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Early Christianity is commonly defined as the Christianity of the three centuries between the Crucifixion of Jesus (c. Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) Christ is the English term for the Greek ( Khristós) meaning "the anointed " The virgin birth of Jesus is a religious Tenet of Christianity and Islam which holds that Mary miraculously conceived Jesus while The crucifixion of Jesus is an event recorded in all four Gospels (;;) which takes place after his arrest and trial and includes his scourging Within the body of Christian beliefs the resurrection of Jesus is a core event on which much of Christian doctrine and theology depend Church (disambiguation Christian Church and the word church are used to denote both a Christian association of people and a Place of worship The term New Covenant (; Greek:, diathēkē kainē is used in the Bible (both in the Hebrew Bible and the Greek New Testament) to refer The Twelve Apostles (Greek apostolos, "someone sent out" e This article is about the canonical books of the New Testament The purpose of this timeline is to give a detailed account of Christianity from the beginning of the current era ( AD) to the present Etymology According to the Online Etymology Dictionary, the word bible is from Latin biblia, traced from the same word through Medieval Latin and Late Latin In Western Christianity, the Old Testament refers to the books that form the first of the two-part Christian Biblical canon. Books of the Bible are listed differently in the canons of Jews and Catholic, Protestant, Greek Orthodox Slavonic Orthodox Georgian Armenian Apostolic A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious The biblical apocrypha (from the Greek word ἀπόκρυφος meaning hidden) are books published in an edition of the Bible whose canonicity Christian Theology is discourse concerning Christian faith Christian theologians use biblical Exegesis, rational analysis and argument SSC RF "Troitsk Institute of Innovative and Termonuclear Research" or TRINITY for shprt Троицкий Институт инновационных и термоядерных In many religions the supreme Deity ( God) is given the title and attributions of Father. Christian views of Jesus consist of the teachings and beliefs held by Christian groups about Jesus including his divinity humanity and earthly life In mainstream Christianity, the Holy Spirit or Holy Ghost is one of the three entities of the Holy Trinity which make up the single substance This is an overview of the History of Christian Theology from the time of Christ to the present Christian Theology is discourse concerning Christian faith Christian theologians use biblical Exegesis, rational analysis and argument Christian apologetics is a field of Christian theology that aims to present a rational basis for the Christian faith, defend the faith against objections Christian tradition is a collection of Traditions of practice or belief associated with Christianity. This is a general introduction to ecumenical councils For the Roman Catholic councils, see Catholic Ecumenical Councils. A creed is a statement of Belief — usually Religious belief — or Faith often recited as part of a religious service See also Evangelism, Christianization A Christian mission has been widely defined since the Lausanne Congress of 1974 as that which The East-West Schism, or the Great Schism, divided medieval Christendom into Eastern (Greek and Western (Latin branches which later became known as the The Crusades were a series of military campaigns of a religious character waged by much of Christian Europe against external and internal opponents The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time Denominationalism|List of Christian denominations|Church (disambiguation A Christian denomination is an identifiable religious body under a common name structure and doctrine within A sermon is an oration by a Prophet or member of the Clergy. Sermons address a Biblical, theological, or religious topic Prayer is an important theme in Christianity, and there are several different forms of prayer Ecumenism (also oecumenism, œcumenism) refers to initiatives aimed at greater Religious unity or cooperation Christianity and other religions appear to share some elements Christian movements are theological, political or philosophical interpretations of Christianity that are not generally represented by a specific church Christian music is music that is written to express either personal or a communal belief regarding Christian life A Liturgy is a set form of ceremony or pattern of worship Christian liturgy is a pattern for worship used (whether recommended or prescribed by a Christian congregation or The liturgical year, also known as the Christian year, consists of the cycle of liturgical seasons in Christian churches which determines when Christian symbolism is defined as the investing of outward things or actions with an inner meaning the expression of Christian ideas Christian art is Art produced in an attempt to illustrate supplement and portray in tangible form the principles of Christianity. Throughout the History of Christianity, a wide range of Christians and non-Christians alike have offered criticisms of Christianity, the Church, and Christians Christianity ( Greek Χριστιανισμός from the word Xριστός ( Christ)is a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings The crucifixion of Jesus is an event recorded in all four Gospels (;;) which takes place after his arrest and trial and includes his scourging 30) and the First Council of Nicaea (325). The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey) convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine The term is sometimes used in a narrower sense of just the very first followers (disciples) of Jesus of Nazareth and the faith as preached and practiced by the Twelve Apostles, their contemporaries, and their immediate successors, also called the Apostolic Age. In Christianity, the disciples were the students of Jesus during his ministry. Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) The Twelve Apostles (Greek apostolos, "someone sent out" e
Early Christianity, which began within first-century Judaism, became clearly distinct from Rabbinic Judaism. Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism ( Hebrew: " Yehadut Rabanit " - יהדות רבנית is the mainstream religious system of post- diaspora It continued to revere the Jewish Bible, generally using the Septuagint translation that was in general use among Greek-speaking Jews and Gentile Godfearers or the Targums in use among Aramaic speakers, and added to it the writings that would become the New Testament, thus developing the first Christian Biblical canons. The Masoretic Text ( MT) is the Hebrew text of the Jewish Bible ( Tanakh) The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the The term Godfearers (from Greek θεοφοβείς or φοβουμενοι τον θεον and Neo-Persian Tarsàkàn are non-Jews who attached themselves in varying degrees to A targum ( Hebrew: תרגום plural targumim, lit "translation interpretation" is an Aramaic Translation of the Hebrew Aramaic is a Semitic language with The Biblical canon is the set of books Christians regard as divinely inspired and thus constituting the Christian Bible. It defended Christian beliefs against criticism by non-Christian Jews and followers of other Roman religions, survived various persecutions, consisted of divisions that accused each other of heresy, and developed church hierarchy. Ancient Roman religion encompasses the collection of Beliefs and Rituals practised in Ancient Rome in the form of Cult practices The persecution of Christians refers to the Religious persecution of Christians both historically and in the current era Christianity synthesized Jewish morals, Greek theology, and Roman administration. What started as a religious movement within Second Temple Judaism became, by the end of this period, the favored religion of the Roman Empire under Constantine the Great (leading later to the rise of Christendom), and a significant religion also outside of the empire. The Second Temple (בית המקדש romanized 'Beit HaMikdash' meaning 'Holy House' was the reconstructed Temple in Jerusalem which stood between 516 BCE and 70 CE The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine Christendom usually refers to Christianity as a territorial phenomenon According to Will Durant, the Christian church prevailed because it offered an attractive doctrine and because the church leaders addressed human needs better than their rivals. William James Durant ( November 5, 1885 &ndash November 7, 1981) was a prolific American popularizer in the fields of History [1] The First Council of Nicaea marks the end of this era and the beginning of the period of the first Seven Ecumenical Councils (325 - 787). This is a general introduction to ecumenical councils For the Roman Catholic councils, see Catholic Ecumenical Councils.
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Origin of Christianity as a distinct religion
Jesus and all his original followers were Jews or Jewish proselytes. Proselyte, from the Koine Greek προσήλυτος/proselytos, is used in the Septuagint for "stranger" i These first followers of Jesus composed a sect of first-century Judaism marked by their belief that Jesus of Nazareth was the long-awaited Messiah (Acts 2:22-36), and that the Kingdom of God had come or would soon come, in fulfilment of expectation (Acts 19:8). Judaism (from the Greek Ioudaïsmos, derived from the Hebrew יהודה Yehudah, " Judah " in Hebrew יַהֲדוּת Yahedut Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) This article is about the concept of a Messiah in religion notably in the Christian Islamic and Jewish traditions In Christianity, the Second Coming is the anticipated return of Jesus Christ from Heaven to earth an event that will fulfill aspects of Messianic This article is about the concept of a Messiah in religion notably in the Christian Islamic and Jewish traditions The Apostles, especially Paul the Apostle, the Apostle to the Gentiles, also gained converts among the gentiles (non-Jews). Paul the apostle (שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning " Saul of Tarsus " Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and Practice among the groups that followed Jesus included those who were strictly Jewish, or those strongly attracted to Jewish practice, including the Church leaders in Jerusalem. Proselyte, from the Koine Greek προσήλυτος/proselytos, is used in the Septuagint for "stranger" i Saint James the Just ( Hebrew: יעקב or Jacob ( Greek Iάκωβος (died 62AD also known as James of Jerusalem, James Adelphotheos According to the Tübingen School, Paul's epistles founded the first Christian theology,[2] marking another distinction from existing second temple Judaism. Ferdinand Christian Baur ( June 21, 1792 - December 2, 1860) was a German theologian and leader of the Tübingen school (See also Pauline Christianity. Pauline Christianity is a term used to refer to a branch of Early Christianity associated with the beliefs and doctrines espoused by Paul the Apostle through ) But this view is disputed, for example see New Perspective on Paul. The new perspective on Paul is a significant shift in how some New Testament scholars interpret the writings of the Apostle Paul, particularly in regard to Scholar James D. G. Dunn has proposed that Peter was the bridge-man (i. James D G ("Jimmy" Dunn was for many years the Lightfoot Professor of Divinity in the Department of Theology at the University of Durham. e. the pontifex maximus) between the two other "prominent leading figures": Paul and James the Just. Saint James the Just ( Hebrew: יעקב or Jacob ( Greek Iάκωβος (died 62AD also known as James of Jerusalem, James Adelphotheos [3] According to Acts 15, Peter persuaded the Jerusalem Church to allow Gentile converts exemption from full Jewish law (see Council of Jerusalem, for the parallel in Judaism, see Noachide law). Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law Council of Jerusalem (or Apostolic Conference) is a name applied subsequently to a meeting described in Acts of the Apostles chapter and probably referred to The Seven Laws of Noah ( Hebrew: שבע מצוות בני נח Sheva mitzvot B'nei Noach) often referred to as the Noahide Laws, are a set of seven moral Luke, writing near the end of the first century, identified the Roman Centurion Cornelius as the first Gentile (non-Jewish) convert. Cornelius (in Greek, Κορνήλιος) was a Roman Centurion who is considered by Christians to be the first Gentile The term Gentile (from Latin, gentilis, meaning of or belonging to a clan or tribe refers to non- Israelite tribes or nations in the Bible. [4] Jews who did not convert to Christianity and the growing Christian community gradually became more hostile toward each other. See also Schisms among the Jews, Origins of Christianity The split between Pharisaic / Rabbinic Judaism (the period of the Tannaim) After the Destruction of the Second Temple in 70, Jerusalem ceased to be the center of Jewish religious life, and probably Christian religious life as well. The Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70 AD It was a decisive event in the First Jewish-Roman War, followed by the fall of Masada in 73 Rabbinic Judaism developed as mainstream Jewish practice, first in Yavne, where the Great Sanhedrin was first reconstituted. Yavne (יַבְנֶה ياڨني or يبنة Yibnah; Iamnia traditional English spelling Jabneh or Jamnia) is a city in the Center District The Sanhedrin (סנהדרין συνέδριον ''synedrion'', "sitting together" hence " assembly " or "council" was an assembly [5] Around this time period, the rabbis rejected the Septuagint translation[6], which included the books that some Christians now designate as deuterocanonical books and others as biblical apocrypha. Rabbi (pronunciation, although in English usually) in Judaism, means a religious ‘teacher’ or more literally ‘my great one’ when addressing any master " Deuterocanonical books " is a term used since the sixteenth century in the Roman Catholic Church and Eastern Christianity to describe certain books and passages The biblical apocrypha (from the Greek word ἀπόκρυφος meaning hidden) are books published in an edition of the Bible whose canonicity Perhaps as early as the early second century, some Christians (notably Justin Martyr) began to accept early Christian texts as additional scripture. Saint Justin Martyr (also Justin the Martyr, Justin of Caesarea, Justin the Philosopher, Latin Iustinus Martyr or Flavius Christianity established itself as a predominantly Gentile religion that spanned the Roman Empire and beyond.
The First Epistle to the Corinthians, generally considered to have been authored by Paul, identifies Jesus as establishing a New Covenant with his flesh and blood (1 Cor 11:23-25), the bread and wine of the Eucharist. The First Epistle to the Corinthians is a book of the Bible in the New Testament. The term New Covenant (; Greek:, diathēkē kainē is used in the Bible (both in the Hebrew Bible and the Greek New Testament) to refer Body of Christ is a term of Christian Theology, implicitly traceable to Jesus 's statement at the Last Supper that "This is my body" The Blood of Christ in Christian Theology refers to (a the physical blood actually shed by Jesus Christ on the Cross, and the salvation which Christianity The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or Lord's Supper and other names is a Christian Sacrament by which in a common interpretation those The New Covenant also appears in Luke 22:20 though not in all copies[7] and is primarily discussed in the Epistle to the Hebrews which is generally considered anonymous. The Epistle to the Hebrews (abbr Heb for Citations is one of the books in the New Testament. The previous covenant was that of Moses, called the Mosaic Covenant. In Christian theology, the Mosaic Covenant or Sinaitic Covenant refers to the relationship between Yahweh and the Jews and B'nei Whether or not and to what degree the Mosaic Covenant still applies to Christians today is still a matter of dispute, see Biblical law in Christianity for details. Biblical law in Christianity generally refers to a discussion as to what and how the biblical law applies in a Christian context.
Christian groups such as Ebionites that insisted on circumcision and other aspects of Jewish law were disparaged as Judaizers, especially after the 3rd century. The Ebionites ( Greek: grc Ἐβιωναῖοι Ebionaioi from Hebrew; he '''אביונים''' he-Latn ''Ebyonim'' "the Poor Ones" were an Today most Christian denominations are neutral about biblical male circumcision, neither requiring it nor forbidding it Judaizers, see also WiktionaryJudaization, generally describes those who inculcate to Christians the adherence to Torah Laws, which is normally considered
Beliefs
Early Christian beliefs were based on the apostolic preaching (kerygma), considered to be preserved in tradition and, according as was produced, in New Testament scripture. The Twelve Apostles (Greek apostolos, "someone sent out" e Kerygma ( Greek: κήρυγμα kérugma, pronounced "kay-roog-ma" is the Greek word used in the New Testament for preaching (see Luke Sacred Tradition or Holy Tradition is a technical theological term used in some Christian traditions primarily in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox [8]
Christology
Divinity of Christ
Most Christians identified Jesus as divine from a very early period, although holding a variety of competing views as to what exactly this implied. grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion [9] Early Christian views tended to see Jesus as a unique agent of God;[10] by the Council of Nicaea in 325 he was identified as God in the fullest sense, literally 'of the same substance, essence or being', hence in the further wording of the Creed, "Θεόν αληθινόν εκ Θεού αληθινού" Theón alēthinón ek Theoú alēthinoú 'true God from true God'.
