositions") known as the Premises along Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or [30]
Metaphysics
Cosmological and ontological arguments
Avicenna's proof for the existence of God was the first ontological argument, which he proposed in the Metaphysics section of The Book of Healing. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Arguments for and against the existence of God have been proposed by philosophers theologians and others An Ontological argument for the existence of God attempts the method of a priori proof, which uses intuition and reason alone The Book of Healing ( Arabic: الشفاء Al-Shefa, Latin: Sanatio) is a scientific and philosophical [31][32] This was the first attempt at using the method of a priori proof, which utilizes intuition and reason alone. "A priori" redirects here For other uses see A priori. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Avicenna's proof of God's existence is unique in that it can be classified as both a cosmological argument and an ontological argument. The cosmological argument is an Argument for the Existence of God or a " First Cause " "It is ontological insofar as ‘necessary existence’ in intellect is the first basis for arguing for a Necessary Existent". The proof is also "cosmological insofar as most of it is taken up with arguing that contingent existents cannot stand alone and must end up in a Necessary Existent. "[33]
Distinguish between essence and existence
Islamic philosophy, imbued as it is with Islamic theology, distinguishes more clearly than Aristotelianism the difference between essence and existence. Kalām (علم الكلام is the Islamic philosophy of seeking Islamic theological principles through Dialectic. Aristotelianism is a tradition of Philosophy that takes its defining inspiration from the work of Aristotle. In Philosophy, essence is the attribute or set of attributes that make an object or substance what it fundamentally is and which it has by necessity In common usage existence is the world of which we are aware through our senses but in Philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning and is often contrasted with Whereas existence is the domain of the contingent and the accidental, essence endures within a being beyond the accidental. An accident is a specific identifiable unexpected unusual and unintended external event which occurs in a particular time and place without apparent or deliberate Disambiguation For the Wigwam album see Being (album, for spiritual or religious beingness, see Ego (spirituality This was first described by Avicenna's works on metaphysics, who was himself influenced by al-Farabi. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi
Some orientalists (or those particularly influenced by Thomist scholarship) argued that Avicenna was the first to view existence (wujud) as an accident that happens to the essence (mahiyya). However, this aspect of ontology is not the most central to the distinction that Avicenna established between essence and existence. One cannot therefore make the claim that Avicenna was the proponent of the concept of essentialism per se, given that existence (al-wujud) when thought of in terms of necessity would ontologically translate into a notion of the Necessary-Existent-due-to-Itself (wajib al-wujud bi-dhatihi), which is without description or definition, and particularly without quiddity or essence (la mahiyya lahu). In Philosophy, essentialism is the view that for any specific kind of Entity, there is a set of Characteristics or Properties all of which Consequently, Avicenna's ontology is 'existentialist' when accounting for being qua existence in terms of necessity (wujub), while it is 'essentialist' in terms of thinking about being qua existence (wujud) in terms of contingency qua possibility (imkan; or mumkin al-wujud: contingent being). [34]
Some argue that Avicenna anticipated Frege and Bertrand Russell in "holding that existence is an accident of accidents" and also anticipated Alexius Meinong's "view about nonexistent objects. Friedrich Ludwig Gottlob Frege ( 8 November 1848, Wismar, Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin &ndash 26 July 1925 Bertrand Arthur William Russell 3rd Earl Russell, OM, FRS (18 May 1872 – 2 February 1970 was a British Philosopher, Historian Alexius Meinong ( July 17, 1853 - November 27, 1920) was an Austrian Philosopher. "[35] He also provided early arguments for "a 'necessary being' as cause of all other existents. "[36]
The idea of "essence precedes existence" is a concept which dates back to Avicenna[37] and his school of Avicennism as well as Shahab al-Din Suhrawardi[38] and his Illuminationist philosophy. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Avicennism ( is a school of Early Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. Shahab al-Din Yahya as-Suhrawardi ( Persian شهاب الدين يحيى سهروردى, also known as Sohrevardi) was a Persian philosopher Sufi For other uses see Illuminati (disambiguation. Illuminationist Philosophy ( Arabic: حكمة الإشراق ḥikmah al-ishrāq, Persian The opposite idea of "Existence precedes essence" was thus developed in the works of Averroes[37]
More careful approaches are needed in terms of thinking about philosophers (and theologians) in Islam in terms of phenomenological methods of investigation in ontology (or onto-theology), or by way of comparisons that are made with Heidegger's thought and his critique of the history of metaphysics. The proposition that existence precedes essence is a central claim of Existentialism, which reverses the traditional philosophical view that the Essence or nature Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European In Philosophy, ontology (from the Greek, genitive: of being (part Martin Heidegger ( September 26, 1889 &ndash May 26, 1976) (ˈmaɐ̯tiːn ˈhaɪ̯dɛgɐ was an influential German philosopher [39]
Resurrection
Ibn al-Nafis wrote the Theologus Autodidactus as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world. " The book presents rational arguments for bodily resurrection and the immortality of the human soul, using both demonstrative reasoning and material from the hadith corpus as forms of evidence. This article concerns itself with Jesus Christ Christian, Islamic and other religious interpretations of resurrection in general Immortality (or eternal life) is the concept of living in physical or spiritual form for an Infinite length of Time. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings Evidence in its broadest sense includes anything that is used to determine or demonstrate the Truth of an assertion Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to Avicenna's metaphysical argument on spiritual resurrection (as opposed to bodily resurrection), which was earlier criticized by al-Ghazali. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died [40]
Soul and spirit
The Muslim physician-philosophers, Avicenna and Ibn al-Nafis, developed their own theories on the soul. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living They both made a distinction between the soul and the spirit, and in particular, the Avicennian doctrine on the nature of the soul was influential among the Scholastics. The English word " spirit " comes from the Latin " spiritus " (breath TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Scholasticism was the dominant form of theology and philosophy in the Latin West in the Middle Ages, particularly in the 12th 13th and 14th centuries Some of Avicenna's views on the soul included the idea that the immortality of the soul is a consequence of its nature, and not a purpose for it to fulfill. Immortality (or eternal life) is the concept of living in physical or spiritual form for an Infinite length of Time. In his theory of "The Ten Intellects", he viewed the human soul as the tenth and final intellect. Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities
Avicenna generally supported Aristotle's idea of the soul originating from the heart, whereas Ibn al-Nafis on the other hand rejected this idea and instead argued that the soul "is related to the entirety and not to one or a few organs. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. The heart is a muscular organ in all Vertebrates responsible for pumping Blood through the Blood vessels by repeated rhythmic In Biology, an organ ( Latin: organum, "instrument tool" from Greek όργανον - organon "organ instrument " He further criticized Aristotle's idea that every unique soul requires the existence of a unique source, in this case the heart. Ibn al-Nafis concluded that "the soul is related primarily neither to the spirit nor to any organ, but rather to the entire matter whose temperament is prepared to receive that soul" and he defined the soul as nothing other than "what a human indicates by saying ‘I’. I (aɪ is the first-person, singular Personal pronoun ( subject case) in Modern English. "[41]
Thought experiments
- Further information: Avicennism - Thought experiments on self-consciousness