The first and second-century texts that would later be canonized as the New Testament several times imply or directly refer to Jesus' divinity, though there is scholarly debate as to whether or not they call him God[11]. Within 20-30 years of the death of Jesus, Paul, who authored the largest early expositions of Christian theology, refers to Jesus as the resurrected Son of God, the savior who would return from heaven and save his faithful, dead and living, from the imminent destruction of the world. Son of God is a phrase found in the Hebrew Bible, various other Jewish texts and the New Testament. In Christianity, the Second Coming is the anticipated return of Jesus Christ from Heaven to earth an event that will fulfill aspects of Messianic End time, End times, or End of days are the eschatological writings in the three Abrahamic religions and in doomsday scenarios in various other The Synoptic Gospels describe him as the Son of God, who was born of the Virgin Mary by the agency of the Holy Spirit, and who will return to judge the nations. The synoptic gospels are the first three Gospels of the New Testament in the Christian Bible. In Christian eschatology, the Last Judgment or Day of the Lord is the judgment by God of every human who ever lived The Gospel of John identifies Jesus as the human incarnation of the divine Word or "Logos" (see Jesus the Logos) and True Vine. The Gospel of John (literally According to John; Greek, Κατὰ Ἰωάννην Kata Iōannēn) is the fourth Gospel in the canon In Christology, the conception that the Christ is the Logos ( λóγος, the Greek for "word" "wisdom" or The Book of Revelation depicts Jesus as the "Alpha and Omega, the first and the last"[12], who died and now lives for ever and who holds the keys of death and Hades,[13] and as the Alpha and Omega who is to come soon. The Book of Revelation, also called Revelation to John, Apocalypse of John ( pronounced, from the Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου Hades (from Greek, Hadēs, originally, Haidēs or, Aidēs, probably from Indo-European *n̥-wid- 'unseen' refers both to the ancient The term Alpha and Omega comes from the phrase "I am the Alpha and the Omega " (τὸ Α καὶ τὸ Ω an appellation of God in the [14][15] The book speaks of those who had been beheaded for the testimony of Jesus and for the word of God as reigning with him for a thousand years[16] before the final defeat of Satan[17] and the Judgement at the Great White Throne. The Christian Last Judgment when all people will stand in judgment before Jesus Christ and a verdict of their salvation will be made [18]
The term "Logos" was used in Greek philosophy (see Heraclitus) and in Hellenistic Jewish religious writing (see Philo Judaeus of Alexandria) to mean the ultimate ordering principle of the universe. Heraclitus of Ephesus ( Ancient Greek: &mdash grc-Latn ''Hērákleitos ho Ephésios'' English Heraclitus the Ephesian) (ca Hellenistic Judaism was a movement which existed in the Jewish diaspora before the Siege of Jerusalem in 70 AD that sought to establish a Hebraic-Jewish Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria Those who rejected the identification of Jesus with the Logos, rejecting also the Gospel of John, were called Alogi (see also Monarchianism). The Alogi (ἄλογοι also called "Alogians" were a group of Christian heretics in Asia Minor that flourished around 170 CE Monarchianism or Monarchism is a set of beliefs that emphasize God as being one person and the only ruler of his kingdom. [19][20]
Adoptionists, such as the Ebionites, considered him as at first an ordinary man, born to Joseph and Mary, who later became the Son of God at his baptism, his transfiguration, or his resurrection. Adoptionism, also called dynamic Monarchianism, was a minority Christian belief that Jesus was born merely human and that he became divine later in his life In the Synoptic gospels, Jesus is baptised by John the Baptist. The Transfiguration of Jesus is an event reported by the Synoptic Gospels in which Jesus is transfigured upon a mountain (,) Within the body of Christian beliefs the resurrection of Jesus is a core event on which much of Christian doctrine and theology depend
Trinity
The Trinity is a post-New Testament doctrine. SSC RF "Troitsk Institute of Innovative and Termonuclear Research" or TRINITY for shprt Троицкий Институт инновационных и термоядерных [21] However, the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are associated in various New Testament passages. [22] The Great Commission of Matthew 28:19 possibly reflects the baptismal practice at Matthew's time. The Great Commission, in Christian tradition is the instruction of the resurrected Jesus Christ to his disciples, that they spread his teachings Baptism has been in the name of the Father, Son, and Holy Ghost since the end of the first century. [23] Acts 2:38 speaks of baptism "in the name of Jesus Christ", which some interpret as another method of baptism, while others do not, since "in the name of" is used elsewhere in Acts to mean not a form of words but "by the authority of", "for the sake of". [24] Aside from this verse, Matthew does not equate Jesus with God nor does he specify inequality either, though he indicates a special relationship between them. [25] One of the elements virtually universal among diverse early Christians was the understanding that Jesus the Son was uniquely united with God the Father. In many religions the supreme Deity ( God) is given the title and attributions of Father. [26]
According to the Eastern Orthodox tradition, the Trinity was revealed to the disciples by revelation and in religious visions called theoria[27] during the Theophany and the Transfiguration of Jesus called the Tabor Light or uncreated light. The Eastern Orthodox Church is the second largest single Christian Communion in the world Theoria (Greek) is Greek for Contemplation or 'the perception of Beauty regarded as a Moral faculty' ( OED) Epiphany ( Greek for "to manifest" or "to show" is a Christian Feast day which celebrates the "shining forth" or revelation of The Transfiguration of Jesus is an event reported by the Synoptic Gospels in which Jesus is transfigured upon a mountain (,) In Eastern Orthodox theology, the Tabor Light (also Light of Tabor, Tabor's Light, Taboric Light; Greek: Φῶς του Θαβώρ
The close of the early Christian era is defined as the First Council of Nicea, which gave the trinity its dogmatic form. But the term trinity (coined by Tertullian) and concepts related to the trinity existed earlier in the church. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Anglicised as Tertullian, (ca The phrase "Father, Son, and Holy Spirit" became common, especially at baptism. Another trinitarian formula, "Glory to the Father, through the Son, in the Holy Spirit," was common even before the Arian controversy. However, this earlier formula does not express the co-equality of the three persons. [28]
The Council used the Greek term homoousios (literally "of the same substance, essence or being") to express its view of the relation of the Son to the Father. Homoousian (from the Greek όμοιοs meaning same and ουσία meaning essence or being is a technical theological term used in discussion of the God the Son is the second person of the Trinity in Christian Theology. In many religions the supreme Deity ( God) is given the title and attributions of Father. However, it also appears in the early Christian era[29] as used by Origen, Paul of Samosata, and Alexander of Alexandria though not without controversy, see for example Synods of Antioch . Origen ( Greek: Ōrigénēs, or Origen Adamantius, ca 185–ca Paul of Samosata (lived from 200 to 275 AD was Bishop of Antioch from 260 to 268 Pope Alexander of Alexandria (died April 17, 326) was the nineteenth Pope of Alexandria from 313 to his death Beginning with three Synods convened between 264 and 269 in the matter of Paul of Samosata, more than thirty councils were held in Various Christian writings refer to Jesus as a man and as God, but it was this Council that gave official sanction to the common Trinity formulation using this term.
Many, including Oneness Pentecostals and some Restorationists, styling themselves as restoring early Christian practice, reject the trinitarian concepts of the early church, and generally place no importance in the post-apostolic writings of the Church Fathers on the subject. Overview Although both Oneness and Trinitarian denominations acknowledge the God of the Bible as the only God in existence and that Jesus was For other usages see Restoration (general disambiguation Apokatastasis (universal restoration Christian Zionism (restoration of Israel and (See below in the discussion on the Church Fathers. The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church )
Eschatology
Kingdom of God
The Apostles believed that Jesus would soon return to establish the Kingdom of Heaven on earth. The general term for this set of beliefs is parousia (or Second Coming). In Christianity, the Second Coming is the anticipated return of Jesus Christ from Heaven to earth an event that will fulfill aspects of Messianic
Among early Christians there was a widely current belief that Christ's return would establish not the general resurrection but a thousand-year kingdom, with the general resurrection following (a belief known as chiliasm or premillenialism). This article concerns itself with the belief in the final Resurrection at the End of time, commonly found in the Abrahamic religions. Premillennialism in Christian eschatology is the belief that Christ will literally reign on the earth for 1000 years at his Second coming. [30] Chapter 20 of the Book of Revelation is the main source of this teaching, though it may owe something to the Book of Daniel and to ideas popular in late pre-Christian Jewish apocalyptic literature, especially 2 Esdras and the non-canonical Books of Enoch[31]
Early Christians followed the Pharisaic precedent[32] of believing in a physical resurrection of the dead. The Book of Revelation, also called Revelation to John, Apocalypse of John ( pronounced, from the Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου The Book of Daniel (דניאל, originally written in Hebrew and Aramaic, is a Book in both the Hebrew Bible ( Tanakh) and the Christian 2 Esdras is the name of this book in many English versions of the Bible, but it is called 4 Esdras in the Vulgate and the Douay-Rheims Bible The Book of Enoch is any of several works that attribute themselves to Enoch, the great-grandfather of Noah and son of Jared ( The word Pharisees ( lat. pharisæ|us, - i) comes from the Hebrew פרושים perushim from פרוש parush, meaning "separated" This article concerns itself with the belief in the final Resurrection at the End of time, commonly found in the Abrahamic religions. They believed that the saved received various divine rewards corresponding to their holiness. While all the saved would gain eternal life in Christ, not all of the saved would live in heaven.
Apologists defended the resurrection of the dead against pagan philosophers, who considered the soul worthy of perfection but not the body. Origen, however, promoted a Platonic viewpoint and denied the physical resurrection.
Cosmology
The ancient Jewish picture was of the sky as a firmament, a dome covering the earth. But the prevailing picture in early Christian times was that of the earth as a sphere with one or more other spheres, containing the stars, rotating around it. They sometimes described the souls of the dead waiting underground for the general resurrection. They described gehenna (roughly, hell) as a subterranean fire, see also Lake of Fire. for the Polish film see Gehenna (film See also Jewish eschatology Gehennam (or gehenom or gehinom (גהינום is A lake of fire appears in both Ancient Egyptian and Christian religion as a place where after death the wicked are punished or destroyed In some Hellenic traditions, influential in the Alexandrian church, souls escaped the material world of the earth and returned to the spirit realm above.
Prayer for the dead
- See also: Prayer for the dead
That early Christians prayed for the dead, believing that the dead were thereby benefitted, is attested from at least the second century, and celebration of the Eucharist for the dead is attested since at least the third century. Wherever there is a belief in the continued existence of Man 's personality through and after Death, Religion naturally concerns itself with the relations The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or Lord's Supper and other names is a Christian Sacrament by which in a common interpretation those [33] Specific examples of belief in the communion of the living with the dead through prayer are found in many of the Church Fathers[34] The Encyclopædia Britannica says that: "The well-attested early Christian practice of prayer for the dead . The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church . . was encouraged by the episode (rejected by Protestants as apocryphal) in which Judas Maccabeus (Jewish leader of the revolt against the tyrant Antiochus IV Epiphanes) makes atonement for the idolatry of his fallen soldiers by providing prayers and a monetary sin offering on their behalf (2 Maccabees 12:41–46); by the Apostle Paul's prayer for Onesiphorus (2 Timothy 1:18); and by the implication in Matthew 12:32 that there may be forgiveness of sins in the world to come. Judas Maccabeus (or Judah Maccabee, also spelled Machabeus or Maccabaeus Hebrew: יהודה המכבי, Yehudah HaMakabi, Judah the Hammer Another Antiochus IV Epiphanes was king in Commagene under Caligula and Claudius. Paul the apostle (שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning " Saul of Tarsus " Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and Onesiphorus (name meaning "bringing profit" was a Christian referred to in the New Testament letter Second Timothy (2 Tim "[35]
Hades
The Greek word "Hades", which, like the Hebrew word "sheol", is generally used of the abode where the dead are reckoned to be, appears several times in the New Testament. Hades (from Greek, Hadēs, originally, Haidēs or, Aidēs, probably from Indo-European *n̥-wid- 'unseen' refers both to the ancient Sheol (pronounced "Sheh-ole" in Hebrew שאול (Sh'ol is the "abode of the dead" the " Underworld " "the common [36] In the parable of the rich man and poor Lazarus (Luke 16:19-31), the dead rich man "in Hades" (16:23), speaks of being "tormented in this flame" (16:24), and is said to be separated by a "great gulf" from Abraham (16:26), in whose bosom Lazarus is said to be placed (16:22). See also Intermediate state The phrase " Bosom of Abraham " refers to the place of comfort in Sheol (Greek hades The word "Hades" was used in Acts 2:27-31 (as in the Septuagint) to translate the word "sheol" of the Hebrew text of the Psalm there quoted. The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the
Early Church Fathers who wrote in Greek, such as Hippolytus of Rome in his book on Hades, continued to use the term "Hades". For places named after the saint see Saint-Hippolyte Saint Hippolytus of Rome (c Josephus's Discourse to the Greeks concerning Hades is a short work published in the translation of Josephus by William Whiston. [37] Early Christian writers in Latin also used either the Greek word "Hades" itself[38] or employed as its equivalent the Latin word "infernus", the Roman word for the underworld,[39] as Jerome did in his translation of the New Testament. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. In the study of Mythology and Religion, the underworld (gr κάτω κόσμος) is a generic term approximately equivalent to the lay term Afterlife Jerome (c 347 – September 30, 420) ( Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος [40]
Angels and Satan
Early Christians understood angels to be active in supporting the church and Satan to be actively opposed to it. An angel is a Spiritual Supernatural being found in many Religions Although the nature of angels and the tasks given to them vary from tradition to tradition Satan, ( Standard Hebrew Satan'el, English accuser) is a term that originates from the Abrahamic faiths, being traditionally Hippolytus, for example, recounts angels physically scourging the first antipope to force him to repent. An antipope ( Latin: antipapa) is a person who makes a widely accepted claim to be the lawful Pope, in opposition to the pope recognised by the Roman [41][42] Christian writers commonly saw Satan (or Beelzebub, see Mark 3) as the author of heresies. Ba‘al Zebûb, Ba‘al Zəbûb or Ba‘al Zəvûv ( Hebrew בעל זבוב, with numerous variants appears as the Mark 3 is the third chapter of the Gospel of Mark in the New Testament of the Christian Bible. In John 8:44, Satan, rather than Abraham, is named as the father of those Jews who rejected Jesus. Abraham ( Ashkenazi Avrohom or Avruhom; ابراهيم, {{Unicode|Ibrāhīm}}; Ge'ez: See also Rejection of Jesus. Despite recording many Miracles of Jesus, particularly in Capernaum, the Gospels also record some Rejection of Jesus.