While he was imprisoned in the castle of Fardajan near Hamadhan, Avicenna wrote his famous "Floating Man" thought experiment to demonstrate human self-awareness and the substantiality of the soul. Avicennism ( is a school of Early Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. Hamedān or Hamadān ( Persian: همدان, Old Persian: Hagmatana Hebrew: המזיין Ancient Greek: Ecbatana) TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born A thought experiment (from the German Gedankenexperiment) is a proposal for an Experiment that would test a Hypothesis or Theory Self-awareness is the concept that one exists as an individual separate from other people with private Thoughts. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living He referred to the living human intelligence, particularly the active intellect, which he believed to be the hypostasis by which God communicates truth to the human mind and imparts order and intelligibility to nature. Intelligence (also called intellect) is an Umbrella term used to describe a property of the Mind that encompasses many related abilities such as the capacities Active intellect or agent intellect is a term used in both psychology and philosophy Hypostatic abstraction, also known as hypostasis or subjectal abstraction, is a formal operation that takes an element of information such as might be expressed The meaning of the word truth extends from Honesty, Good faith, and Sincerity in general to agreement with Fact or Reality MIND ( Moving In New Directions) (est 1975 is an alternative education high school in Montreal, Quebec, Canada. Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. His "Floating Man" thought experiment tells its readers to imagine themselves suspended in the air, isolated from all sensations, which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies. In Psychology, sensation is the first stage in the biochemical and neurologic events that begins with the impinging of a stimulus upon the receptor cells of a Senses are the physiological methods of Perception. The senses and their operation classification and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields He argues that, in this scenario, one would still have self-consciousness. Self-consciousness is an acute sense of self-awareness It is a preoccupation with oneself as opposed to the philosophical state of Self-awareness, which is the awareness He thus concludes that the idea of the self is not logically dependent on any physical thing, and that the soul should not be seen in relative terms, but as a primary given, a substance. Self is broadly defined as the essential qualities that make a person distinct from all others For other uses of Object see Object. In Philosophy, an object is a thing an Entity, or a Being. A relative term, also called a rhema or a rheme, is a logical term that requires reference to any number of other objects called the Correlates ' of Given may refer to the goalkeeper Shay Given or to Given West Virginia, a community in the United States. Substance theory, or substance attribute theory, is an ontological theory about objecthood, positing that a substance is distinct from its [42]
This argument was later refined and simplified by René Descartes in epistemic terms when he stated: "I can abstract from the supposition of all external things, but not from the supposition of my own consciousness. Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge "[42]
Truth
In metaphysics, Avicenna (Ibn Sina) defined truth as:
"What corresponds in the mind to what is outside it. Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born The meaning of the word truth extends from Honesty, Good faith, and Sincerity in general to agreement with Fact or Reality "[43]
Avicenna elaborated on his definition of truth in his Metaphysics:
"The truth of a thing is the property of the being of each thing which has been established in it. Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science "[44]
In his Quodlibeta, Thomas Aquinas wrote a commentary on Avicenna's definition of truth in his Metaphysics and explained it as follows:
"The truth of each thing, as Avicenna says in his Metaphysica, is nothing else than the property of its being which has been established in it. So that is called true gold which has properly the being of gold and attains to the established determinations of the nature of gold. Now, each thing has properly being in some nature because it stands under the complete form proper to that nature, whereby being and species in that nature is. "[44]
Early Islamic political philosophy emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion and emphsized the process of ijtihad to find truth. Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Ijtihad (Arabic اجتهاد is a technical term of Islamic law that describes the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources
Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) reasoned that to discover the truth about nature, it is necessary to eliminate human opinion and error, and allow the universe to speak for itself. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. An opinion is a Person 's Ideas and thoughts towards something which it is either impossible to verify the truth of or the truth of which is thought unimportant to The word error has different meanings and usages relative to how it is conceptually applied The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy [45] In his Aporias against Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham further wrote the following comments on truth:
"Truth is sought for itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and the scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not immune from error. . . "[46]
"Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency. "[46]
"I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the effulgence and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge. "[47]
Philosophy of science
- See also: Islamic science
Scientific method
The pioneering development of the scientific method by the Arab Ash'ari polymath Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) was an important contribution to the philosophy of science. Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized Philosophy of science is the study of assumptions foundations and implications of Science. In the Book of Optics, his scientific method was very similar to the modern scientific method and consisted of the following procedures:[45]
- Observation
- Statement of problem
- Formulation of hypothesis
- Testing of hypothesis using experimentation
- Analysis of experimental results
- Interpretation of data and formulation of conclusion
- Publication of findings
In The Model of the Motions, Ibn al-Haytham also describes an early version of Occam's razor, where he employs only minimal hypotheses regarding the properties that characterize astronomical motions, as he attempts to eliminate from his planetary model the cosmological hypotheses that cannot be observed from Earth. The Book of Optics ( Arabic: Kitab al-Manazir, Latin: De Aspectibus or Opticae Thesaurus Alhazeni Observation is either an activity of a living being (such as a Human) which senses and assimilates the Knowledge of a Phenomenon, or the recording of data A problem is an obstacle which makes it difficult to achieve a desired goal objective or purpose A hypothesis (from Greek) consists either of a suggested explanation for a phenomenon (an event that is observable or of a reasoned proposal suggesting a possible In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or A result is the final consequence of a Sequence of actions or events (broadly incidents and accidents expressed qualitatively or quantitatively being a loss injury disadvantage Debt AIDS Trade in Africa (or DATA) is a Multinational non-government organization founded in January 2002 in London by U2 's A conclusion is a Proposition, which is arrived at after the consideration of Evidence, Arguments or Premises Logic To publish is to make content Publicly known. The term is most frequently applied to the distribution of text or images on paper or to the placing of content Occam's razor (sometimes spelled Ockham's razor) is a principle attributed to the 14th-century English Logician and Franciscan Friar, Cosmology (from Greek grc κοσμολογία - grc κόσμος kosmos, "universe" and grc -λογία -logia) is study EARTH was a short-lived Japanese vocal trio which released 6 singles and 1 album between 2000 and 2001 [48]
In his Aporias against Ptolemy, Ibn al-Haytham commented on the difficulty of attaining scientific knowledge:
"Truth is sought for itself [but] the truths, [he warns] are immersed in uncertainties [and the scientific authorities (such as Ptolemy, whom he greatly respected) are] not immune from error. . . "[46]
He held that the criticism of existing theories — which dominated this book — holds a special place in the growth of scientific knowledge:
"Therefore, the seeker after the truth is not one who studies the writings of the ancients and, following his natural disposition, puts his trust in them, but rather the one who suspects his faith in them and questions what he gathers from them, the one who submits to argument and demonstration, and not to the sayings of a human being whose nature is fraught with all kinds of imperfection and deficiency. Thus the duty of the man who investigates the writings of scientists, if learning the truth is his goal, is to make himself an enemy of all that he reads, and, applying his mind to the core and margins of its content, attack it from every side. He should also suspect himself as he performs his critical examination of it, so that he may avoid falling into either prejudice or leniency. "[46]
Ibn al-Haytham attributed his experimental scientific method and scientific skepticism to his Islamic faith. In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Scientific method refers to bodies of Techniques for investigating phenomena Scientific skepticism or rational skepticism ( also spelled scepticism) sometimes referred to as skeptical inquiry, is a scientific or practical For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. He believed that human beings are inherently flawed and that only God is perfect. Human beings, humans or man (Origin 1590–1600 L homō man OL hemō the earthly one (see Humus God is the principal or sole Deity in Religions and other belief systems that worship one deity. He reasoned that to discover the truth about nature, it is necessary to eliminate human opinion and error, and allow the universe to speak for itself. Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking The meaning of the word truth extends from Honesty, Good faith, and Sincerity in general to agreement with Fact or Reality Nature, in the broadest sense is equivalent to the natural world, physical universe, material world or material universe. An opinion is a Person 's Ideas and thoughts towards something which it is either impossible to verify the truth of or the truth of which is thought unimportant to The word error has different meanings and usages relative to how it is conceptually applied The Universe is defined as everything that Physically Exists: the entirety of Space and Time, all forms of Matter, Energy [45] In The Winding Motion, Ibn al-Haytham further wrote that faith should only apply to prophets of Islam and not to any other authorities, in the following comparison between the Islamic prophetic tradition and the demonstrative sciences:
"From the statements made by the noble Shaykh, it is clear that he believes in Ptolemy's words in everything he says, without relying on a demonstration or calling on a proof, but by pure imitation (taqlid); that is how experts in the prophetic tradition have faith in Prophets, may the blessing of God be upon them. Faith is a Belief in the trustworthiness of an Idea. Formal usage of the word "faith" is usually reserved for concepts of Religion, as in Muslims regard as Prophets of Islam ( Arabic: نبي) those non-divine humans chosen by Allah as Prophets Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding Sheikh, also rendered as Sheik, Cheikh, Shaikh, and other variants ( Arabic:, shaykh Claudius Ptolemaeus ( Greek: Klaúdios Ptolemaîos; after 83 &ndash ca Taqlid or taqleed ( Arabic تَقْليد taqlīd) is an Arabic term meaning "to follow (someone" or "to imitate" Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several But it is not the way that mathematicians have faith in specialists in the demonstrative sciences. "[49]
Ibn al-Haytham described his search for truth and knowledge as a way of leading him closer to God:
"I constantly sought knowledge and truth, and it became my belief that for gaining access to the effulgence and closeness to God, there is no better way than that of searching for truth and knowledge. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding "[47]
His contemporary Abū Rayhān al-Bīrūnī also introduced an early scientific method in nearly every field of inquiry he studied. Inquiry or enquiry is any process that has the aim of augmenting Knowledge, resolving Doubt, or solving a Problem. For example, in his treatise on mineralogy, Kitab al-Jamahir (Book of Precious Stones), he is "the most exact of experimental scientists", while in the introduction to his study of India, he declares that "to execute our project, it has not been possible to follow the geometric method" and develops comparative sociology as a scientific method in the field. Mineralogy is an Earth Science focused around the Chemistry, Crystal structure, and physical (including optical) properties of Minerals The term exact science refers to fields of Science that are capable of accurate quantitative expression or precise predictions and rigorous methods of testing In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Indology refers to the academic study of the languages texts History and Cultures of the Indian subcontinent, and as such a subset of Asian studies Comparative sociology generally refers to sociological analysis that involves comparison of Social processes between Nation-states, or across different types [50] He was also responsible for introducing the experimental method into mechanics,[51] the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena,[52] and a pioneer of experimental psychology. Mechanics ( Greek) is the branch of Physics concerned with the behaviour of physical bodies when subjected to Forces or displacements Astronomy (from the Greek words astron (ἄστρον "star" and nomos (νόμος "law" is the scientific study Experimental psychology approaches Psychology as one of the natural sciences investigates it using the experimental method. [53]
Unlike his contemporary Avicenna's scientific method where "general and universal questions came first and led to experimental work", al-Biruni developed scientific methods where "universals came out of practical, experimental work" and "theories are formulated after discoveries. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or "[50] During his debate with Avicenna on natural philosophy, al-Biruni made the first real distinction between a scientist and a philosopher, referring to Avicenna as a philosopher and considering himself to be a mathematical scientist. For the current in the 19th century German idealism see Naturphilosophie Natural philosophy or the philosophy of nature (from A scientist, in the broadest sense refers to any person that engages in a systematic activity to acquire Knowledge or an individual that engages in such practices Philosophy is the study of general problems concerning matters such as existence knowledge truth beauty justice validity mind and language [54]
Al-Biruni's scientific method was similar to the modern scientific method in many ways, particularly his emphasis on repeated experimentation. Biruni was concerned with how to conceptualize and prevent both systematic errors and random errors, such as "errors caused by the use of small instruments and errors made by human observers. Systematic errors are Biases in Measurement which lead the situation where the Mean of many separate measurements differs Significantly In Statistics and optimization, the concepts of statistical error and residual are easily confused with each other " He argued that if instruments produce random errors because of their imperfections or idiosyncratic qualities, then multiple observations must be taken, analyzed qualitatively, and on this basis, arrive at a "common-sense single value for the constant sought", whether an arithmetic mean or a "reliable estimate. Qualitative research is a field of inquiry that crosscuts disciplines and subject matters. In Mathematics and Statistics, the arithmetic Mean (or simply the mean) of a list of numbers is the sum of all the members of the list divided Estimation is the calculated Approximation of a result which is usable even if Input data may be incomplete or uncertain. "[55]
Experimental medicine
Avicenna (Ibn Sina) is considered the father of modern medicine,[56] for his introduction of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology,[57] the introduction of experimental medicine and clinical trials,[58] the experimental use and testing of drugs, and a precise guide for practical experimentation in the process of discovering and proving the effectiveness of medical substances,[59] in his medical encyclopedia, The Canon of Medicine (11th century), which was the first book dealing with experimental medicine. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Medicine is the art and science of healing It encompasses a range of Health care practices evolved to maintain and restore Human Health by the In scientific inquiry an experiment ( Latin: Ex- periri, "to try out" is a method of investigating particular types of research questions or Quantification has two distinct meanings In Mathematics and Empirical science, it refers to human acts known as Counting and Measuring Physiology (from Greek grc φύσις physis, "nature origin" and grc -λογία -logia) is the study of the mechanical physical Biomedical research (or experimental medicine) in general simply known as medical research, is the Basic research or Applied research conducted In health care clinical trials are conducted to allow safety and Efficacy data to be collected for new drugs or devices For the episode of the American television series The Office, see " Drug Testing " A chemical substance is a Material with a definite chemical composition. The Canon of Medicine ( Arabic: القانون في الطب Al-Qanun fi al-Tibb " The Law of Medicine " Persian It laid out the following rules and principles for testing the effectiveness of new drugs or medications, which still form the basis of modern clinical trials:[58]
- "The drug must be free from any extraneous accidental quality. A drug, broadly speaking is any chemical substance that when absorbed into the body Medication, also referred to as medicine, can be loosely defined as any substance intended for use in the diagnosis cure mitigation treatment or prevention of disease "
- "It must be used on a simple, not a composite, disease. "
- "The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because sometimes a drug cures one disease by Its essential qualities and another by its accidental ones. "
- "The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain diseases, so that they would have no effect on them. "
- "The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not confused. "
- "The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases, for if this did not happen, it was an accidental effect. "
- "The experimentation must be done with the human body, for testing a drug on a lion or a horse might not prove anything about its effect on man. "
Other fields
Epistemology
- Further information: Avicennism - Epistemology
Avicenna's most influential theory in epistemology is his theory of knowledge, in which he developed the concept of tabula rasa. Avicennism ( is a school of Early Islamic philosophy which began during the middle of the Islamic Golden Age. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Epistemology (from Greek επιστήμη - episteme, "knowledge" + λόγος, " Logos " or theory of knowledge Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding Tabula rasa ( Latin: blank slate) refers to the epistemological thesis that individual human beings are born with no built-in mental content He argued that the "human intellect at birth is rather like a tabula rasa, a pure potentiality that is actualized through education and comes to know" and that knowledge is attained through "empirical familiarity with objects in this world from which one abstracts universal concepts" which is developed through a "syllogistic method of reasoning; observations lead to prepositional statements, which when compounded lead to further abstract concepts. A central concept in Science and the Scientific method is that all Evidence must be empirical, or empirically based that is dependent on evidence A syllogism, or logical appeal, (συλλογισμός &mdash "conclusion" "inference" (usually the categorical syllogism) is a kind of Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings "[60]
In the 12th century, Ibn Tufail further developed the concept of tabula rasa in his Arabic novel, Hayy ibn Yaqzan, in which he depicted the development of the mind of a feral child "from a tabula rasa to that of an adult, in complete isolation from society" on a desert island. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name Arabic literature ( Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān ( حي بن يقظان " Alive son of Awake " Philosophus Autodidactus " The Self-Taught Philosopher A feral child ( Feral, Wild, or undomesticated) is a human child who has lived isolated from human contact from a very young age and has no (or little The term desert island, or deserted island, refers to an Island which is uninhabited or sparsely inhabited The Latin translation of his work, entitled Philosophus Autodidactus, published by Edward Pococke the Younger in 1671, had an influence on John Locke's formulation of tabula rasa in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Edward Pococke (1604-1691 was an English Orientalist and biblical scholar John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is one of John Locke 's two most famous works the other being his Second Treatise on Civil Government [61]