The word "angel" is derived from Greek ἄγγελος, the basic meaning of which is "messenger". Visitations from the "angel of the LORD" in the Old Testament are taken by many to be pre-Incarnation manifestations of Christ. [43][44][45] Accordingly, Justin Martyr spoke of Christ as "King, and Priest, and God, and Lord, and angel, and man, and captain, and stone, and a Son born, and first made subject to suffering, then returning to heaven, and again coming with glory, and He is preached as having the everlasting kingdom". [46] He interpreted as Christ the Angel who spoke with Abraham in Genesis 18, and argued for the divinity of Christ. The Angel of the Lord (or the Angel of God) is a Biblical, Old Testament character often viewed as a Theophany or Christophany [47]
Orthodoxy and heterodoxy
Traditionally, orthodoxy and heresy have been viewed in relation to the "orthodoxy" as an authentic lineage of tradition. The word orthodox, from Greek orthodoxos "having the right opinion" from orthos ("right true straight" + doxa ("opinion Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Other forms of Christianity were viewed as deviant streams of thought and therefore "heterodox", or heretical. Heterodoxy includes "any opinions or doctrines at variance with an official or orthodox position" This view was dominant until the publication of Walter Bauer's Rechtgläubigkeit und Ketzerei im ältesten Christentum ("Orthodoxy and heresy in ancient Christianity") in 1934. Walter Bauer ( August 8, 1877 - November 17, 1960) was a German Theologian and scholar of the development of the early Bauer endeavored to rethink early Christianity historically, independent from the views of the church. He stated that the early church was very diverse and included many "heretical" groups that had an equal claim to apostolic tradition. Bauer interpreted the struggle between the orthodox and heterodox to be the "mainstream" Roman church struggling to attain dominance. He presented Edessa and Egypt as places where the "orthodoxy" of Rome had little influence during the second century. As he saw it, the theological thought of the Orient at the time would later be labeled "heresy". The response by modern scholars has been mixed. Some scholars clearly support Bauer's conclusions and others express concerns about his possible bias. More moderate responses have become prominent and Bauer's theory is generally accepted. However, modern scholars have critiqued and updated Bauer's model. [48]
Divisions
Perhaps one of the most important discussions among scholars of early Christianity in the past century is to what extent it is appropriate to speak of "orthodoxy" and "heresy". Higher criticism drastically altered the previous perception that heresy was a very rare exception to the orthodoxy. Historical criticism or higher criticism is a branch of literary analysis that investigates the origins of a text as applied in Biblical studies it naturally Bauer was particularly influential in the reconsideration of the historical model. During the 1970s, increasing focus on the effect of social, political and economic circumstances on the formation of early Christianity occurred as Bauer's work found a wider audience. Some scholars argue against the increasing focus on heresies. A movement away from presuming the correctness or dominance of the orthodoxy is seen as understandable, in light of modern approaches. However, they feel that instead of an even and neutral approach to historical analysis that the heterodox sects are given an assumption of superiority over the orthodox movement. The current debate is vigorous and broad. While it is difficult to summarize all current views, general statements may be made, remembering that such broad strokes will have exceptions in specific cases. [49]
Adoptionism
One conception about Jesus that was found among second and third-century Christians was that which Adolf von Harnack called "Adoptian Christology": Jesus was regarded as "the man whom God hath chosen, in whom the Deity or the Spirit of God dwelt, and who, after being tested, was adopted by God and invested with dominion". Adoptionism, also called dynamic Monarchianism, was a minority Christian belief that Jesus was born merely human and that he became divine later in his life Adolf von Harnack ( May 7, 1851 &ndash June 10, 1930) was a German theologian and prominent church historian [50] This heretical stream in early Greek theology regarded Christ as a man gifted with divine powers. First represented by the Ebionites, it was later developed by the Monarchians, such as Theodotus of Byzantium and Paul of Samosata. The Ebionites ( Greek: grc Ἐβιωναῖοι Ebionaioi from Hebrew; he '''אביונים''' he-Latn ''Ebyonim'' "the Poor Ones" were an Monarchianism or Monarchism is a set of beliefs that emphasize God as being one person and the only ruler of his kingdom. Theodotus of Byzantium (also known as Theodotus the Tanner and Theodotus the Shoemaker; flourished late 2nd century) was an early Christian Paul of Samosata (lived from 200 to 275 AD was Bishop of Antioch from 260 to 268 [51] It conflicted with the tradition, as in the Gospel of John, that Jesus was the eternal Logos.
Arianism
Arianism was the principal heresy which denied the full divinity of Jesus Christ, and is so called after its author Arius. Arianism is the theological teaching of Arius (c AD 250-336 who was ruled a heretic by the Christian church at the Council of Nicea. Heresy is an introduced change to some system of belief especially a religion that conflicts with the previously established canon of that belief Arius ( AD ca 250 or 256 - 336 was a Christian priest from Alexandria Egypt in the early fourth century whose teachings now called Arianism [52] It has been called the most challenging heresy in the history of the Church. [1]
Arius, born probably in Libya between c. Ancient Libya was the region west of the Nile Valley. It corresponds to what is now generally called Northwest Africa. 260 and 280, was ordained a priest in Alexandria in 312-313. Alexandria ( Egyptian Arabic: اسكندريه Eskendereyya; Standard Arabic: ar الإسكندرية Al-Iskandariyya; Ἀλεξάνδρεια Under Bishop Alexander (313-326), probably in about 319, he came forward as a champion of subordinationist teaching about the person of Christ. Pope Alexander of Alexandria (died April 17, 326) was the nineteenth Pope of Alexandria from 313 to his death Subordinationism is a Doctrine in Christian theology which holds that God the Son and God the Holy Spirit are not merely relationally subordinate [53]
Arius appears to have held that the Son of God was not eternal but created by the Father as an instrument for creating the world and therefore not God by nature, different from other creatures in being the one direct creation of God. [52] The controversy quickly spread, with Arius seeking support from other disciples of his teacher Lucian of Antioch, notably Eusebius of Nicomedia, while a synod under Alexander excommunicated Arius. Saint Lucian of Antioch (c 240&ndash January 7, 312) was an early and extremely influential theologian and teacher of Christianity, particularly Eusebius of Nicomedia (died 341 was a bishop of Berytus (modern-day Beirut) in Phoenicia, then of Nicomedia where the imperial court resided in Bithynia [53] Because of the agitation aroused by the dispute, [52] Emperor Constantine I sent Hosius of Córdoba to Alexandria to attempt a settlement; but the mission failed. Flavius Valerius Aurelius Constantinus (27 February ca. 272 &ndash 22 May 337 commonly known as Constantine I, Constantine the Great, or Saint Constantine [53] Accordingly, in 325, Constantine convened the First Council of Nicaea, which, largely through the influence of Athanasius of Alexandria, then a deacon, but destined to be Alexander's successor, defined the Catholic faith in the coeternity and coequality of the Father and the Son, using the famous term "homoousios" to express the oneness of their being, while Arius and some bishops who supported him, including Eusebius, were banished. The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey) convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine Deacon is a role in the Christian Church that is generally associated with service of some kind but which varies among theological and denominational traditions Homoousian (from the Greek όμοιοs meaning same and ουσία meaning essence or being is a technical theological term used in discussion of the [52]
This council marks the end of the early Christian period.
Ebionites
The Ebionites ("poor ones") were a sect of Jewish Christians who flourished in the early centuries of Christianity, especially east of the Jordan. The Ebionites ( Greek: grc Ἐβιωναῖοι Ebionaioi from Hebrew; he '''אביונים''' he-Latn ''Ebyonim'' "the Poor Ones" were an They emphasized the binding character of the Mosaic Law and believed Jesus was the human son of Joseph and Mary. They seem to have been ascetics, and are said to have rejected Paul's epistles and to have used only one Gospel. The Gospel of the Ebionites is one of the Jewish-Christian Gospels, sharing an affinity with the Gospel of the Hebrews and the Gospel of the Nazoraeans. [54]
Gnosticism
Early in the common era, several distinct religious sects, some of them Christian, adhered to an array of beliefs that would later be termed Gnostic. Gnosticism (γνώσις gnōsis, Knowledge) refers to a diverse Syncretistic Religious movement consisting of various Belief systems Valentinus (also spelled Valentius) ( c 100 - c160 CE) was the best known and for a time most successful Early Christian gnostic Gnosticism (γνώσις gnōsis, Knowledge) refers to a diverse Syncretistic Religious movement consisting of various Belief systems The most successful Christian Gnostic was the priest Valentinus (c. Valentinus (also spelled Valentius) ( c 100 - c160 CE) was the best known and for a time most successful Early Christian gnostic 100 - c. 160), who founded a Gnostic church in Rome and developed an elaborate cosmology. Gnostics considered the material world to be a prison created by a fallen or evil spirit, the god of the material world (called the demiurge). Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos Gnostics identified the God of the Hebrew Bible as this demiurge. Secret knowledge (gnosis) was said to liberate one's soul to return to the true God in the realm of light. Valentinus and other Christian gnostics identified Jesus as the Savior, a spirit sent from the true God into the material world to liberate the souls trapped there.
While according to some scholars, there are elements appearing to be Gnostic that can be found in early Christian writing, proto-orthodox Christianity labeled Gnosticism a heresy and rejected its dualistic cosmology and its vilification of the material world and the creator of the material. Proto-orthodox Christianity is a term created by New Testament scholar Bart D Gnosticism's stance was that the God of the Old Testament was not the true God. It was considered to be the demiurge and either fallen, as taught by Valentinus (c. Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos Valentinus (also spelled Valentius) ( c 100 - c160 CE) was the best known and for a time most successful Early Christian gnostic 100 - c. 160) or evil, as taught by the Sethians and Ophites. The Sethians were a group of ancient Gnostics who date their existence to before Christianity The Ophites or Ophians (from Greek ὄφιανοι > ὄφις = Snake) any of numerous Gnostic sects in Syria and Egypt
The Gospel of John, according to Stephen L Harris, both includes Gnostic elements and refutes Gnostic beliefs, presenting a dualistic universe of light and dark, spirit and matter, good and evil, much like the Gnostic accounts, but instead of escaping the material world, Jesus bridges the spiritual and physical worlds. The Gospel of John (literally According to John; Greek, Κατὰ Ἰωάννην Kata Iōannēn) is the fourth Gospel in the canon Stephen L Harris is Professor and Chair Department of Humanities and Religious Studies at California State University Sacramento. [55] Raymond E. Brown wrote that even though gnostics interpreted John to support their doctrines, the author didn't intend that. Raymond Edward Brown ( May 22, 1928 - August 8, 1998) was an American Roman Catholic Priest and Biblical The epistles were written (whether by the author of the Gospel or someone in his circle) to argue against gnostic doctrines. [56]
The Gospel of Thomas has some Gnostic elements but lacks the full Gnostic cosmology. The Gospel According to Thomas ( Coptic: ⲡⲉ̅ⲩ̅ⲁ̅ⲅⲅ̅ⲉⲗ̅ⲓⲟⲛ̅ ⲡⲕ̅ⲁ̅ⲧⲁ ⲑ̅ⲱ̅ⲙⲁⲥ also known as The Gospel The scene in John in which "doubting Thomas" ascertains that the resurrected Jesus is physical refutes the Gnostic idea that Jesus returned to spirit form after death. The written gospel draws on an earlier oral tradition associated with Thomas. Some scholars argue that the Gospel of John was meant to oppose the beliefs of that community. [57]
Some believe that there were at least three distinct divisions within the Christian movement of the 1st century: the Jewish Christians (led by the Apostle James the Just, with Jesus's disciples, and their followers), Pauline Christians (followers of Paul of Tarsus) and Gnostic Christians. Pauline Christianity is a term used to refer to a branch of Early Christianity associated with the beliefs and doctrines espoused by Paul the Apostle through Others believe that Gnostic Christianity was a later development, some time around the middle or late second century, around the time of Valentinus. [58] Gnosticism was in turn made up of many smaller groups, some of which did not claim any connection to Jesus Christ. In Mandaeist Gnosticism, Mandaeans maintain that Jesus was a mšiha kdaba or "false messiah" who perverted the teachings entrusted to him by John the Baptist. Mandaeism or Mandaeanism ( Mandaic: Mandaiuta, مندائية Mandā'iyya) is a Monotheistic Religion with a strongly Jesus of Nazareth (7–2 BC / BCE —26–36 AD / CE) This is a list of people who have been said to be a Messiah either by themselves or by their followers The word k(a)daba, however, derives from two roots in Mandaic: the first root, meaning "to lie," is the one traditionally ascribed to Jesus; the second, meaning "to write," might provide a second meaning, that of "book;" hence some Mandaeans, motivated perhaps by an ecumenical spirit, maintain that Jesus was not a "lying Messiah" but a "Book Messiah", the "book" in question presumably being the Christian Gospels. This however seems to be a folk etymology without support in the Mandaean texts. [59] A modern view has argued that Marcionism is mistakenly reckoned among the Gnostics, and really represents a fourth interpretation of the significance of Jesus. Marcionism is the dualist Belief system that originates in the teachings of Marcion of Sinope at Rome around the year 144. [60] Gnostics freely exchanged concepts and texts. It is considered likely that Valentinius was influenced by previous concepts such as Sophia, as much as he influenced others.
Marcionism
In 144, the Church in Rome expelled Marcion of Sinope. Marcion (Μαρκίων (ca 110 - 160) was a Christian Theologian who was excommunicated by the Early Christian church Marcionism is the dualist Belief system that originates in the teachings of Marcion of Sinope at Rome around the year 144. Marcion (Μαρκίων (ca 110 - 160) was a Christian Theologian who was excommunicated by the Early Christian church He thereupon set up his own separate ecclesiastical organization, later called Marcionism. Like the Gnostics, he promoted dualism. Dualism denotes a state of two parts The word's origin is the Latin duo, "two". Unlike the Gnostics, however, he founded his beliefs not on secret knowledge (gnosis) but on the vast difference between what he saw as the "evil" deity of the Old Testament and the God of love of the New, on which he expounded in his Antithesis. Consequently, Marcionists were vehemently anti-Judaism in their beliefs. Anti-Judaism has been called "a total or partial opposition to Judaism &mdashand to Jews as adherents of it&mdashby persons who accept a competing system They rejected The Hebrew Gospel (see also Gospel of the Hebrews) and all the other Gospels with the exception of a short version of the Gospel of Luke, often called the Gospel of Marcion. The Gospel of the Hebrews (see "About titles" below is a lost gospel preserved only in a few The Gospel of Marcion or the Gospel of the Lord was a text used by the mid-second century Christian teacher Marcion to the exclusion of the other gospels
From the perspectives of Tertullian and Epiphanius (when the four gospels had largely canonical status, perhaps in reaction to the challenge created by Marcion), it appeared that Marcion rejected the non-Lukan gospels, however, in Marcion's time, it may be that the only gospel he was familiar with from Pontus was the gospel that would later be called Luke. It is also possible that Marcion's gospel was actually modified by his critics to become the gospel we know today as Luke, rather than the story from his critics that he changed a canonical gospel to get his version. For example: compare Luke 5:39 to 5:36-38; did Marcion delete 5:39 from his Gospel or was it added later to counteract a Marcionist interpretation of 5:36-38? See also New Wine into Old Wineskins. New Wine into Old Wineskins is a saying of Jesus found in the Gospel of Matthew, Gospel of Mark and Gospel of Luke. One must keep in mind that we only know of Marcion through his critics and they considered him a major threat to the form of Christianity that they knew. John Knox (the modern writer, not to be confused with John Knox the Protestant Reformer) in Marcion and the New Testament: An Essay in the Early History of the Canon (ISBN 0-404-16183-9) was the first to propose that Marcion's Gospel may have preceded Luke's Gospel and Acts. John Knox (c 1510 – 24 November 1572 was a Scottish clergyman and leader of the Protestant Reformation who is considered the founder of the Presbyterian Luke-Acts is the name usually given by Biblical scholars to the composite work of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles in the New Testament [61]
Marcion argued that Christianity should be solely based on Christian Love. Agapē (ˈægəpiː ( Gk αγάπη) is one of several Greek words translated into English as love. He went so far as to say that Jesus’ mission was to overthrow Demiurge -- the fickle, cruel, despotic God of the Old Testament -- and replace Him with the Supreme God of Love whom Jesus came to reveal. Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos Marcion was labeled a gnostic by Irenaeus. Saint Irenaeus (Greek Ειρηναίος (2nd century AD - c 202 was Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, Roman Empire (now Lyons France Irenaeus' labeled Marcion this because of Marcion expressing this core gnostic belief, that the creator God of the Jews and the Old Testament was the demiurge. Demiurge (the Latinized form of Greek demiourgos, δημιουργός, literally "public or skilled worker" from demos This position, he said, was supported by the ten Epistles of Paul that Marcion also accepted. His writing had a profound effect upon the development of Christianity and the canon. [62]
Montanism
About 156, Montanus launched a ministry of prophecy, criticizing Christians as increasingly worldly and bishops as increasingly autocratic. Traveling in his native Anatolia, he and two women preached a return to primitive Christian simplicity, prophecy, celibacy, and asceticism. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black [1] Tertullian, having grown puritanical with age, embraced Montanism as a more outright application of Christ's teaching. [1] Montanus's followers revered him as the Paraclete that Christ had promised, and he led his sect out into a field to meet the New Jerusalem. For the school of Peter Abelard, see Oratory of the Paraclete. In The Bible, the New Jerusalem (also called the tabernacle of God, holy city, city of God, celestial city, and heavenly Jerusalem [1] His sect spread across the Roman Empire, survived persecution, and relished martyrdom. [1] The Church banned them as a heresy, and in the 6th century Justinian ordered the sect's extinction. [1]
The sect's ecstasy, speaking in tongues, and other details are similar to those found in Pentecostalism. Glossolalia is commonly called "speaking in tongues" For other uses of "speaking in tongues" see Speaking in Tongues (disambiguation. Pentecostalism is a renewalist religious movement within Christianity that places special emphasis on the direct personal experience of God through the Baptism
Religious writing
Early Christians wrote many religious works, some of which were later canonized as the New Testament of today. Various authors wrote the gospels and other books of the New Testament There are a number of early Christian writings whose authorship is in dispute
Oral tradition and first written works
- See also: Logia
Christian testimony was entirely oral for roughly twenty years after Jesus' death. In New Testament criticism the term logia (Greek "sayings utterances oracles" singular logion) is applied to a supposed collection of sayings of Christians passed along Jesus' teachings, proclaimed his resurrection, and prophesied his imminent return. Apostles established churches and oral traditions in various places, such as Jerusalem, Antioch, Caesarea, and Ephesus. These traditions gradually developed distinct characteristics.