Eschatology
Islamic eschatology is concerned with the Qiyamah (end of the world; Last Judgement) and the final judgement of humanity. Islamic eschatology is concerned with the al-Qiyāmah "Last Judgement" Eschatology (from the Greek, Eschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of" is a part of Theology In Islam, Yawm al-Qiyāmah "the Day of Resurrection" (يوم القيامة or Yawm ad-Din "the Day of Faith" (يوم الدين is God's final Eschatology (from the Greek, Eschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of" is a part of Theology In Christian eschatology, the Last Judgment or Day of the Lord is the judgment by God of every human who ever lived Eschatology relates to one of the six articles of faith (aqidah) of Islam. Eschatology (from the Greek, Eschatos meaning "last" and -logy meaning "the study of" is a part of Theology Aqidah (sometimes spelled Aqeeda, Aqidah or Aqida) (عقيدة is an Islamic term meaning Creed. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. Like the other Abrahamic religions, Islam teaches the bodily resurrection of the dead, the fulfillment of a divine plan for creation, and the immortality of the human soul (though Jews do not necessarily view the soul as eternal); the righteous are rewarded with the pleasures of Jannah (Heaven), while the unrighteous are punished in Jahannam (Hell). This article concerns itself with Jesus Christ Christian, Islamic and other religious interpretations of resurrection in general Jannah (جنّة is the Islamic conception of Paradise. The Arabic form Jannah is a shortened version meaning simply "Garden" Heaven may refer to the physical heavens the sky or the seemingly endless expanse of the Universe beyond Jahannam (جهنم(in Turkish: cehennem in Bosnian: džehennem is the Islamic equivalent to Gei Hinnom, or Hell. Hell, according to many Religious beliefs, is a location in the Afterlife, which may be described as a place of suffering A significant fraction (one third, in fact) of the Quran deals with these beliefs, with many hadith elaborating on the themes and details. Hadith ( ar الحديث, pl aḥadīth; lit. "narrative" are oral Traditions relating to the words and deeds of the Islamic Islamic apocalyptic literature describing the Armageddon is often known as fitna (a test) and malahim (or ghayba in the shi'ite tradition). See also Fitna Fitna (فتنة is an Arabic word generally regarded as very difficult to translate but at the same time is considered to be an all-encompassing
Ibn al-Nafis dealt with Islamic eschatology in some depth in his Theologus Autodidactus, where he rationalized the Islamic view of eschatology using reason and science to explain the events that would occur according to Islamic eschatology. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Rationality as a term is related to the idea of Reason, a word which following Webster's may be derived as much from older terms referring to Reason involves the ability to think understand and draw Conclusions in an Abstract way as in Human thinking He presented his rational and scientific arguments in the form of Arabic fiction, hence his Theologus Autodidactus may be considered the earliest science fiction work. Arabic literature ( Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers [62]
Peer review
The first documented description of a peer review process is found in the Ethics of the Physician written by Ishaq bin Ali al-Rahwi (854–931) of al-Raha, Syria, who describes the first medical peer review process. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting an author's scholarly work research or Ideas to the scrutiny of others who are Syria ( سوريّة or) officially the Syrian Arab Republic (Arabic ar الجمهورية العربية السورية Medical peer review is the process by which a committee of physicians examines the work of a peer and determines whether the physician under review has met accepted standards of care in His work, as well as later Arabic medical manuals, state that a visiting physician must always make duplicate notes of a patient's condition on every visit. When the patient was cured or had died, the notes of the physician were examined by a local medical council of other physicians, who would review the practising physician's notes to decide whether his/her performance have met the required standards of medical care. See also Critic. A review is an evaluation of a publication such as a movie, Video game, Musical composition If their reviews were negative, the practicing physician could face a lawsuit from a maltreated patient. In law a lawsuit is a civil action brought before a Court in which the party commencing the action the Plaintiff, seeks a legal or equitable remedy [63]
Phenomenology
The Ash'ari polymath Ibn al-Haytham (Alhacen) is considered a pioneer of phenomenology. The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized He articulated a relationship between the physical and observable world and that of intuition, psychology and mental functions. In philosophy the World is everything that makes up Reality. While clarifying the Concept of world has arguably always been among the basic tasks of Western Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Mental functions and cognitive Processes are terms often used interchangeably (although not always correctly so the term cognitive tends to have specific His theories regarding knowledge and perception, linking the domains of science and religion, led to a philosophy of existence based on the direct observation of reality from the observer's point of view. Knowledge is defined ( Oxford English Dictionary) variously as (i expertise and skills acquired by a person through experience or education the theoretical or practical understanding In Psychology and the Cognitive sciences perception is the process of attaining awareness or understanding of sensory Information. In common usage existence is the world of which we are aware through our senses but in Philosophy the word has a more specialized meaning and is often contrasted with Reality, in everyday usage means "the state of things as they actually exist" Much of his thought on phenomenology was not further developed until the 20th century. [64]
Philosophical novels
The Islamic philosophers, Ibn Tufail (Abubacer)[65] and Ibn al-Nafis,[66] were pioneers of the philosophical novel. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Philosophical novels are works of Fiction in which a significant proportion of the novel is devoted to a discussion of the sort of questions normally addressed in discursive Ibn Tufail wrote the first fictional Arabic novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Philosophus Autodidactus) as a response to al-Ghazali's The Incoherence of the Philosophers, and then Ibn al-Nafis also wrote a fictional novel Theologus Autodidactus as a response to Ibn Tufail's Philosophus Autodidactus. Arabic literature ( Arabic: الأدب العربي Al-Adab Al-Arabi) is the writing produced both Prose and Poetry, by speakers Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān ( حي بن يقظان " Alive son of Awake " Philosophus Autodidactus " The Self-Taught Philosopher Abū Ḥāmid Muḥammad ibn Muḥammad al-Ghazālī (1058-1111 ( ابو حامد محمد ابن محمد الغزالی or امام محمد غزالی was born and died The Incoherence of the Philosophers ( Tahāfut al-Falāsifaʰ) in Arabic (تهافت الفلاسفة is the title of a landmark 11th century Polemic in Islamic A novel (from Italian novella, Spanish novela, French nouvelle for "new" "news" or "short story TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ala al-Din Abu al-Hassan Ali ibn Abi-Hazm al-Qarshi al-Dimashqi ( Both of these novels had protagonists (Hayy in Philosophus Autodidactus and Kamil in Theologus Autodidactus) who were autodidactic individuals spontaneously generated in a cave and living in seclusion on a desert island, both being the earliest examples of a desert island story. The Protagonist or main character is the central figure of a story. Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) is self-education or self-directed learning In the Natural sciences, Abiogenesis, or origin of life, is the study of how Life on Earth emerged from Inanimate Organic A cave is a natural underground void large enough for a human to enter The term desert island, or deserted island, refers to an Island which is uninhabited or sparsely inhabited However, while Hayy lives alone on the desert island for most of the story in Philosophus Autodidactus, the story of Kamil extends beyond the desert island setting in Theologus Autodidactus, developing into the first example of a science fiction novel. [67][68]
Ibn al-Nafis described his book Theologus Autodidactus as a defense of "the system of Islam and the Muslims' doctrines on the missions of Prophets, the religious laws, the resurrection of the body, and the transitoriness of the world. " He presents rational arguments for bodily resurrection and the immortality of the human soul, using both demonstrative reasoning and material from the hadith corpus to prove his case. This article concerns itself with Jesus Christ Christian, Islamic and other religious interpretations of resurrection in general Immortality (or eternal life) is the concept of living in physical or spiritual form for an Infinite length of Time. The soul, according to many religious and philosophical beliefs is the self-awareness, or Consciousness, unique to a particular living Reasoning is the cognitive process of looking for Reasons for beliefs conclusions actions or feelings Later Islamic scholars viewed this work as a response to the metaphysical claim of Avicenna and Ibn Tufail that bodily resurrection cannot be proven through reason, a view that was earlier criticized by al-Ghazali. Metaphysics is the branch of Philosophy investigating principles of reality transcending those of any particular science [69]
A Latin translation of Philosophus Autodidactus was published in 1671, prepared by Edward Pococke the Younger. Edward Pococke (1604-1691 was an English Orientalist and biblical scholar [70] The first English translation by Simon Ockley was published in 1708, and German and Dutch translations were also published at the time. Simon Ockley (1678 – August 9, 1720) was a British Orientalist. The German language (de ''Deutsch'') is a West Germanic language and one of the world's major languages. Dutch ( is a West Germanic language spoken by around 24 million people 22 million of which are from the Netherlands, Belgium and Suriname Philosophus Autodidactus went on to have a significant influence on European literature,[71] and became an influential best-seller throughout Western Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries. European literature refers to the Literature of Europe. European literature includes literature in many Languages; among the most important of the modern Western Europe at its most general meaning means 'all the countries in the West of Europe ' [72] These translations later inspired Daniel Defoe to write Robinson Crusoe, which also featured a desert island narrative and was regarded as the first novel in English. Daniel Defoe (1659/1661 — April 24, 1731 was an English Writer, Journalist, and Pamphleteer, who gained enduring fame for The Life and Strange Surprising Adventures of Robinson Crusoe (of York Mariner Who lived Eight and Twenty Years all alone in an un-inhabited Island on the Coast of America near the Mouth The following works of literature have each been claimed as the first Novel in English. [71][73][74][75]
Philosophus Autodidactus also had a "profound influence" on modern Western philosophy. Modern philosophy is Philosophy done in Europe and North America between the 17th and early 20th centuries. Western philosophy is a term that refers to philosophical thinking in the Western or Occidental world, as distinct from Eastern or Oriental philosophies [76] It became "one of the most important books that heralded the Scientific Revolution" and European Enlightenment, and the thoughts expressed in the novel can be found in "different variations and to different degrees in the books of Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, Isaac Newton, and Immanuel Kant. The period which many historians of science call the Scientific Revolution can be roughly dated as having begun in 1543 the year in which Nicolaus Copernicus published The Age of Enlightenment or The Enlightenment is a term used to describe a phase in Western philosophy and cultural life centered upon the eighteenth century Thomas Hobbes (born 5 April 1588died 4 December 1679 was an English philosopher, whose famous 1651 book Leviathan established the foundation John Locke (29 August 1632 – 28 October 1704 was an English Philosopher. Sir Isaac Newton, FRS (ˈnjuːtən 4 January 1643 31 March 1727) Biography Early years See also Isaac Newton's early life and achievements Immanuel Kant (ɪmanuəl kant 22 April 1724 12 February 1804 was an 18th-century German Philosopher from the Prussian city of Königsberg "[77] The novel inspired the concept of "tabula rasa" developed in An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (1690) by Locke, who was a student of Pococke. Tabula rasa ( Latin: blank slate) refers to the epistemological thesis that individual human beings are born with no built-in mental content An Essay Concerning Human Understanding is one of John Locke 's two most famous works the other being his Second Treatise on Civil Government [78][79] Philosophus Autodidactus also developed the themes of empiricism, tabula rasa, nature versus nurture,[80] condition of possibility, materialism,[81] and Molyneux's Problem. In Philosophy, empiricism is a theory of Knowledge which asserts that knowledge arises from Experience. Tabula rasa ( Latin: blank slate) refers to the epistemological thesis that individual human beings are born with no built-in mental content The nature versus nurture debates concern the relative importance of an individual's innate qualities ("nature" i Condition of possibility ( Bedingungen der Möglichkeit) is a Philosophical Concept made popular by Immanuel Kant. The Philosophy of materialism holds that the only thing that can be truly proven to exist is Matter, and is considered a form of Physicalism. Molyneux's Problem is an unsolved problem in philosophy. In response to John Locke 's An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, scientist and politician [82] The novel also inspired Robert Boyle, another acquaintance of Pococke, to write his own philosophical novel set on an island, The Aspiring Naturalist. Robert Boyle was a Natural philosopher, chemist physicist inventor and early Gentleman scientist, noted for his work in Physics and Chemistry [83] Other European scholars influenced by Philosophus Autodidactus include Gottfried Leibniz,[71] Melchisédech Thévenot, John Wallis, Christiaan Huygens,[84] George Keith, Robert Barclay, the Quakers,[85] and Samuel Hartlib. Melchisédech (or Melchisédec) Thévenot (c 1620 - October 29, 1692) was a French author scientist traveler cartographer John Wallis ( November 23, 1616 - October 28, 1703) was an English mathematician who is given partial credit for the Christiaan Huygens (ˈhaɪgənz in English ˈhœyɣəns in Dutch) ( April 14, 1629 &ndash July 8, 1695) was a Dutch George Keith (1638/9 – March 27, 1716) was a Scottish Missionary. Robert Barclay ( December 23, 1648 – October 3, 1690) one of the most eminent Writers belonging to the Religious Society Samuel Hartli(eb (ca 1600 &ndash 1662 was a German Briton Polymath, an expert in many subjects called "the Great Intelligencer of Europe" [83]
Philosophy of history
The first detailed studies on the subject of historiography and the first critiques on historical methods appeared in the works of the Arab Ash'ari polymath Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), who is regarded as the father of historiography, cultural history,[86] and the philosophy of history, especially for his historiographical writings in the Muqaddimah (Latinized as Prolegomena) and Kitab al-Ibar (Book of Advice). The Historiography of early Islam refers to the study of the early origins of Islam based on a critical analysis evaluation and examination of authentic Primary The historical method comprises the techniques and guidelines by which Historians use Primary sources and other evidence to research and then to write history The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The term cultural history (from the German term) refers both to an Academic discipline and to its subject matter Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History. The Muqaddimah, or the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun ( Arabic: ar مقدّمة ابن خلدون Amazigh: Tazwarit n Ibn Xldun Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. [87] His Muqaddimah also laid the groundwork for the observation of the role of state, communication, propaganda and systematic bias in history,[88] and he discussed the rise and fall of civilizations. A state is a political association with effective Sovereignty over a geographic Area and representing a Population. Communication is the process of conveying information from a sender to a receiver with the use of a medium in which the communicated information is understood the same way Propaganda is a concerted set of messages aimed at influencing the opinions or behaviors of large numbers of people In Metrology, Dynamical systems theory, Computational mechanics, and Statistics, a systematic bias is a Bias of a measurement A Civilization is a society in which large numbers of people share a variety of common elements
Franz Rosenthal wrote in the History of Muslim Historiography:
"Muslim historiography has at all times been united by the closest ties with the general development of scholarship in Islam, and the position of historical knowledge in MusIim education has exercised a decisive influence upon the intellectual level of historicai writing. Franz Rosenthal ( August 31, 1914 – April 8, 2003) was the Louis M . . . The Muslims achieved a definite advance beyond previous historical writing in the sociological understanding of history and the systematisation of historiography. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" History is the study of the past particularly the written record Those who study history as a Profession are called Historians Etymology The development of modern historical writing seems to have gained considerably in speed and substance through the utilization of a Muslim Literature which enabled western historians, from the seventeenth century on, to see a large section of the world through foreign eyes. The Muslim historiography helped indirectly and modestly to shape present day historical thinking. "[89]
Philosophy of mind
The philosophy of mind was studied in medieval Islamic psychological thought, which refers to the study of the nafs (literally "self" or "psyche" in Arabic) in the Islamic world, particularly during the Islamic Golden Age (8th–15th centuries) as well as modern times (20th–21st centuries), and is related to psychology, psychiatry and the neurosciences. Philosophy of mind is the branch of Philosophy that studies the nature of the Mind, Mental events Mental functions mental properties Nafs is an Arabic word meaning self or psyche. It is first among the six Lataif (cleanliness or Lataif-e-sitta. Self is broadly defined as the essential qualities that make a person distinct from all others In Psychoanalysis, the psyche (ˈsaɪki refers to the forces in an individual that influence thought, Behavior and Personality. Arabic (ar الْعَرَبيّة (informally ar عَرَبيْ) in terms of the number of speakers is the largest living member of the Semitic language The term Muslim world (or Islamic world) has several meanings Psychology (from Greek grc ψῡχή psȳkhē, "breath life soul" and grc -λογία -logia) is an Academic and Psychiatry is a medical specialty which exists to study, prevent, and treat Mental disorders in Humans Psychiatric Neuroscience is a field devoted to the scientific study of the nervous system
Place
The Arab polymath al-Hasan Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen; d. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Arabic: ابو علی، حسن بن حسن بن هيثم Latinized ca. 1041) presented a thorough mathematical critique and refutation of Aristotle's conception of place (topos) in his Risala/Qawl fi’l-makan (Treatise/Discourse on Place). Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great.