When those who had heard Jesus' actual words began to die, Christians started recording the sayings in writing. The hypothetical Q document, a collection of Jesus' sayings, is perhaps the first such record (c 50).
Paul's epistles
- See also: Pauline epistles
At about the same time, Paul of Tarsus also began writing (or dictating[63]) letters ("epistles") to various churches that would later be considered scripture. The Pauline epistles, Epistles of Paul, or Letters of Paul, are the thirteen New Testament books which have the name Paul (Παῦλος as the first Some scholars think Paul articulated the first Christian theology: namely that all people inherit Adam's guilt (see Original Sin) and can only be saved from death by the atoning death of the Son of God, Jesus' crucifixion. Original sin is according to a doctrine in Catholic theology, humanity's state of Sin resulting from the Fall of Man. The atonement is a doctrine found within both Christianity and Judaism.
Gospels and Acts
- See also: Gospel and Acts of the Apostles (genre)
The gospel of Mark was written during c. This article is about the canonical books of the New Testament The Acts of the Apostles is a Genre of Early Christian literature claiming to recount the lives and works of the apostles of Jesus. 65-70, possibly motivated by the First Jewish-Roman War. The gospel of Matthew was written c. 80-85 to convince a Jewish audience that Jesus was the expected Messiah (Christ) and a greater Moses. The gospel of Luke, together with Acts (see Luke-Acts) was c. Luke-Acts is the name usually given by Biblical scholars to the composite work of the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of the Apostles in the New Testament 85-90, considered the most literate and artistic of the gospels. Finally, the gospel of John was written, portraying Jesus as the incarnation of the divine Word, who primarily taught about himself as a savior. grc-Latn Logos (ˈloʊːgɒs ( Greek, logos) is an important term in Philosophy, Analytical psychology, Rhetoric and Religion All four gospels originally circulated anonymously, and they were attributed to Mark, Matthew, Luke, and John in the 2nd century. Various authors wrote further epistles and the Apocalypse of John. [64]
Later epistles
- See also: General epistles
Epistles by other hands than Paul's circulated in the early church. General epistles (also called Catholic Epistles) are books in the New Testament in the form of letters Many of them, including one written as late as c 150,[21] were eventually included in the New Testament canon. Many later epistles concern issues of church leadership, discipline, and disputes.
Revelation
- See also: Apocalyptic literature
Several apocalypses circulated in the early church, and one of them, the Revelation of John, was later included in the New Testament. The Book of Revelation, also called Revelation to John, Apocalypse of John ( pronounced, from the Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου
Defining Scripture
- See also: Biblical canon
Debates about scripture were underway in the mid-second century, concurrent with a drastic increase of new scriptures, both Jewish and Christian. A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious Debates regarding practice and belief gradually became reliant on the use of scripture. Similarly, in the third century a shift away from direct revelation as a source of authority occurred. Continuous revelation or continuing revelation is a theological belief or position that God continues to reveal divine principles or commandments to humanity "Scripture" still had a broad meaning and usually referred to the Septuagint. The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the Beyond the Torah (the Law) and some of the earliest prophetic works (the Prophets), there was no universal agreement to a canon, but it was not debated much at first. term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to A Biblical canon or canon of scripture is a list or Set of Biblical books considered to be authoritative as Scripture by a particular religious By the mid-second century, tensions arose with the growing rift between Christianity and Judaism, leading eventually to the determination of a Jewish canon by the emerging rabbinic movement,[65] though, even as of today, there is no scholarly consensus as to when the Jewish canon was set, see Development of the Jewish Bible canon for details. This article discusses the traditional views of the two religions and may not be applicable all adherents of each Rabbinic Judaism or Rabbinism ( Hebrew: " Yehadut Rabanit " - יהדות רבנית is the mainstream religious system of post- diaspora Rabbinic Judaism recognizes the twenty-four books of the Masoretic Text, commonly called the Tanakh or Hebrew Bible. Some scholars argue that the Jewish canon was fixed by the Hasmonean dynasty. The Hasmoneans (/hæzməˡniən/ חשמונאים Hashmonaiym, Audio were the ruling dynasty of the Hasmonean Kingdom ( 140 &ndash 37 BCE [66]
Regardless, throughout the Jewish diaspora newer writings were still collected and the fluid Septuagint collection was the primary source of scripture for Christians. The Jewish diaspora ( Hebrew: Tefutzah, "scattered" or Galut גלות "exile" Yiddish: tfutses) the presence Many works under the names of known Apostles, such as the Gospel of Thomas, were accorded scriptural status in at least some Christian circles. The Gospel According to Thomas ( Coptic: ⲡⲉ̅ⲩ̅ⲁ̅ⲅⲅ̅ⲉⲗ̅ⲓⲟⲛ̅ ⲡⲕ̅ⲁ̅ⲧⲁ ⲑ̅ⲱ̅ⲙⲁⲥ also known as The Gospel Apostolic writings, such as I Clement and the Epistle of Barnabas, were considered scripture even within the orthodoxy through the fifth century. The Epistles of Clement ( 1 Clement and 2 Clement) are two letters ascribed to Saint Clement, an Apostolic Father, and the fourth Pope The Epistle of Barnabas is a Greek treatise with some features of an Epistle containing twenty-one chapters preserved complete in the 4th century Codex A problem for scholars is that there is a lack of direct evidence on when Christians began accepting their own scriptures alongside the Septuagint. Well into the second century Christians held onto a strong preference for oral tradition as clearly demonstrated by writers of the time, such as Papias. Oral tradition, oral culture and oral lore is a way for a society to transmit history, literature, law and other Knowledges For the Genus of Grass skipper Butterflies, see Papias (butterfly. [67]
The acceptance of the Septuagint was generally uncontested. Later Jerome would express his preference for adhering strictly to the Jewish canon, but his view held little currency even in his own day. Jerome (c 347 – September 30, 420) ( Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος It was not until the Protestant Reformation that substantial numbers of Christians began to reject those books of the Septuagint which are not found in the Jewish canon. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time
Fathers of the Church
From an early date the title "Father" was applied to bishops as witnesses to the Christian tradition. The Church Fathers, Early Church Fathers, or Fathers of the Church are the early and influential theologians and writers in the Christian Church A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight Only later, from the end of the fourth century, was it used in a more restricted sense of a more or less clearly defined group of ecclesiasical authors of the past whose authority on doctrinal matters carried special weight. According to the commonly accepted teaching, the Fathers of the Church are those ancient writers, whether bishops or not, who were characterized by orthodoxy of doctrine, holiness of life and the approval of the Church. Sometimes Tertullian, Origen and a few others of not unimpeachable orthodoxy are now classified as Fathers of the Church. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Anglicised as Tertullian, (ca Origen ( Greek: Ōrigénēs, or Origen Adamantius, ca 185–ca [68]
Apostolic Fathers
- See also: Apostolic Fathers
The earliest Christian writings after the New Testament are a group of letters credited to the Apostolic Fathers. These include the Epistle of Barnabas, the Shepherd of Hermas and the Epistles of Clement, as well as the Didache. The Epistle of Barnabas is a Greek treatise with some features of an Epistle containing twenty-one chapters preserved complete in the 4th century Codex The Shepherd of Hermas (sometimes just called The Shepherd) is a Christian work of the second century considered a valuable book by many Christians The Epistles of Clement ( 1 Clement and 2 Clement) are two letters ascribed to Saint Clement, an Apostolic Father, and the fourth Pope The Didache ( Koine Greek:, Didachē, meaning "Teaching" ˈdɪdəkiː in English ðiðaˈxi in Modern Greek) is the common name of a brief Taken as a whole, the collection is notable for its literary simplicity, religious zeal and lack of Hellenistic philosophy or rhetoric.
Post-apostolic fathers
- See also: Ante-Nicene Fathers
Post-apostolic fathers defined and defended Christian doctrine. The Ante-Nicene Fathers, subtitled "The Writings of the Fathers Down to A The Apologists became prominent in the second century. This includes such notable figures as Justin Martyr (d. Saint Justin Martyr (also Justin the Martyr, Justin of Caesarea, Justin the Philosopher, Latin Iustinus Martyr or Flavius 165), Tatian (d. Tatian the Assyrian was an early Christian writer and theologian of the second century. c. 185), and Clement of Alexandria (c. Saint Clement of Alexandria (born Titus Flavius Clemens) (c150 - 211/216 was the first notable member of the Church of Alexandria, and one of its most 150-211/216). They debated with prevalent philosophers of their day, defending and arguing for Christianity. They focused mainly on monotheism and their harshest words were used for ancient mythologies. [69] Fathers such as Irenaeus affirmed the authority of the apostolic episcopacy (bishops).
Tradition
The church fathers themselves were conscious of being a part of an ongoing tradition, and frequently appealed to earlier writers to defend their opinions. As the centuries passed, the result was a growing body of religious literature which was customarily used for devotional purposes and theological argumentation. It is these church fathers who form our most important sources for understanding the development of early Christianity, and their importance to their immediate successors explains their ongoing importance today. At the Protestant Reformation, the Reformers frequently appealed to the church fathers in defense of their propositions, though they also showed a willingness to disagree with them. Protestantism refers to the forms of Christian faith and practice that originated in the 16th century Protestant Reformation. The Protestant Reformation was a reform movement in Europe that began in 1517 though its roots lie further back in time By contrast, the Restorationists later viewed the church fathers as entirely suspect, and appealed in support of their views either to supposed new revelations or else to the New Testament directly without reference to later Christianity. For other usages see Restoration (general disambiguation Apokatastasis (universal restoration Christian Zionism (restoration of Israel and
Rules and creeds
The term Rule of Faith is used to describe outline statements of Christian belief that circulated in the second-century Church and were designed to make clear the essential contents of Christian faith, guide the understanding of scripture, and distinguish orthodox belief from heresy. The rule of faith ( Latin: regula fidei) or analogy of faith ( analogia fidei) is a phrase first found in Tertullian While, unlike the creeds, which were later, they varied in wording, their identical essential content was held to have descended unchanged from the Apostles. [70]
Originally, candidates for baptism accepted a short formula of belief, which varied in detail from one place to another. "By the fourth century these formulas had become more uniform and were everywhere tripartite in structure, following Matthew 28:19". [71]
The early Christian era ends with Emperor Constantine convening the Council of Nicaea, where the original version of the Nicene Creed was formulated. The Nicene Creed (ˈnaɪsiːn is an ecumenical Christian statement of faith accepted in the Eastern Orthodox Church, Assyrian Church of
Practices
From the writings of early Christians, historians have tried to piece together an understanding of various early Christian practices including worship services, customs and observances. Early Christian writers such as Justin Martyr (100 - 165) described these practices. Saint Justin Martyr (also Justin the Martyr, Justin of Caesarea, Justin the Philosopher, Latin Iustinus Martyr or Flavius
Sacraments
Rituals that would later be defined as sacraments existed in the early church.
Baptism
Early Christian beliefs regarding baptism were variable. In Christianity, baptism ( Greek, "immersing" "performing Ablutions " is the ritual act with the use of water by which one is admitted [72] In the most usual form of early Christian baptism, the candidate stood in water and water was poured over the upper body. [72] In other words, it was immersion, not submersion. [73] Tertullian describes the rite as a triple immersion, preceded by a fast or vigil, a confession of sins, and renouncing the devil, and as followed by anointing, the imposition of hands, and a symbolic meal of milk and honey, the whole of the rite being normally presided over by the bishop, with Easter and Pentecost as the proper seasons for baptism in the early Christian period, though in case of necessity baptism might be administered at any time and by any male Christian. [74] The theology of baptism attained precision in the 3rd and 4th centuries. [72]
While it is clear that infant baptism was widely practiced by at latest the third century,[75] the origins of the practice are controversial. Some believe that the apostolic church practiced infant baptism, arguing that the mention of the baptism of households in the Acts of the Apostles must have included infants. The Acts of the Apostles is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament. [76] In the second century, Irenaeus may have referred to it,[77][78][79]
The third century evidence is clearer, with both Origen[80] and Cyprian advocating the practice. Saint Irenaeus (Greek Ειρηναίος (2nd century AD - c 202 was Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, Roman Empire (now Lyons France Origen ( Greek: Ōrigénēs, or Origen Adamantius, ca 185–ca This page is about Cyprian bishop of Carthage For other Cyprians see Cyprian (disambiguation. Tertullian refers to the practice (and that sponsors would speak on behalf of the children), but argues against it, on the grounds that baptism should be postponed until after marriage. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Anglicised as Tertullian, (ca [81]
Interpretation of the baptismal practices of the early church is important to groups such as Baptists and Anabaptists, who believe that infant baptism was a later development. Baptist is a term describing individuals belonging to a Baptist church or a Baptist denomination. Anabaptists ( Greek ανα (again twice + βαπτιζω (baptize thus "re-baptizers" are Christians of the Radical Reformation
Eucharist
Early Christians blessed bread and wine as part of the Lord's supper. Where pagans would sacrifice animals for religious reasons, Christians would perform the eucharist, or unbloody sacrifice.
Holy orders
The early church featured two or three levels of clergy, overseers (bishops), elders (presbyters, sometimes interchangeable with bishops), and deacons (assistants). By the year 200, only bishops had the authority to ordain priests.