Aristotle's Physics (Book IV - Delta) stated that the place of something is the two-dimensional boundary of the containing body that is at rest and is in contact with what it contains. Physics (or "Physica" or "Physicae Auscultationes" meaning "lessons" is a key text in the philosophy of Aristotle. Ibn al-Haytham disagreed with this definition and demonstrated that place (al-makan) is the imagined (three-dimensional) void (al-khala' al-mutakhayyal) between the inner surfaces of the containing body. He showed that place was akin to space, foreshadowing Descartes's notion of place as space qua Extensio or even Leibniz's analysis situs. Space is the extent within which Matter is physically extended and objects and Events have positions relative to one another Ibn al-Haytham's mathematization of place rested on several geometric demonstrations, including his study on the sphere and other solids, which showed that the sphere (al-kura) is the largest in magnitude (volumetric) with respect to other geometric solids that have equal surface areas. "Globose" redirects here See also Globose nucleus. A sphere (from Greek σφαίρα - sphaira, "globe For instance, a sphere that has an equal surface area to that of a cylinder, would be larger in (volumetric) magnitude than the cylinder; hence, the sphere occupies a larger place than that occupied by the cylinder; unlike what is entailed by Aristotle's definition of place: that this sphere and that cylinder occupy places that are equal in magnitude. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. [90] Ibn al-Haytham rejected Aristotle's philosophical concept of place on mathematical grounds. Aristotle (Greek Aristotélēs) (384 BC – 322 BC was a Greek philosopher a student of Plato and teacher of Alexander the Great. Later, the philosopher 'Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (13th century) tried to defend the Aristotelian conception of place in a treatise titled: Fi al-Radd ‘ala Ibn al-Haytham fi al-makan (A refutation of Ibn al-Haytham’s place), although his effort was admirable from a philosophical standpoint, it was unconvincing from the scientific and mathematical viewpoints. [91]
Political philosophy
Early Islamic political philosophy emphasized an inexorable link between science and religion, and the process of ijtihad to find truth - in effect all philosophy was "political" as it had real implications for governance. Political philosophy is the study of questions about the City, Government, Politics, Liberty, Justice, Property, Rights Science (from the Latin scientia, meaning " Knowledge " or "knowing" is the effort to discover, and increase human understanding A religion is a set of Tenets and practices often centered upon specific Supernatural and moral claims about Reality, the Cosmos Ijtihad (Arabic اجتهاد is a technical term of Islamic law that describes the process of making a legal decision by independent interpretation of the legal sources The meaning of the word truth extends from Honesty, Good faith, and Sincerity in general to agreement with Fact or Reality This view was challenged by the Mutazilite philosophers, who held a more secular view and were supported by secular aristocracy who sought freedom of action independent of the mosque. Muʿtazilah ( Arabic المعتزلة al-mu`tazilah) is a theological school of thought within Sunni Islam. Secularism is generally the assertion that governmental practices or institutions should exist separately from Religion or religious beliefs A "mosque" in English refers to all types of buildings dedicated for Islamic worship although there is a distinction in Arabic between the smaller privately owned mosque and the larger The only Greek political treatise known to medieval Muslims at the time was Plato's Republic. Greek (el ελληνική γλώσσα or simply el ελληνικά — "Hellenic" is an Indo-European language, spoken today by 15-22 million people mainly Biography Early life Birth and family Plato was born in Athens Greece The Republic ( Greek: / Politeía, meaning "political system" Latin: Res Publica, meaning "public business" or By the end of the Islamic Golden Age, however, the Asharite view of Islam had in general triumphed. The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan
Islamic political philosophy, was, indeed, rooted in the very sources of Islam, i. For other meanings including people named 'Islam' see Islam (disambiguation. e. the Qur'an and the Sunnah, the words and practices of Muhammad. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Sunnah ar (سنة plural سنن Sunan literally means “trodden path” and therefore the sunnah of the prophet means “the way and the manners of the prophet” However, in the Western thought, it is generally known that it was a specific area peculiar merely to the great philosophers of Islam: al-Kindi (Alkindus), al-Farabi (Alfarabi), İbn Sina (Avicenna), Ibn Bajjah (Avempace), Ibn Rushd (Averroes), and Ibn Khaldun. ( أبو يوسف يعقوب إبن إسحاق الكندي) (c TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Abū Nasr Muhammad ibn al-Farakh al-Fārābi ( Nastaliq:) or Abū Nasr al-Fārābi TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> ( Persian /ابو علی الحسین ابن عبدالله ابن سینا (born Abū-Bakr Muhammad ibn Yahya ibn al-Sāyigh ( Arabic أبو بكر محمد بن يحيى بن الصائغ known as Ibn Bājjah (ابن باجة was an Andalusian Abū 'l-Walīd Muḥammad ibn Aḥmad ibn Rushd (Arabicأبو الوليد محمد بن احمد بن رشد better known just as Ibn Rushd (ابن رشد and in European Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The political conceptions of Islam such as kudrah, sultan, ummah, cemaa -and even the "core" terms of the Qur'an, i. e. ibada, din, rab and ilah- is taken as the basis of an analysis. Hence, not only the ideas of the Muslim political philosophers but also many other jurists and ulama posed political ideas and theories. Fiqh ( Arabic: فقه, fɪqəh is Islamic Jurisprudence. Fiqh is an expansion of the Sharia Islamic law—based directly on the Ulema ( ar علماء,, singular ar عالِم,, "scholar" refers to the educated class of Muslim legal scholars engaged in the several For example, the ideas of the Khawarij in the very early years of Islamic history on Khilafa and Ummah, or that of Shia Islam on the concept of Imamah are considered proofs of political thought. Kharijites (Arabic Khawārij خوارج literally "Those who Went Out" is a general term embracing various Muslims who while initially supporting the Muslim history began in Arabia with the Muhammad 's first recitations of the Qur'an in the 7th century A caliphate (from the Arabic خلافة or khilāfa) is the political leadership of the Muslim community in classical and medieval Islamic history Ummah (أمة is an Arabic word meaning Community or Nation. It is commonly used to mean either the collective nation of states, or (in the The clashes between the Ehl-i Sunna and Shia in the 7th and 8th centuries had a genuine political character. Sunni Islam is the largest denomination of Islam. Sunni Islam is also referred to as Ahl as-Sunnah wa’l-Jamā‘h (Arabic
The 13th century Arab scholar Ibn Khaldun is considered one of the greatest political theorists. The araB gene Promoter is a bacterial promoter activated by e L-arabinose binding Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The British philosopher-anthropologist Ernest Gellner considered Ibn Khaldun's definition of government, "an institution which prevents injustice other than such as it commits itself", the best in the history of political theory. Ernest André Gellner ( 9 December 1925 &ndash 5 November 1995) was a Philosopher and social anthropologist, cited as one For the government of parliamentary systems see Executive (government. [92]
Social philosophy
Despite the negative consequences of Ash'ari thought on Islamic philosophy, it did later give rise to the beginnings of social philosophy. The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan Social philosophy is the philosophical study of questions about social Behavior (typically of Humans. The most famous social philosopher was the Ash'ari polymath Ibn Khaldun (1332-1406), who in his Muqaddimah, developed the earliest theories on social philosophy, in formulating theories of social cohesion and social conflict. The Ash'ari theology ( Arabic الأشاعرة al-asha`irah) is a school of early Muslim speculative theology founded by the theologian Abu al-Hasan Ibn Khaldūn or Ibn Khaldoun (full name أبو زيد عبد الرحمن بن محمد بن خلدون,, ( May 27, 1332 AD/732 AH &ndash March 19 The Muqaddimah, or the Muqaddimah of Ibn Khaldun ( Arabic: ar مقدّمة ابن خلدون Amazigh: Tazwarit n Ibn Xldun Structural cohesion is the sociological and Graph theory conception and measurement of Cohesion for maximal Social group or graphical boundaries where related Social conflict is a Conflict or Confrontation of social powers.