Imposition of hands
- See also: Laying on of hands
After baptism, the officiating Apostle or priest would lay hands on the subject's head to introduce the Holy Spirit into the believer. The laying on of hands is a religious practice found throughout the world in varying forms
Penance
By the third century, a system of public penance served as a "second baptism": the sinner, either voluntarily or under threat of excommunication, would undergo penance for a period whose length depended on the gravity of the sin, and which involved a rigorous course of fasting, prayer, and almsgiving, during which the penitent was excluded from the Eucharist. [82]
Worship
The first worship services were informal gatherings in homes of church members. Fresco (plural either frescos or frescoes) is any of several related Painting types done on Plaster on walls or The Catacombs of Rome are ancient Catacombs or underground Burial places under or near Rome, Italy, of which there are at least forty some discovered Saint Marcellinus and Peter were two 4th century Christian Martyrs in the city of Rome. The Via Labicana was an ancient road of Italy, leading east southeast from Rome. Rome ( Roma ˈroma Roma is the capital city of Italy and Lazio, and is Italy's largest and most populous city with more than 2 Christians considered each other to be brothers and sisters, each contributing their respective gifts to the community. Gatherings featured readings, such as from Paul's epistles and later the gospels and other texts. The Lord's Supper comprised a communal meal with prayers in memory of Jesus. Services were known as agape feasts or love feasts. The Agape feast, or love-feast was an Early Christian religious meal in close relation with the Eucharist.
Second century sources, such as the Didache, specify that the bread and wine of the Eucharist are for the baptized only. The Didache ( Koine Greek:, Didachē, meaning "Teaching" ˈdɪdəkiː in English ðiðaˈxi in Modern Greek) is the common name of a brief In his First Apology, a letter of defense written to Roman emperor, Antonius Pius, 161-180, Justin described a newly baptized member of the community sharing in the bread and wine of the Eucharist, which was restricted to the baptized. The First Apology was an early work of Christian apologetics addressed by Justin Martyr to the Roman Emperor Antoninus Pius. Titus Aurelius Fulvus Boionius Arrius Antoninus ( September 19, 86 &ndash March 7 161) generally known in English as Antoninus Pius The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or Lord's Supper and other names is a Christian Sacrament by which in a common interpretation those [84]
Despite Ignatius' rejection of Judaizing (see above), Christianity continued many of the patterns of Judaism, adapting to Christian use synagogue liturgical worship, prayer, use of Sacred Scripture, a priesthood, a religious calendar commemorating on certain days each year certain events and/or beliefs, use of music in worship, giving material support to the religious leadership, and practices such as fasting and almsgiving and baptism. A synagogue (from Greek: grc συναγωγή transliterated synagogē, "assembly" he בית כנסת beit knesset, "house of The liturgical year, also known as the Christian year, consists of the cycle of liturgical seasons in Christian churches which determines when Fasting is primarily the act of willingly abstaining from some or all Food, Drink, or both for a period of time Alms or almsgiving exists in a number of religions In general it involves giving materially to another as an act of religious virtue In Christianity, baptism ( Greek, "immersing" "performing Ablutions " is the ritual act with the use of water by which one is admitted
Christians adopted as their Bible the Greek translation of the Jewish Scriptures known as the Septuagint and later also canonized the books of the New Testament. There are however many phrases which appear to be quotations and other statements of fact, in the early church fathers, which cannot be found in the Bible as we know it. The Ante-Nicene Fathers, subtitled "The Writings of the Fathers Down to A For example in Clement's First Letter he states that Paul "reached the limits of the West", and also appears to quote a variant form of Ezek 33.
At worship, early Christians greeted each other with a holy kiss. The holy kiss is a traditional Christian Greeting. The term comes from the New Testament, where it appears five times Church leaders restricted the practice to keep the worshipers from taking pleasure in it, such as specifying that the lips be closed.
Many practices which later became characteristic of Christian worship had not yet developed. Singing was generally without instrumentation and was normally in unison. Many Christians had lost their lives rather than offer a mere pinch of incense to the emperor as to a god, and so the use of incense was strongly frowned upon even in Christian worship. These practices and others, such as the use of elaborate vestments and grand buildings, became popular only once the Peace of the Church changed the political situation and the growing properity of worshippers made them possible. Peace of the Church is a designation usually applied to the condition of the Church after the publication of the Edict of Milan in 313 by the two Augusti, Western
Church Community
Christians proclaimed a God of love who enjoined them to share a higher love with one another. This article discusses the traditional views of the two religions and may not be applicable all adherents of each Agapē (ˈægəpiː ( Gk αγάπη) is one of several Greek words translated into English as love. Some interpreted the Old Testament as revealing primarily a God of justice, whereas the New Testament, particularly the letters of Paul and the Gospel of John, revealed a more loving God. Parallels are found in Pharisaic and Rabbinic Judaism. The word Pharisees ( lat. pharisæ|us, - i) comes from the Hebrew פרושים perushim from פרוש parush, meaning "separated" Paul of Tarsus is represented in Acts 17:22-33 as equating the Unknown God of the Greeks as revealed in the Christian God. In addition to the twelve main gods and the innumerable lesser deities, ancient Greeks worshiped a deity they called Agnostos Theos, that is Early Christian communities welcomed everyone, including slaves and women, who were generally shunned in Greco-Roman culture, but there were other exceptions, such as Epicurianism. In modern Olympic and amateur Wrestling, Greco-Roman wrestling is a particular style and variation
Organization
Christian groups were first organized loosely. In Paul's time, there were no precisely delineated functions for bishops, elders, and deacons. [21] A Church hierarchy, however, seems to have developed by the early second century[21] (see Pastoral Epistles, c 90 - 140[21]). The three pastoral epistles are books of the canonical New Testament: the First Epistle to Timothy ( 1 Timothy) the These structures were certainly formalized well before the end of the Early Christian period, which concluded with the legalization of Christianity in 313 and the holding of the First Council of Nicea in 325. The Edict of Milan was a letter signed by emperors Constantine and Licinius, that proclaimed Religious toleration in the Roman Empire. The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey) convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine
Some first-century Christian writings include reference to overseers ("bishops") and deacons, though these may have been informal leadership roles rather than formal positions. A bishop is an ordained or consecrated member of the Christian clergy who is generally entrusted with a position of authority and oversight The Didache (dated by most scholars to the early second century),[85]) speaks of "appointing for yourself bishops and deacons" and also speaks about teachers and prophets and false prophets. The Didache ( Koine Greek:, Didachē, meaning "Teaching" ˈdɪdəkiː in English ðiðaˈxi in Modern Greek) is the common name of a brief In Religion, the term false prophet is a label given to a person who is viewed as illegitimately claiming Charismatic authority within a Religious group Bishops were defined as spiritual authorities over geographical areas.
By the end of the early Christian period, the church of the Roman Empire had hundreds of bishops, some of them (those of Rome, Alexandria, Antioch, and, it seems, the chief bishops of other provinces) holding some form of jurisdiction over others. [86]
Jerusalem was an important church center up to 135, for example see the Council of Jerusalem and the section on Jerusalem below, and it became significant again in the post-Nicene era. Council of Jerusalem (or Apostolic Conference) is a name applied subsequently to a meeting described in Acts of the Apostles chapter and probably referred to Some believe Rome was recognized as the first city of the church, Alexandria second, and then Antioch, see also Papal supremacy, however this belief was also one of the primary causes of the Great Schism and is still disputed today by the Orthodox and Protestants. Referring to the doctrine of papal supremacy the Catechism of the Catholic Church notes in paragraph 882 “the Roman Pontiff by reason of his office as Vicar The East-West Schism, or the Great Schism, divided medieval Christendom into Eastern (Greek and Western (Latin branches which later became known as the When the city of Constantinople was founded (330), this too became an important Christian centre within the empire, since the emperor resided there and made it his New Rome. The term " New Rome " has been used in the following contexts Constantinople (Byzantium) is generally associated with the Byzantine Empire.
Monasticism
Christian monasticism started in Egypt. The first monks were hermits (eremetic monks). A hermit (from the Greek ἔρημος erēmos, signifying " Desert " "uninhabited" hence "desert-dweller" adjective "eremitic" By the end of the early Christian era, Saint Pachomius was organizing his followers into a community and founding the tradition of monasticism in community (cenobitic monks). Saint Pachomius (ca 292-348 also known as Abba Pachomius and Pakhom in Arabic الأنبا باخوميوس, is generally recognized as the founder of
Interaction with Greco-Roman and Jewish cultures
The land in which Christianity began and through which it spread had been both Hellenized (after Alexander the Great) and Romanized (with the rise of the Roman Empire). This article gives overview about the relations between Christians and Pagans. Hellenization (or Hellenisation) is a term used to describe the spread of Greek culture. Alexander the Great ( or, Mégas Aléxandros; July 20 356 BC June 10 or June 11 323 BC also known as Alexander III of Macedon (el Ἀλέξανδρος Γ' Romanization may also refer to linguistics see Romanization. Romanization was a gradual process of Cultural assimilation, in which The Roman Empire was the post-Republican phase of the ancient Roman civilization, characterised by an autocratic form of government and large territorial Early church writings were in Greek, even those originating in Rome, as Greek was the international language, lingua franca, of the day (similar to English in the early 21st century) and was widely spoken even in Rome. A lingua franca (from Italian, literally meaning Frankish language, see etymology under Sabir and Italian below is any Language widely
Languages often presume features of the culture of their native speakers. For instance, the concept represented by the Greek word psyche, that of the soul, was often understood as immaterial in Greek writers, who also discussed whether the soul was immortal or not. The writers of the New Testament, like the Jewish translators of the Old Testament (Septuagint), used this word to render the Hebrew nephesh. The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the Christianity and some forms of Judaism believe in bodily resurrection. Judaism later rejected the Septuagint because of its divergence from what had become the accepted Hebrew text and also because of the use of the Septuagint by Christians. [87] Parallels to this exist in Christian history, where Greek, Latin or 16th century English are felt to be "proper" expressions of the scriptures, or of liturgy. A liturgy is the customary public worship done by a specific religious group according to their particular traditions
In early Christianity, Koine Greek, the most widely spoken language in the Roman empire of the time, the language also in which Alexandrian Jews such as Philo wrote their works, was naturally the language most used in Christian writings. Koine Greek (Κοινὴ Ἑλληνική, "common Greek" or, ciˈni ðiˈale̞kto̞s "the common dialect" is the popular form of Greek which emerged in Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria (Other less widely used languages were not excluded: Latin, for instance, was used by writers such as Tertullian and Marcus Minucius Felix and Syriac by Syriac Christianity. Latin ( lingua Latīna, laˈtiːna is an Italic language, historically spoken in Latium and Ancient Rome. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Anglicised as Tertullian, (ca Felix Marcus Minucius was one of the earliest if not the earliest of the Latin apologists for Christianity. See Syriac (disambiguation for other uses Syriac (syr ܠܫܢܐ ܣܘܪܝܝܐ leššānā Suryāyā) is an Eastern Aramaic language Syriac Christianity is a culturally and linguistically distinctive community within Eastern Christianity. ) Regarding issues like polytheism, Christianity stood with Judaism against the background pagan culture, being staunchly monotheistic. Early Christianity thus found itself, like Judaism before it, in conflict with the prevailing Greco-Roman culture, where polytheistic theology was not simply an abstraction, but influenced social customs at many levels. Banquets in honour of gods were a common occurrence, legal codes and international diplomacy depended on gods as witnesses and the ultimate court of appeal on justice. Christians were considered atheists, because they refused to honour the pagan gods. [88] In some cases, public opinion was against Christianity as antisocial (refusing to eat at pagan banquets) and immoral (unaccountable to the moral ethos couched in polytheistic terms). Tacitus recorded some of his impressions in 109: "a class hated for their abominations", "a most mischievous superstition", guilty of "hatred against mankind". Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. [89] Christians were also accused of "cannibalism" (perhaps a reference to the Eucharist) and "incest" (perhaps a reference to the biblical prohibition of marriage outside the faith). The Eucharist, also called Holy Communion or Lord's Supper and other names is a Christian Sacrament by which in a common interpretation those
Persecution
- See also: Persecution of early Christians by the Jews and Persecution of early Christians by the Romans
Christians were persecuted on an irregular basis in Rome. See also Persecution of Christians Christianity began as a Jewish sect during the period of the Second Temple. In its first three centuries the Christian church endured periods of persecution at the hands of Roman authorities In his On the Life of the Caesars Suetonius (ca. Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus, commonly known as Suetonius (ca 69/75 &ndash after 130 was an equestrian and a historian during the Roman Empire. 69/75 - after 130) wrote of the Emperor Claudius that, "since the Jews constantly made disturbances at the instigation of Chrestus, he expelled them from Rome. Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus or Claudius I ( August 1, 10 BC &ndash October 13, AD 54 ( Tiberius Claudius Drusus from birth to "[90] The similarity between the name "Chrestus" and "Christus" (Latin for "Christ") and the tradition witnessed to in the Jewish Encylopedia that Claudius took this action because of dissensions "regarding the advent of the Messiah"[91] have led to the supposition that this is a reference to the presence of Christians among the Jews in Rome. Messiah ( משיח; mashiah, moshiah, mashiach, or moshiach, ("anointed " is a term used in the Hebrew Bible [92] The common Greek name of Chrestus may have been that of a Jewish agitator in Rome rather than a reference to Christ. [93]Claudius's measure is dated to 49, and Acts 18:1-3 relates that, when Paul of Tarsus arrived in Corinth, probably in the following year, a Jewish Christian couple, Priscilla and Aquila, had arrived there shortly before (προσφάτως) as a result of Claudius's expulsion of "all Jews" from Rome, a phrase that suggests that the Emperor's action was directed against Jews in general, and not against the Christian Jews in particular. Paul the apostle (שאול התרסי Šaʾul HaTarsi, meaning " Saul of Tarsus " Σαούλ Saul and Σαῦλος Saulos and Corinth, or Korinth ( Greek Κόρινθος ( is a city in Greece. Priscilla and Aquila were a First Century Jewish Christian couple described in the New Testament
In the year 64, the Christians, specified by this name in the account written later by the Roman historian Tacitus (died c. Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca 56 &ndash ca 117 was a senator and a Historian of the Roman Empire. 117), were blamed by Nero as a scapegoat for the Great Fire of Rome in that year. Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( December 15, 37 – June 9, 68) born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, also called scapegoat was a Goat that was driven off into the wilderness as part of the ceremonies of Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement in Judaism during the times According to the historian Tacitus, the Great Fire of Rome started on the night of 18 July in the year AD 64, among the shops clustered around the He probably chose them as a new and secretive cult, mistrusted by the people: Tacitus called Christianity a "deadly superstition"; but he also noted that Nero's persecution of the Christians was so harsh that the inhabitants of Rome resented its cruelty. [94][95]
Christians also suffered persecutions under the reigns of Domitian and Trajan. Titus Flavius Domitianus (24 October 51 &ndash 18 September 96 commonly known as Domitian, was a Roman Emperor who reigned from 14 September 81 until his death Marcus Ulpius Nerva Traianus, commonly known as Trajan ( September 18 53 &ndash August 9 117) was a Roman Emperor who Persecutions continued intermittently through the second century. Even during periods between organized persecutions, Christians were still sporadically subject to trial and condemnation. After the late second century relative calm held in Rome. The reign of the Severi emperors is particularly noted as not only tolerant of the various religions in Rome, but actively interested in them. The Severan dynasty was a Roman imperial Dynasty, which ruled the Roman Empire between 193 and 235. Alexander Severus is said to have had a shrine in his palace with an icon of Christ. Marcus Aurelius Severus Alexander, commonly called Alexander Severus, (October 1 208 &ndash March 18, 235) was the last Roman emperor [96] The persecutions peaked with the Diocletian Persecution of 303-312. The Diocletianic Persecution was the last and most severe episode of Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire.
Important cities
Early Christianity spread from city to city in the Hellenized Roman Empire and beyond.
Jerusalem
- See also: Early Bishops of Jerusalem and Acts of the Apostles and Liturgy of St James and History of Palestine in the Roman Period and Jerusalem in Christianity
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia[97]:
| “ | Under the administration of Pontius Pilate, Jesus Christ was arrested and put to death. The Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Jerusalem is the head Bishop of the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate of Jerusalem, ranking fourth of nine Patriarchs in The Acts of the Apostles is a book of the Bible, which now stands fifth in the New Testament. The Liturgy of Saint James is the oldest complete form of the Divine Liturgy still in use among the Christian churches The History of Palestine is the account of events in the greater geographic area in the Southern Levant known as Palestine, which includes not just the West Bank See also Religious significance of Jerusalem For Christians, Jerusalem's place in the life of Jesus gives it great importance in addition to its The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to today as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language Encyclopedia published by The Encyclopedia The Passion, Resurrection, and Ascension of the Divine Saviour have rendered Jerusalem -- which was already glorious -- the most celebrated city in all the world. This article describes the Christian Passion For other meanings see Passion. Within the body of Christian beliefs the resurrection of Jesus is a core event on which much of Christian doctrine and theology depend The general and most common understanding of the Christian Doctrine of Ascension holds that Jesus bodily ascended to Heaven in the presence The enthusiasm with which, after the Day of Pentecost, thousands of Jews declared themselves disciples of Jesus Christ provoked a violent persecution of Christians, in which the deacon Stephen was the first martyr (Acts 6:8-15). Pentecost (πεντηκοστή, pentekostē, "the fiftieth day" is one of the prominent feasts in the Christian Liturgical year, celebrated the | ” |
According to Galatians 2:9, the "Pillars of the Church": Peter, James the Just and John the Apostle resided there. Saint James the Just ( Hebrew: יעקב or Jacob ( Greek Iάκωβος (died 62AD also known as James of Jerusalem, James Adelphotheos Saint John the Apostle ( Greek Ιωάννης, see Names of John) was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. [98]
The first church historian, Eusebius[99] recorded a list of Bishops of Jerusalem from James the Just to Judas in 135, at the end of the Bar Kokhba revolt, all of them Jewish or literally "of the circumcision". Background After the failed Great Jewish Revolt in the year 70 the Roman authorities took measures to suppress the rebellious province After the revolt, the Romans excluded Jews from Jerusalem, except for the Ninth of Ab. Tisha B'Av (תשעה באב or he ט׳ באב "the Ninth of Av," is an annual fast day in Judaism, named for the ninth day ( Tisha [100]
Jerusalem received special recognition in Canon VII of Nicaea, without yet becoming a metropolitan see[101]:
| “ | Since custom and ancient tradition have prevailed that the Bishop of Aelia [i. Aelia Capitolina ( Latin in full Colonia Aelia Capitolina) was a city built by the emperor Hadrian in the year 131, and occupied e. , Jerusalem] should be honoured, let him, saving its due dignity to the Metropolis, have the next place of honour. | ” |
| “ | It is very hard to determine just what was the “precedence” granted to the Bishop of Aelia, nor is it clear which is the metropolis referred to in the last clause. Aelia Capitolina ( Latin in full Colonia Aelia Capitolina) was a city built by the emperor Hadrian in the year 131, and occupied Most writers, including Hefele, Balsamon, Aristenus and Beveridge consider it to be Cæsarea; while Zonaras thinks Jerusalem to be intended, a view recently adopted and defended by Fuchs; others again suppose it is Antioch that is referred to. Caesarea Maritima (Greek παράλιος Καισάρεια called Caesarea Palaestina from 133 CE onwards was a city and Harbor built by Herod the Great Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also | ” |
Aelia refers to Aelia Capitolina, the name of the Roman colony the emperor Hadrian built on top of the ruins of Jerusalem after the Bar Kokhba revolt. Aelia Capitolina ( Latin in full Colonia Aelia Capitolina) was a city built by the emperor Hadrian in the year 131, and occupied A Roman colonia (plural coloniae) was originally a Roman outpost established in conquered territory to secure it Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after [102]
Antioch
- See also: School of Antioch and Bishop of Antioch
Antioch, the third-most important city of the Roman Empire,[103] then part of Syria province, today Antakya, Turkey, was where Christians were first so-called. The School of Antioch was one of the two major centers of the study of biblical Exegesis and Theology; the other was the Catechetical school of Alexandria The Patriarch of Antioch is one of the original Patriarchs of Early Christianity, who presided over the Bishops of Syria Palestine Armenia and Antioch on the Orontes (Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Δάφνῃ Ἀντιόχεια ἡ ἐπὶ Ὀρόντου or Ἀντιόχεια ἡ Μεγάλη Antiochia ad Orontem also Syria was a Roman province, conquered in 64 BC by Pompey, as a consequence of his military presence after pursing victory in the Third Mithridatic Antakya (انطاكية Anṭākyä; Ἀντιόχεια Antiókheia or Antiócheia) is the seat of the Hatay Province in southern [104] It was the site of an early church, traditionally said to be founded by Peter. The Gospel of Matthew may have been written there. The church father Ignatius of Antioch was its third bishop. Saint Ignatius of Antioch (also known as Theophorus) (ca 35-110 was the third Bishop and Patriarch of Antioch and possibly a student of the Apostle John The School of Antioch, founded in 270, was one of two major centers of early church learning. It was one of the three whose bishops were recognized at the First Council of Nicaea (325) as exercising jurisdiction over the adjoining territories. The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey) convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine [105]
Caesarea
- See also: Caesarea Maritima#Christian hub
Caesarea, at first Caesarea Maritima, then after 133 Caesarea Palaestina, was founded by Herod the Great and was the capital of Iudaea province and later Palaestina Prima. Caesarea Maritima (Greek παράλιος Καισάρεια called Caesarea Palaestina from 133 CE onwards was a city and Harbor built by Herod the Great Herod (הוֹרְדוֹס Horodos, Greek: Herōdes) also known as Herod I or Herod the Great (73 BC – 4 BC in Jericho Kingdom of Judea redirects here For the 10th-6th century BCE kingdom see Kingdom of Judah Iudaea ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia[106]:
| “ | St. Peter established the church there when he baptized the centurion Cornelius (Acts 10:11); St. Paul often sojourned there (ix, 30, xviii, 22, xxi, 8), and was imprisoned there for two years before being taken to Rome (xxiii, 23, xxv, 1-13). However, there is no record of any bishops of Caesarea until the second century. The Archbishop of Caesarea was one of the major suffragans of the Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem during the Crusades The diocese was an ancient one established At the end of this century a council was held there to regulate the celebration of Easter. The Easter controversy is a series of controversies about the proper date to celebrate the Christian festival of Easter. In the third century Origen took refuge at Caesarea, and wrote there many of his exegetic and theological works, among others the famous "Hexapla", the manuscript of which was for a long time preserved in the episcopal library of that city. Hexapla (Ἑξαπλά Gr for "sixfold" is the term for an edition of the Bible in six versions Through Origen and the scholarly priest, St. Pamphilus, the theological school of Caesarea won a universal reputation. Saint Pamphilus (Πάμφιλος (latter half of the 3rd century &ndash martyred February 309 was a Presbyter of Caesarea and chief among Catholic St. Gregory the Wonder-Worker, St. Basil the Great, and others came from afar to study there. Saint Gregory of Neocaesarea, also known as Gregory Thaumaturgus or Gregory the Wonderworker, (ca Basil of Caesarea, also called Saint Basil the Great (c 330 – January 1, 379) (Άγιος Βασίλειος ο Μέγας Latin its ecclesiastical library passed for the richest in antiquity; it was there that St. Jerome performed much of his Scriptural labours. Jerome (c 347 – September 30, 420) ( Latin: Eusebius Sophronius Hieronymus; Εὐσέβιος Σωφρόνιος Ἱερώνυμος The library was probably destroyed either in 614 by the Persians, or about 637 by the Saracens. | ” |
Alexandria
- See also: Alexandrian school and Catechetical School of Alexandria
Established by Alexander the Great, Alexandria and its famous libraries were a center of Hellenistic learning. The Alexandrian school is a collective designation for certain tendencies in literature philosophy medicine and the sciences that developed in the Hellenistic cultural center The Catechetical School of Alexandria (founded ca 190 was a place for the training of Christian Theologians and priests in Alexandria. This article focuses on the cultural aspects of the Hellenistic age for the historical aspects see Hellenistic period. The Septuagint translation began there. It had a significant Jewish population, of which Philo of Alexandria is probably its most known author. Philo (20 BC - 50 AD) known also as Philo of Alexandria (gr Φίλων ὁ Ἀλεξανδρεύς Philo Judaeus, Philo Judaeus of Alexandria [107] It produced superior scripture and notable church fathers, such as Clement, Origen, and Athanasius. By the end of the era, Alexandria, Rome, and Antioch were accorded authority over nearby metropolitans. In Hierarchical Christian churches the rank of metropolitan bishop, or simply metropolitan, pertains to the Diocesan bishop or The Council of Nicaea (canon VI) affirmed Alexandria's traditional authority over Egypt, Libya, and Pentapolis (North Africa).
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia[108]:
| “ | An important seaport of Egypt, on the left bank of the Nile. It was founded by Alexander the Great to replace the small borough called Racondah or Rakhotis, 331 B. C. The Ptolemies, Alexander's successors on the throne of Egypt, soon made it the intellectual and commercial metropolis of the world. Cæsar who visited it 46 B. C. left it to Queen Cleopatra, but when Octavius went there in 30 B. C. he transformed the Egyptian kingdom into a Roman province. Alexandria continued prosperous under the Roman rule but declined a little under that of Constantinople. . . . Christianity was brought to Alexandria by the Evangelist St. Mark. "Saint Mark" redirects here For other uses see Saint Mark (disambiguation. It was made illustrious by a lineage of learned doctors such as Pantænus, Clement of Alexandria, and Origen; it has been governed by a series of great bishops amongst whom Athanasius and Cyril must be mentioned. The Patriarch of Alexandria is the Archbishop of Alexandria and Cairo, Egypt. | ” |
Rome
- See also: First phase of papal supremacy
The seat of imperial power soon became a center of church authority, grew in power decade by decade, and became the head of the church. Referring to the doctrine of papal supremacy the Catechism of the Catholic Church notes in paragraph 882 “the Roman Pontiff by reason of his office as Vicar [109] Paul's Epistle to the Romans (c 58) attests to a large Christian community here. [110] The see is traditionally said to be founded by Peter, see also Primacy of Simon Peter, who had invested it with apostolic authority. A number of Christian denominations and scholars hold that Simon Peter was the most prominent of the apostles, favored by Jesus of Nazareth with the first Church father Clement, bishop of Rome, asserted his see's apostolic authority. Saint However, not even by the end of the era were Rome and Alexandria, which by tradition held authority over sees outside their own province,[111] referred to as patriarchates[112]
Pope Victor I (189-198) was the first Latin ecclesiastical writer, but it seems that he wrote nothing but his encyclicals, which would naturally have been issued in both Latin and Greek. Pope [113]
The earlier Roman bishops were all Greek-speaking, the most notable of them being Pope Clement I (c. Saint 88-97), author of an Epistle to the Church in Corinth; Pope Telesphorus (c. The Epistles of Clement ( 1 Clement and 2 Clement) are two letters ascribed to Saint Clement, an Apostolic Father, and the fourth Pope Pope 126-136), probably the only martyr among them; Pope Pius I (c. Pope 141-154), said by the Muratorian fragment to be the brother of the author of the Shepherd of Hermas; and Pope Anicetus (c. The Muratorian fragment is a copy of perhaps the oldest known list of the books of the New Testament. The Shepherd of Hermas (sometimes just called The Shepherd) is a Christian work of the second century considered a valuable book by many Christians 155-160), who received Saint Polycarp and discussed with him the dating of Easter. Saint Polycarp of Smyrna (ca 69 – ca 155 was a second century Bishop of Smyrna. The Easter controversy is a series of controversies about the proper date to celebrate the Christian festival of Easter. [110]
During the second century, Christians and semi-Christians of diverse views congregated in Rome, and in the following century there were schisms connected with Hippolytus of Rome and Novatian. For places named after the saint see Saint-Hippolyte Saint Hippolytus of Rome (c Novatian ( circa 200 &ndash 258 was a scholar and Antipope who held the title between 251 and 258 [110]
The Roman church survived various persecutions, and many clergy were martyred. When Rome burned in 64, Nero blamed the Christians and persecuted them. According to the historian Tacitus, the Great Fire of Rome started on the night of 18 July in the year AD 64, among the shops clustered around the [110] In the "Massacre of 258", under Valerian, the emperor killed a great many Christian clergy, including Pope Sixtus II and Antipope Novatian and Cyprian of Carthage. For other uses see Valerian. Publius Licinius Valerianus (c 200 - after 260 commonly known in English as Valerian Pope Novatian ( circa 200 &ndash 258 was a scholar and Antipope who held the title between 251 and 258 This page is about Cyprian bishop of Carthage For other Cyprians see Cyprian (disambiguation. [114] Persecutions, of which that which broke out under Diocletian in 303 was particularly severe, finally ended in Rome, and the West in general, with the accession of Maxentius in 306. Gaius Aurelius Valerius Diocletianus ( ca. December 22 244 The modern historian Timothy Barnes takes December 22 as his birthdate Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius (c 278 - 28 October 312) was Western Roman Emperor from 306 to 312
Other significant places
Northwest Africa
Carthage gave the early church two Latin fathers, Tertullian and Cyprian. Hippo Regius had been the home of Numidian kings, it became a center of Christianity, and Augustine was its bishop. Hippo Regius is the ancient name of the modern city of Annaba (formerly Bône Algeria. The deserts of Egypt were home to ascetic fathers, such as Pachomius and Anthony.