His Muqaddimah was also the introduction to a seven volume analysis of universal history. He is considered the "father of sociology", "father of historiography", and "father of the philosophy of history", for being the first to discuss the topics of sociology, historiography and the philosophy of history in detail. Sociology (from Latin: socius "companion" and the suffix -ology "the study of" from Greek λόγος lógos "knowledge" Philosophy of history or historiosophy is an area of Philosophy concerning the eventual significance if any of human History.
See also
Notes
- ^ Kevin Staley (1989). Islamic philosophy is a branch of Islamic studies, and is a longstanding attempt to create harmony between Philosophy ( Reason) and the religious teachings See also Islamic philosophy Contemporary Islamic philosophy refers to the situation of Islamic philosophy in the 20th century "Al-Kindi on Creation: Aristotle's Challenge to Islam", Journal of the History of Ideas 50 (3), p. 355-370.
- ^ a b Abdel Wahab El Messeri. Episode 21: Ibn Rushd, Everything you wanted to know about Islam but were afraid to ask, Philosophia Islamica.
- ^ a b Fauzi M. Najjar (Spring, 1996). The debate on Islam and secularism in Egypt, Arab Studies Quarterly (ASQ).
- ^ a b Majid Fakhry (2001). Averroes: His Life, Works and Influence. Oneworld Publications. ISBN 1851682694.
- ^ Henry Corbin, History of Islamic Philosophy. Henry Corbin ( 14 April 1903 - October 7, 1978 was a Philosopher, Theologian and professor of Islamic Studies at
- ^ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), p. 80-81, "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. The University of Notre Dame du Lac (or simply Notre Dame) (ˌnoʊtɚˈdeɪm is a private Roman Catholic Research university located in [1]
- ^ The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Avicenna/Ibn Sina (CA. 980-1037)
- ^ S. Nomanul Haq, "Islam", in Dale Jamieson (2001), A Companion to Environmental Philosophy, pp. 111-129, Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 140510659X. Blackwell Publishing Ltd was a Learned society publishing company based in Oxford, England.
- ^ S. Nomanul Haq, "Islam", in Dale Jamieson (2001), A Companion to Environmental Philosophy, pp. 111-129 [119-129], Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 140510659X. Blackwell Publishing Ltd was a Learned society publishing company based in Oxford, England.
- ^ Sahih Bukhari 3:513
- ^ S. Nomanul Haq, "Islam", in Dale Jamieson (2001), A Companion to Environmental Philosophy, pp. 111-129 [111-119], Blackwell Publishing, ISBN 140510659X. Blackwell Publishing Ltd was a Learned society publishing company based in Oxford, England.
- ^ [Qur'an 6:38]
- ^ L. The Qur’an ( القرآن, literally "the recitation" also sometimes transliterated as Qur’ān, Koran, Alcoran Gari (2002), "Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century", Environment and History 8 (4), pp. 475-488.
- ^ S. P. Scott (1904), History of the Moorish Empire in Europe, 3 vols, J. B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia and London.
F. B. Artz (1980), The Mind of the Middle Ages, Third edition revised, University of Chicago Press, pp 148-50. The University of Chicago Press is the largest University press in the United States
(cf. References, 1001 Inventions) - ^ Islamic Science, the Scholar and Ethics, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult"
- ^ Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, p. 155, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195135806.
- ^ Ahmad, I. A. (June 3, 2002), “The Rise and Fall of Islamic Science: The Calendar as a Case Study”, “Faith and Reason: Convergence and Complementarity”, <http://images.agustianwar.multiply.com/attachment/0/RxbYbQoKCr4AAD@kzFY1/IslamicCalendar-A-Case-Study.pdf>. Retrieved on 31 January 2008
- ^ John William Draper (1878). John William Draper ( May 5, 1811, &ndash January 4, 1882) was an American ( English -born Scientist, Philosopher History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science, p. 237. ISBN 1603030964.
- ^ a b John William Draper (1878). John William Draper ( May 5, 1811, &ndash January 4, 1882) was an American ( English -born Scientist, Philosopher History of the Conflict Between Religion and Science, p. 154-155. ISBN 1603030964.
- ^ Conway Zirkle (1941). Natural Selection before the "Origin of Species", Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society 84 (1), p. 71-123.
- ^ Mehmet Bayrakdar (Third Quarter, 1983). "Al-Jahiz And the Rise of Biological Evolutionism", The Islamic Quarterly. London. London ( ˈlʌndən is the capital and largest urban area in the United Kingdom.
- ^ Gary Dargan, Intelligent Design, Encounter, ABC. The American Broadcasting Company ( ABC) is an American Television network.
- ^ a b Muhammad Hamidullah and Afzal Iqbal (1993), The Emergence of Islam: Lectures on the Development of Islamic World-view, Intellectual Tradition and Polity, p. Prof. Dr. Muhammad Hamidullah or Muhammad Hameedullah, D Phil, D 143-144. Islamic Research Institute, Islamabad.
- ^ a b Eloise Hart, Pages of Medieval Mideastern History. (cf. Isma'ili, Yezidi, Sufi, The Brethren Of Purity, Ismaili Heritage Society)
- ^ "Ikhwan as-Safa and their Rasa'il: A Critical Review of a Century and a Half of Research", by A. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" L. Tibawi, as published in volume 2 of The Islamic Quarterly in 1955; pgs. 28-46
- ^ Wael B. Hallaq (1993), Ibn Taymiyya Against the Greek Logicians, p. 48. Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198240430.
- ^ a b History of logic: Arabic logic, Encyclopædia Britannica. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc
- ^ I. M. Bochenski (1961), "On the history of the history of logic", A history of formal logic, p. 4-10. Translated by I. Thomas, Notre Dame, Indiana University Press. Indiana University Press, also known as IU Press, is a Publishing house at Indiana University that engages in Academic publishing, specializing (cf. Ancient Islamic (Arabic and Persian) Logic and Ontology)
- ^ Lenn Evan Goodman (2003), Islamic Humanism, p. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" 155, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0195135806.
- ^ a b c Science and Muslim Scientists, Islam Herald.
- ^ Steve A. Johnson (1984), "Ibn Sina's Fourth Ontological Argument for God's Existence", The Muslim World 74 (3-4), 161–171.
- ^ Morewedge, P. , “Ibn Sina (Avicenna) and Malcolm and the Ontological Argument”, Monist 54: 234-49
- ^ Mayer, Toby (2001), “Ibn Sina’s ‘Burhan Al-Siddiqin’”, Journal of Islamic Studies (Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies, Oxford Journals, Oxford University Press) 12 (1): 18-39
- ^ For recent discussions of this question see: Nader El-Bizri, "Avicenna and Essentialism", The Review of Metaphysics, Vol. The Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies ( OCIS) is a Recognised Independent Centre associated with the University of Oxford, England. 54 (June 2001), pp. 753-778.