Northeast Africa
The Aksumite Empire of Ethiopia, with its capital at Axum, officially adopted Christianty as its state religion in 325. The Aksumite Empire or Axumite Empire (sometimes called the Kingdom of Aksum or Axum ( Ge'ez: አክሱም was an important trading Axum, or Aksum, is a City in northern Ethiopia named after the Kingdom of Aksum, a naval and trading power that ruled from the region ca A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially However, significant connections were made earlier, for example Acts 8:26-40 records the baptism of an Ethiopian eunuch and the Queen of Sheba is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible. The Queen of Sheba (ንግሥተ ሳባ, 'מלכת שבא, ملكة سبأ) was the woman who ruled the ancient kingdom of Sheba and is referred to in Habeshan
Anatolia
The tradition of John the Apostle was strong in Anatolia (also called Asia, the near-east, modern Turkey). The History of Anatolia encompasses the region known as Anatolia ( Turkish Anadolu) known by the Latin name of Asia Minor, considered to be Saint John the Apostle ( Greek Ιωάννης, see Names of John) was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. Anatolia (Anadolu Ανατολία Anatolía) or Asia minor, comprising most of modern Turkey, is the geographic region bounded by the Black Turkey (Türkiye known officially as the Republic of Turkey ( is a Eurasian Country that stretches The gospel of John was likely written in Ephesus. Ephesus ( Hittite Apasa; Ancient Greek; Turkish Efes) was a city of ancient Anatolia. According to the New Testament, the Apostle Paul was from Tarsus and his missionary journeys were primarily in this region. Tarsus ( Greek Ταρσός is a City, and a large district in Mersin Province, Turkey, from the city of Mersin and near (40 The Book of Revelation mentions Seven churches of Asia. The Book of Revelation, also called Revelation to John, Apocalypse of John ( pronounced, from the Ἀποκάλυψις Ἰωάννου This article is about the seven churches mentioned in the Book of Revelation. The First Epistle of Peter (1:1-2) is addressed to Anatolian cities. The First Epistle of Peter is a book of the New Testament. It has traditionally been held to have been written by Saint Peter the apostle during his time as Bishop Of the extant letters of Ignatius of Antioch considered authentic (see Ignatius of Antioch#Letters), five of seven are to Anatolian cities. Saint Ignatius of Antioch (also known as Theophorus) (ca 35-110 was the third Bishop and Patriarch of Antioch and possibly a student of the Apostle John Smyrna was home to Polycarp, the bishop who reportedly knew the Apostle John personally, and probably to Irenaeus. This article is on the Ancient Greek city of Smyrna principally in connection with the ruins remaining to this day Saint Polycarp of Smyrna (ca 69 – ca 155 was a second century Bishop of Smyrna. Saint Irenaeus (Greek Ειρηναίος (2nd century AD - c 202 was Bishop of Lugdunum in Gaul, Roman Empire (now Lyons France In the 2nd century, Anatolia was home to Quartodecimanism and Montanism, both later declared heretical by Proto-orthodox Christianity. See also Easter controversy, Easter Quartodecimanism (derived from the Vulgate Latin: quarta decima, meaning fourteen Proto-orthodox Christianity is a term created by New Testament scholar Bart D In 325, Constantine convoked the first Christian ecumenical council in Nicaea and in 330 he moved the capital of the empire from Rome to Constantinople, see also Byzantine Empire. Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις Konstantinoúpolis, or gr ἡ Πόλις hē Polis, Latin: la CONSTANTINOPOLIS
According to the Catholic Encyclopedia[115]:
| “ | Asia Minor was certainly the first part of the Roman world to accept as a whole the principles and the spirit of the Christian religion, and it was not unnatural that the warmth of its conviction should eventually fire the neighbouring Armenia and make it, early in the fourth century, the first of the ancient states formally to accept the religion of Christ (Eusebius, Hist. Eccl. , IX, viii, 2). | ” |
Armenia
The Arsacid Dynasty of Armenia was the first to adopt Christianity as a state religion, in either 301 or 314. The Arsacid Dynasty (Arshakuni Dynasty ruled the Kingdom of Armenia from 54 to 428 A state religion (also called an official religion, established church or state church) is a religious body or Creed officially The Armenian church was founded by Gregory the Illuminator. The Armenian Apostolic Church (Հայաստանեայց Առաքելական Եկեղեցի Hayasdaneaytz Arakelagan Saint Gregory the Illuminator or Saint Gregory the Enlightener (Գրիգոր Լուսաւորիչ translit
Syria
- See also: Syriac Orthodox Church
The Diatesseron, the four gospels as a continuous narrative, circulated widely in Syriac-speaking Churches, though its original language may have been Syriac, Greek, or even Latin. The Syriac Orthodox Church is an autocephalous Oriental Orthodox church based in the Middle East with members spread throughout the world The Diatessaron ( c 150 - 160 is the most prominent Gospel harmony. [116] It may have been compiled in Edessa. The Didascalia Apostolorum, originally written in Greek in the first half of the third century, was likely composed by a Jewish convert in northern Syria. Didascalia Apostolorum (or just Didascalia is the title of a treatise which presents itself as being written by the Apostles at the time of the Council of Jerusalem ( however [117] According to the New Testament, the Apostle Paul was converted on the Road to Damascus. The Feast of the Conversion of Saint Paul is a feast celebrated during the Liturgical year on January 25, recounting the Conversion of Saul of Tarsus, who Though they are a minority, some argue that the New Testament was originally written in Aramaic. Aramaic primacy is the view that the Christian New Testament and/or its sources were originally written in the Aramaic language. See also Aramaic of Jesus. Most scholars believe that historical '''Jesus''' primarily spoke Aramaic, with some Hebrew and Greek, although there
Assyria
The Assyrian Church of the East (in modern Iraq) is traditionally said to be founded by Saint Thomas through Addai. The Holy Apostolic Catholic Assyrian Church of the East (ܥܕܬܐ ܩܕܝܫܬܐ ܘܫܠܝܚܝܬܐ ܩܬܘܠܝܩܝ ܕܡܕܢܚܐ ܕܐܬܘܪ̈ܝܐ ‘Ittā Qaddishtā wa-Shlikhāitā Qattoliqi For a topic outline on this subject see List of basic Iraq topics. For the American football player see Joseph Addai. Among the Eastern Orthodox faithful Saint Addai was a disciple of Christ sent
Iran
There was a Christian church in Iran from early times, but since they tended to side with Christian Byzantium, Shapur II ordered their execution in 341, but it is believed he was not entirely successful. The Sassanid Church or Sassanian Church was established in 422 under Yezdegird I shah of Sassanid Persia ( Iran) to satisfy Persia's relatively large This article is about the city See also Byzantine Empire. Byzantium ( Greek: Βυζάντιον Latin: la BYZANTIVM Shapur II was the ninth King of the Sassanid Empire from 309 to 379
India
The Christian Church in India (known as the Malankara Church or Church of Malabar) is traditionally said to be founded by St Thomas the Apostle in 52. A Christian is a person who adheres to Christianity, a monotheistic Religion centered on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth India, officially the Republic of India (भारत गणराज्य inc-Latn Bhārat Gaṇarājya; see also other Indian languages) is a country Malankara Church of India is the Christian church believed to be started by St Malabar (മലബാര് is a region of southern India, lying between the Western Ghats and the Arabian Sea. Thomas the Apostle, also called Judas Thomas, Doubting Thomas, or Didymus, was one of the Twelve Apostles of Jesus. [118]
Legacy
In the fourth century, Constantine converted to Christianity[119] and legalized it, showing it personal favour (see Constantine I and Christianity for details). Persecutions See also Persecution of Christians The first recorded significant persecution of Christians at the hands of the authorities of the Roman Empire He convened the first of the ecumenical councils at Nicea, where the church dogmatically defined the Trinity. This is a general introduction to ecumenical councils For the Roman Catholic councils, see Catholic Ecumenical Councils. Of the next six ecumenical councils, the First Council of Constantinople further defined the Trinity and the Council of Ephesus affirmed Mary as the Mother of God. The Second Ecumenical Council the first held in Constantinople was called by Theodosius I in 381 which confirmed the Nicene Creed and dealt with other matters such This article covers the Ecumenical council of 431 For the council of 449 see Second Council of Ephesus. Theotokos (Θεοτόκος translit Theotókos) is a title of Mary the mother of Jesus used especially in the Eastern Orthodox, They anathematized various heresies, and declared heretical some early Christian writings, such as when the Second Council of Constantinople condemned certain tenets of Origen. The Fifth Ecumenical Council (the Second Council of Constantinople was a Christian Ecumenical Council that was held at Constantinople (5 May-2 June Origen ( Greek: Ōrigénēs, or Origen Adamantius, ca 185–ca
In modern times, several Christian denominations intentionally follow what they believe to be early Christian practices, such as believer's baptism, Sabbath in Christianity, and Passover (Christian holiday) (see also Christian Torah-submission), in place of established Christian traditions. Believer's baptism (occasionally called credobaptism, from the Latin word credo) is the Christian practice of Baptism as this is understood by In Christianity, the Sabbath is generally a weekly religious Day of rest as ordained by one of the Ten Commandments (the third by Roman Catholic This article is about a holiday celebrated by a small number of Christians These Restorationist sects consider themselves to be restoring the authentic practices of the early Christian era, before what they call the "Great Apostasy. For other usages see Restoration (general disambiguation Apokatastasis (universal restoration Christian Zionism (restoration of Israel and The Great Apostasy is a term used by some religious groups to allege a general fallen state of traditional Christianity, or especially of Catholicism " See also Caesaropapism. Caesaropapism is the idea of combining the power of secular government with or making it superior to the spiritual authority of the Christian Church; especially
Since the 19th century, historians have learned much more about the early Christian community. Major texts, such as the Didache (in second-millennium copies) and the Gospel of Thomas (in two manuscripts dated as early as about 200 and 340), have been rediscovered in the last 200 years. The Didache ( Koine Greek:, Didachē, meaning "Teaching" ˈdɪdəkiː in English ðiðaˈxi in Modern Greek) is the common name of a brief The Gospel According to Thomas ( Coptic: ⲡⲉ̅ⲩ̅ⲁ̅ⲅⲅ̅ⲉⲗ̅ⲓⲟⲛ̅ ⲡⲕ̅ⲁ̅ⲧⲁ ⲑ̅ⲱ̅ⲙⲁⲥ also known as The Gospel
Restorationism
In 19th century America, a movement known as Restorationism arose, which claimed to restore "original Christianity. For other usages see Restoration (general disambiguation Apokatastasis (universal restoration Christian Zionism (restoration of Israel and For other usages see Restoration (general disambiguation Apokatastasis (universal restoration Christian Zionism (restoration of Israel and " Most of these individual movements sought to teach what they believed was a more pure understanding of the New Testament. Some movements claimed an actual restoration of the original church founded by Jesus Christ. Restorationists claimed no genesis from Nicene Christianity (Christianity as formulated at the First Council of Nicaea). They hold that Christian usages and beliefs not mentioned in the New Testament are later introductions at variance with the practice and belief of the Apostolic Age, which they claim to restore. For some, the Great Apostasy was in effect in the second century, when Christians had already adopted Sunday as a day of worship; for others, it began even earlier (see Hyperdispensationalism). The Great Apostasy is a term used by some religious groups to allege a general fallen state of traditional Christianity, or especially of Catholicism Hyperdispensationalism is a further development of some (but not all of the core doctrines of Dispensationalism and differs from the same in that principally (although
References
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- Boatwright, Mary Taliaferro & Gargola, Daniel J & Talbert, Richard John Alexander. The Romans: From Village to Empire. Oxford University Press (2004). ISBN 0195118758.
- Dauphin, C. "De l'Église de la circoncision à l'Église de la gentilité – sur une nouvelle voie hors de l'impasse". Studium Biblicum Franciscanum. Liber Annuus XLIII (1993).
- Dunn, James D. G. Jews and Christians: The Parting of the Ways, A. D. 70 to 135. Pp 33-34. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing (1999). ISBN 0802844987.
- Ehrman, Bart D. Misquoting Jesus: The Story Behind Who Changed the Bible and Why. HarperCollins (2005). ISBN 0060738170.
- Esler, Phillip F. The Early Christian World. Routledge (2004). ISBN 0415333121.
- Harris, Stephen L. Understanding the Bible. Mayfield (1985). ISBN 087484696X.
- Hunt, Emily Jane. Christianity in the Second Century: The Case of Tatian. Routledge (2003). ISBN 0415304059.
- Keck, Leander E. Paul and His Letters. Fortress Press (1988). ISBN 0800623401.
- Pelikan, Jaroslav Jan. The Christian Tradition: The Emergence of the Catholic Tradition (100-600). University of Chicago Press (1975). ISBN 0226653714.
- Pritz, Ray A. , Nazarene Jewish Christianity From the End of the New Testament Period Until Its Disappearance in the Fourth Century. Magnes Press - E. J. Brill, Jerusalem - Leiden (1988).
- Richardson, Cyril Charles. Early Christian Fathers. Westminster John Knox Press (1953). ISBN 0664227473.
- Stark, Rodney. The Rise of Christianity. Harper Collins Pbk. Ed edition 1997. ISBN 0060677015
- Stambaugh, John E. & Balch, David L. The New Testament in Its Social Environment. John Knox Press (1986). ISBN 0664250122.
- Tabor, James D. "Ancient Judaism: Nazarenes and Ebionites", The Jewish Roman World of Jesus. Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte (1998).
- Taylor, Joan E. Christians and the Holy Places: The Myth of Jewish-Christian Origins. Oxford University Press (1993). ISBN 0198147856.
- Thiede, Carsten Peter. The Dead Sea Scrolls and the Jewish Origins of Christianity. Palgrabe Macmillan (2003). ISBN 1403961433.
- White, L. Michael. From Jesus to Christianity. HarperCollins (2004). ISBN 0060526556.
- Wright, N. T. The New Testament and the People of God. Fortress Press (1992). ISBN 0800626818.
- Wylen, Stephen M. The Jews in the Time of Jesus: An Introduction. Paulist Press (1995). ISBN 0809136104.
Footnotes
- ^ a b c d e f g Durant, Will. William James Durant ( November 5, 1885 &ndash November 7, 1981) was a prolific American popularizer in the fields of History Caesar and Christ. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: St. Paul: Theology of St. Paul: "According to them Paul was the creator of theology, the founder of the Church, the preacher of asceticism, the defender of the sacraments and of the ecclesiastical system, the opponent of the religion of love and liberty which Christ came to announce to the world. If, to do him honour, he is called the second founder of Christianity, this must be a degenerate and altered Christianity since it was at least partially opposed to the primitive Christianity. Paul is thus made responsible for every antipathy to modern thought in traditional Christianity. This is to a great extent the origin of the "Back to Christ" movement, the strange wanderings of which we are now witnessing. The chief reason for returning to Christ is to escape Paul, the originator of dogma, the theologian of the faith. "
- ^ The Canon Debate, McDonald & Sanders editors, 2002, chapter 32, page 577, by James D. G. Dunn: "For Peter was probably in fact and effect the bridge-man (pontifex maximus!) who did more than any other to hold together the diversity of first-century Christianity. James the brother of Jesus and Paul, the two other most prominent leading figures in first-century Christianity, were too much identified with their respective "brands" of Christianity, at least in the eyes of Christians at the opposite ends of this particular spectrum. But Peter, as shown particularly by the Antioch episode in Gal 2, had both a care to hold firm to his Jewish heritage, which Paul lacked, and an openness to the demands of developing Christianity, which James lacked. John might have served as such a figure of the center holding together the extremes, but if the writings linked with his name are at all indicative of his own stance he was too much of an individualist to provide such a rallying point. Others could link the developing new religion more firmly to its founding events and to Jesus himself. But none of them, including the rest of the twelve, seem to have played any role of continuing significance for the whole sweep of Christianity—though James the brother of John might have proved an exception had he been spared. " [Italics original]
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Cornelius: "The baptism of Cornelius is an important event in the history of the Early Church. The gates of the Church, within which thus far only those who were circumcised and observed the Law of Moses had been admitted, were now thrown open to the uncircumcised Gentiles without the obligation of submitting to the Jewish ceremonial laws. "
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Academies in Palestine: Jabneh, Temporary Center of the Jewish Nation: "The destruction of Jerusalem put as abrupt an end to the disputes of the schools as it did to the contests between political parties [ Sadducees, Pharisees, Essenes, Zealots ]. Hillel (הלל (born Babylon traditionally c110BCE-10CE in Jerusalem) was a famous Jewish religious leader one of the most important figures in Jewish The Sadducees were members of a Jewish sect founded in the second century BC, possibly as a political party The word Pharisees ( lat. pharisæ|us, - i) comes from the Hebrew פרושים perushim from פרוש parush, meaning "separated" The Essenes were strictly speaking a Jewish religious group that flourished from the 2nd century BC to the 1st century AD It was then that a disciple of Hillel, the venerable Johanan ben Zakkai, founded a new home for Jewish Law in Jabneh (Jamnia), and thus evoked a new intellectual life from the ruins of a fallen political existence. Hillel (הלל (born Babylon traditionally c110BCE-10CE in Jerusalem) was a famous Jewish religious leader one of the most important figures in Jewish Yochanan ben Zakai (יוחנן בן זכאי c 30 BCE - 90 CE) was one of the Tannaim, an important Jewish sage in the era of the Second Temple Halakha ( הלכה; alternative transliterations include Halocho and Halacha) is the collective body of Jewish Religious law The college at Jabneh, which at once constituted itself the successor of the Great Sanhedrin of Jerusalem by putting into practise the ordinances of that body as far as was necessary and practicable, attracted all those who had escaped the national catastrophe and who had become prominent by their character and their learning. Even before the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD Rabbi Yohanan ben Zakkai relocated to the city of Yavne / Jamnia and received permission The Sanhedrin (סנהדרין συνέδριον ''synedrion'', "sitting together" hence " assembly " or "council" was an assembly "
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Bible Translations: Aquila: "Two things, however, rendered the Septuagint unwelcome in the long run to the Jews. Its divergence from the accepted text (afterward called the Masoretic) was too evident; and it therefore could not serve as a basis for theological discussion or for homiletic interpretation. The Masoretic Text ( MT) is the Hebrew text of the Jewish Bible ( Tanakh) Homiletics ( Gr homiletikos, from homilos, to assemble together in Theology the application of the general principles of Rhetoric This distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had been adopted as Sacred Scripture by the new faith. A revision in the sense of the canonical Jewish text was necessary. This revision was made by a proselyte, Aquila, who lived during the reign of Hadrian (117-138)"
- ^ Bruce M. Metzger's Textual Commentary on the Greek New Testament
- ^ In recent centuries some have posited for parts of the New Testament dates as late as the third century, early Christians attributed it to the Apostles themselves and their contemporaries (such as Mark and Luke). Proselyte, from the Koine Greek προσήλυτος/proselytos, is used in the Septuagint for "stranger" i Aquila of Sinope was a 2nd Century AD native of Pontus in Anatolia known for producing an exceedingly literal translation of the Hebrew Bible into Publius Aelius Hadrianus (January 24 76 &ndash July 10 138 as emperor Imperator Caesar Divi Traiani filius Traianus Hadrianus Augustus, and Divus Hadrianus after Bruce Manning Metzger ( 9 February, 1914, Middletown Pennsylvania – 13 February, 2007, Princeton New Jersey) was a professor
- ^ Larry Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity, (Eerdmans, 2005), page 650.