- ^ Alejandro, Herrera Ibáñez (1990), “La distinción entre esencia y existencia en Avicena”, Revista Latinoamericana de Filosofía 16: 183-195, <http://www.formalontology.it/avicenna-biblio.htm>. Retrieved on 29 January 2008
- ^ Fadlo, Hourani George (1972), “Ibn Sina on necessary and possible existence”, Philosophical Forum 4: 74-86, <http://www.formalontology.it/avicenna-biblio.htm>. Retrieved on 29 January 2008
- ^ a b Irwin, Jones (Autumn 2002), “Averroes' Reason: A Medieval Tale of Christianity and Islam”, The Philosopher LXXXX (2)
- ^ (Razavi 1997, p. 129)
- ^ For recent studies that engage in this line of research with care and thoughtful deliberation, see: Nader El-Bizri, The Phenomenological Quest between Avicenna and Heidegger (Binghamton, N. Y. : Global Publications SUNY, 2000)
- ^ Fancy, p. 42 & 60
- ^ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 209-210, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. The University of Notre Dame du Lac (or simply Notre Dame) (ˌnoʊtɚˈdeɪm is a private Roman Catholic Research university located in [2]
- ^ a b Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman (1996), History of Islamic Philosophy, p. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Seyyed Hossein Nasr ( Persian سید حسین نصر) an Iranian Oliver Leaman is a Professor of Philosophy and Zantker Professor of Judaic Studies 315, Routledge, ISBN 0415131596. Routledge is a publisher of non-fiction academic books and journals
- ^ Osman Amin (2007), "Influence of Muslim Philosophy on the West", Monthly Renaissance 17 (11).
- ^ a b Jan A. Aertsen (1988), Nature and Creature: Thomas Aquinas's Way of Thought, p. 152. BRILL, ISBN 9004084517.
- ^ a b c Bradley Steffens (2006). Ibn al-Haytham: First Scientist, Morgan Reynolds Publishing, ISBN 1599350246. (cf. Bradley Steffens, "Who Was the First Scientist?", Ezine Articles. cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult" )
- ^ a b c d Sabra (2003). Abdelhamid I Sabra is a retired professor of the history of science specializing in the History of optics and Science in medieval Islam. Ibn al-Haytham: Brief life of an Arab mathematician, Harvard Magazine, October-December 2003. Harvard Magazine is an independently edited Magazine and separately incorporated affiliate of Harvard University.
- ^ a b C. Plott (2000), Global History of Philosophy: The Period of Scholasticism, Pt. II, p. 465. ISBN 8120805518, Motilal Banarsidass Publ. Motilal Banarsidass (MLBD is a leading Indian publishing house on Sanskrit and Indology since 1903 located in Delhi, India.
- ^ Roshdi Rashed (2007). "The Celestial Kinematics of Ibn al-Haytham", Arabic Sciences and Philosophy 17, p. 7-55 [35-36]. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge University Press (known colloquially as CUP is a Publisher given a Royal Charter by Henry VIII in 1534
- ^ Rashed (2007), p. 11.
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- ^ (Glick, Livesey & Wallis 2005, p. 89-90)
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- ^ Katharine Park (March 1990). "Avicenna in Renaissance Italy: The Canon and Medical Teaching in Italian Universities after 1500 by Nancy G. Siraisi", The Journal of Modern History 62 (1), p. 169-170.
- ^ a b David W. Tschanz, MSPH, PhD (August 2003). "Arab Roots of European Medicine", Heart Views 4 (2).
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- ^ Jon Mcginnis, Classical Arabic Philosophy: An Anthology of Sources, p. 284, Hackett Publishing Company, ISBN 0872208710. Hackett Publishing Company Inc is an academic Publishing house based in Indianapolis, Indiana.
- ^ Muhsin Mahdi (1974), "The Theologus Autodidactus of Ibn at-Nafis by Max Meyerhof, Joseph Schacht", Journal of the American Oriental Society 94 (2), p. 232-234.
- ^ Dr. Abu Shadi Al-Roubi (1982), "Ibn Al-Nafis as a philosopher", Symposium on Ibn al-Nafis, Second International Conference on Islamic Medicine: Islamic Medical Organization, Kuwait (cf. Ibn al-Nafis As a Philosopher, Encyclopedia of Islamic World). cf is an abbreviation for the Latin -derived (but also modern English) word confer, meaning "compare" or "consult"
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- ^ Nahyan A. G. Fancy (2006), "Pulmonary Transit and Bodily Resurrection: The Interaction of Medicine, Philosophy and Religion in the Works of Ibn al-Nafīs (d. 1288)", p. 42 & 60, Electronic Theses and Dissertations, University of Notre Dame. The University of Notre Dame du Lac (or simply Notre Dame) (ˌnoʊtɚˈdeɪm is a private Roman Catholic Research university located in [4]
- ^ G. J. Toomer (1996), Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 220-221, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198202911.
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- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 228, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ Nawal Muhammad Hassan (1980), Hayy bin Yaqzan and Robinson Crusoe: A study of an early Arabic impact on English literature, Al-Rashid House for Publication.
- ^ Cyril Glasse (2001), New Encyclopedia of Islam, p. The Encyclopaedia of Islam ( EI) is the standard Encyclopaedia of the Academic discipline of Islamic studies. 202, Rowman Altamira, ISBN 0759101906.
- ^ Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [369].
- ^ G. J. Toomer (1996), Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 218, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198202911.
- ^ Samar Attar, The Vital Roots of European Enlightenment: Ibn Tufayl's Influence on Modern Western Thought, Lexington Books, ISBN 0739119893.
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 224-239, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ G. J. Toomer (1996), Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 221-222, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198202911.
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, pp. 224-262, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ Dominique Urvoy, "The Rationality of Everyday Life: The Andalusian Tradition? (Aropos of Hayy's First Experiences)", in Lawrence I. Conrad (1996), The World of Ibn Tufayl: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Ḥayy Ibn Yaqẓān, pp. 38-46, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004093001. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ Muhammad ibn Abd al-Malik Ibn Tufayl and Léon Gauthier (1981), Risalat Hayy ibn Yaqzan, p. TemplateInfobox Muslim scholars --> Ibn Tufail (c 1105 Guadix Spain &ndash 1185 (full Arabic name 5, Editions de la Méditerranée. [5]
- ^ a b G. J. Toomer (1996), Eastern Wisedome and Learning: The Study of Arabic in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 222, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0198202911.
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 227, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ G. A. Russell (1994), The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England, p. 247, Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004094598. Founded in 1683 in Leiden, The Netherlands, Brill (known as E
- ^ Mohamad Abdalla (Summer 2007). "Ibn Khaldun on the Fate of Islamic Science after the 11th Century", Islam & Science 5 (1), p. 61-70.
- ^ S. Ahmed (1999). A Dictionary of Muslim Names. C. Hurst & Co. Publishers. ISBN 1850653569.
- ^ H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", Cooperation South Journal 1.
- ^ Historiography. The Islamic Scholar.
- ^ Nader El-Bizri, "In Defence of the Sovereignty of Philosophy: al-Baghdadi's Critique of Ibn al-Haytham’s Geometrisation of Place," Arabic Sciences and Philosophy (Cambridge University Press), Vol. 17, Issue 1 (2007): 57-80.
- ^ Ibid, El-Bizri, (2007) and handouts of El-Bizri's lectures at the Dept. of History and Philosophy of Science, University of Cambridge [6]
- ^ Ernest Gellner, Plough, Sword and Book (1988), p. 239
References
- Razavi, Mehdi Amin (1997), Suhrawardi and the School of Illumination, Routledge, ISBN 0700704124
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