- ^ Larry Hurtado, Lord Jesus Christ: Devotion to Jesus in Earliest Christianity, (Eerdmans, 2005), page 204.
- ^ See Raymond E. Brown's "Does the New Testament call Jesus God?" in Theological Studies, #26, 1965, p. Raymond Edward Brown ( May 22, 1928 - August 8, 1998) was an American Roman Catholic Priest and Biblical 545-73 for a good summary of the debate.
- ^ Revelation 1:11
- ^ Revelation 1:18
- ^ Revelation 22:12
- ^ The book has many other images, in particular that of a fearsome beast whose worshippers and those who receive its mark "will drink the wine of God's wrath, poured full strength into the cup of his anger, and will be tormented with fire and sulfur in the presence of the holy angels and in the presence of the Lamb" (Revelation 14:9-11), an effect not attributed to the Lamb itself.
- ^ Revelation 20:4-6
- ^ Revelation 20:7-10
- ^ Revelation 20:11-14
- ^ "Alogi or Alogoi", Early Church.org.uk.
- ^ "Alogi", Francis P. Havey, The Catholic Encyclopedia Volume I, 1907. The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to today as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language Encyclopedia published by The Encyclopedia
- ^ a b c d e Harris, Stephen L., Understanding the Bible. Stephen L Harris is Professor and Chair Department of Humanities and Religious Studies at California State University Sacramento. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica, "Trinity". The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Baptism
- ^ Acts 2:38, 3:6, 4:18, 5:40, 9:27-28, 16:18; cf. "The phrase 'baptized in the name of Jesus' is simply Luke's way to distinguish Christian baptism from other baptisms of the period, such as John's baptism (which Luke mentions in Acts 1:5, 22, 10:37, 11:16, 13:24, 18:25, 19:4), Jewish proselyte baptism, and the baptisms of pagan cults (such as Mithraism)" (Trinitarian Baptism); "baptism is differentiated elsewhere in narratives by being described as 'in the name of Jesus,' as opposed to the 'baptism of John' and so forth" (Jesus Name Baptism?). Mikvah (or mikveh) ( plural mikva'ot or mikves) is a ritual bath designed for the purpose of ritual immersion in Judaism.
- ^ The Oxford Companion of the Bible, "Trinity".
- ^ History of Dogma II. III. 2, Adolf von Harnack. Adolf von Harnack ( May 7, 1851 &ndash June 10, 1930) was a German theologian and prominent church historian 'Jesus Christ, who is the Saviour. . . sent by God "in these last days," and who stands with God himself in a union special and unique. '
- ^ "[http://www.orthodoxfaith.com/spirituality_difference.html The Difference Between Orthodox Spirituality and Other Confessions]", Metropolitan Hierotheos Vlachos, OrthodoxFaith. com 2003. "Thus the disciples of Christ acquired the knowledge of the Triune God in theoria (vision of God) and by revelation. It was revealed to them that God is one essence in three hypostases. "
- ^ "The Blessed Trinity", G. H. Joyce, The Catholic Encyclopedia Volume XV, 1912. The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to today as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language Encyclopedia published by The Encyclopedia
- ^ The first two writers listed are mentioned in Catholic Encyclopedia: Homoousion as applying the word precisely to the relation between Christ and the Father.
- ^ History of the Christian Church Vol. 2 p. 381, Philip Schaff, (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, n. Philip Schaff ( January 1, 1819 – October 20, 1893) was a Swiss -born German -educated Protestant d. ): "The most striking point in the eschatology of the ante-Nicene age is the prominent chiliasm, or millenarianism, that is the belief of a visible reign of Christ in glory on earth with the risen saints for a thousand years, before the general resurrection and judgement. It was indeed not the doctrine of the church embodied in any creed or form of devotion, but a widely current opinion of distinguished teachers, such as Barnabas, Papias, Justin Martyr, Irenaeus, Tertullian, Methodius, and Lactantius, while Caius, Origen, Dionysius the Great, Eusebius (as afterwards Jerome and Augustin) opposed it. "
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Millenarianism
- ^ Not all Jews believed in resurrection. The Sadducees rejected all scripture but the Torah and denied the resurrection as an innovation. The Sadducees were members of a Jewish sect founded in the second century BC, possibly as a political party term " Torah " ( Hebrew: תּוֹרָה "teaching" or "instruction" sometimes translated as "Law" most commonly refers to
- ^ Gerald O' Collins and Mario Farrugia, Catholicism: the Story of Catholic Christianity (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) p. 36; George Cross, "The Differentiation of the Roman and Greek Catholic Views of the Future Life", in The Biblical World (1912) p. 106; cf. Pastor I, iii. 7, also Ambrose, De Excessu fratris Satyri 80
- ^ Gerald O'Collins and Edward G. Farrugia, A Concise Dictionary of Theology (Edinburgh: T&T Clark, 2000) p. 27.
- ^ Encyclopædia Britannica Online: Purgatory
- ^ Henry Clarence Thiessen, Lectures in Systematic Theology, Eerdmans (1979), page 381.
- ^ Against Plato, on the Cause of the Universe.
- ^ For instance, Tertullian in [http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/0310.htm De anima, chapter 7. Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Anglicised as Tertullian, (ca
- ^ For instance, the Latin translation of Origen's De Principiis by Rufinus Book IV, chapter I
- ^ "In Latin, St Jerome translated Hades as infernus, the Roman name for the underworld and thus an exact cognate" (Christian History
- ^ Church History 5. 28. 7-12, Eusebius.
- ^ "Monarchians", John Chapman, The Catholic Encyclopedia Volume X, 1911. John Chapman may refer to Johnny Appleseed, born "John Chapman" pioneer nurseryman and missionary John Chapman (evangelist, Australian The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to today as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language Encyclopedia published by The Encyclopedia
- ^ "Who is the angel of the Lord?", gotQuestions?. org.
- ^ "An Angel You Ought to Know", Loren Jacobs, Jews for Jesus. Jews for Jesus is a Christian evangelistic organization that focuses specifically on the conversion of Jews to Christianity, viewing its followers
- ^ "The Angel of the Lord: Who Is He?", Biblical Artefacts And Studies.
- ^ Dialogue with Trypho 34, Justin Martyr. Saint Justin Martyr (also Justin the Martyr, Justin of Caesarea, Justin the Philosopher, Latin Iustinus Martyr or Flavius
- ^ For a detailed study of the significance Justin saw in the title of "Angel" given to the Messiah in the Septuagint version of Isaiah 9:6, the then most widely known version of that text, see "Christ As Angel: The Reclamation Of A Primitive Title", Günther Juncker, Trinity Journal 15:2 (Fall 1994): 221–250. The Septuagint (ˈsɛptuədʒɪnt or simply " LXX " is the Koine Greek version of the Hebrew Bible, translated in stages between the The Trincoll Journal (Trincoll Journal is a WebZine It was produced by a student group at Trinity College in Hartford Connecticut from 1992 until it became defunct in the
- ^ Hunt (2003). Pp 10-11.
- ^ Esler (2004). Pp 893-894.
- ^ History of Dogma II.III.3
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Adoptianism
- ^ a b c d Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3): article Arianism
- ^ a b c Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (Oxford University Press 2005 ISBN 978-0-19-280290-3): article Arius
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Ebionites
- ^ Understanding the Bible, Stephen L Harris. Stephen L Harris is Professor and Chair Department of Humanities and Religious Studies at California State University Sacramento. Palo Alto: Mayfield. 1985.
- ^ The Community of the Beloved Disciple, Raymond E. Brown, Paulist Press. Raymond Edward Brown ( May 22, 1928 - August 8, 1998) was an American Roman Catholic Priest and Biblical (French translation: La communauté du disciple bien-aimé Les Éditions du Cerf, Paris 1983 ISBN 2-204-02000-1), pp. 117-134
- ^ Beyond Belief,Elaine Pagels, 2003. Elaine Pagels, née Hiesey (born February 13, 1943) is the Harrington Spear Paine Professor of Religion at Princeton University
- ^ No Longer Jews: The Search for Gnostic Origins, Carl B. Smith, Hendrickson Publishers (September 2004). ISBN-13: 978-1565639447
- ^ Macuch, Rudolf (1965). Handbook of Classical and Modern Mandaic. Berlin: De Gruyter & Co. , 61 fn. 105.
- ^ "MARCION", Encyclopædia Britannica 1911 ed. The Encyclopædia Britannica is a general English-language encyclopaedia published by Encyclopædia Britannica Inc , Volume VI7, p. 693.
- ^ "Marcion and Marcionite Gnosticism", Cky J. Carrigan, Ph. D. , On Truth, November 1996.
- ^ Metzger, Bruce. Canon of the NT ISBN 978-0-19-826180-3; The Catholic Encyclopedia of 1913 characterized Marcion as "perhaps the most dangerous foe Christianity has ever known. The Catholic Encyclopedia, also referred to today as the Old Catholic Encyclopedia, is an English-language Encyclopedia published by The Encyclopedia "; Harnack's Origin of the New Testament: "Marcion, on the contrary, treats the Catholic Church as one that “follows the Testament of the Creator-God,” and directs the full force of his attack against this Testament and against the falsification of the Gospel and of the Pauline Epistles by the original Apostles and the writers of the Gospels. He would necessarily have dealt with the two Testaments of the Catholic Church if the Church had already possessed a New Testament. His polemic would necessarily have been much less simple if he had been opposed to a Church which, by possessing a New Testament side by side with the Old Testament, had ipso facto placed the latter under the shelter of the former. In fact Marcion’s position towards the Catholic Church is intelligible, in the full force of its simplicity, only under the supposition that the Church had not yet in her hand any “litera scripta Novi Testamenti. ”"
- ^ It may be that he employed an amanuensis, only occasionally writing himself, for example see Galatians 6:11, Romans 16:22, 1Corinthians 16:21, Colossians 4:18, 2Thessalonians 3:17, Philemon 1:19. Amanuensis əˌmænjuˈɛnsɪs is a Latin word adopted in various languages including English for certain persons performing a function by hand either writing down the words of another Joseph Barber Lightfoot in his Commentary on the Epistle to the Galatians writes: "At this point [Gal 6:11] the Apostle takes the pen from his amanuensis, and the concluding paragraph is written with his own hand. Joseph Barber Lightfoot ( April 13, 1828 &ndash December 21, 1889) was an English theologian and Bishop of Durham From the time when letters began to be forged in his name (2 Thess 2:2; 3:17) it seems to have been his practice to close with a few words in his own handwriting, as a precaution against such forgeries… In the present case he writes a whole paragraph, summing up the main lessons of the epistle in terse, eager, disjointed sentences. He writes it, too, in large, bold characters (Gr. pelikois grammasin), that his handwriting may reflect the energy and determination of his soul. "
- ^ Harris (1985). Stephen L Harris is Professor and Chair Department of Humanities and Religious Studies at California State University Sacramento. Pp 263-268.
- ^ White (2004). Pp 446-447.
- ^ Philip R. Davies in The Canon Debate, page 50: "With many other scholars, I conclude that the fixing of a canonical list was almost certainly the achievement of the Hasmonean dynasty. "
- ^ White (2004). Pp 446-447.
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Fathers of the Church
- ^ Richardson (1953). Pp 16-17.
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Rule of Faith
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Creed. The verse cited contains the tripartite formula "in the name of the Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy Spirit".
- ^ a b c Bowker, John (ed. ). The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions. New York: Oxford University Press. 1997
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article submersion
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Baptism
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Infant Baptism
- ^ Gregg Strawbridge, Ph.D.; John Calvin, Institutes of the Christian Religion; Jordan Bajis; Bryan Chapell; Gregg Strawbridge (response to objections)
- ^ "He (Jesus) came to save all through means of Himself — all, I say, who through Him are born again to God and children, infants, and boys, and youths, and old men" (Adversus Haereses, ii, 22, 4)
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Infant Baptism
- ^ Paul King Jewett, Infant Baptism and the Covenant of Grace, (Eerdmans 1978), page 127.
- ^ Homilies on Leviticus 8. 3. 11; Commentary on Romans 5. 9; and Homily on Luke 14.5
- ^ "The delay of baptism is preferable; principally, however, in the case of little children. For why is it necessary . . . that the sponsors likewise should be thrust into danger? . . . For no less cause must the unwedded also be deferred - in whom the ground of temptation is prepared, alike in such as never were wedded by means of their maturity, and in the widowed by means of their freedom - until they either marry, or else be more fully strengthened for continence" (On Baptism 18).
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Penance
- ^ The word "Agape" in the inscription has led some to interpret the scene as that of an Agape feast. However, the phrase within which the word appears is "Agape misce nobis" (Agape, mix for us, i. e. prepare the wine for us), making it more likely that Agape is the name of the woman holding the cup. A very similar fresco and inscription elsewhere in the same catacomb has, in exactly the same position within the fresco, the words "Misce mi Irene" (Mix for me, Irene). A reproduction of this other fresco can be seen at Catacombe dei Ss. Marcellino e Pietro, where it is accompanied by the explanation (in Italian) "One of the most frequently recurring scenes in the paintings is that of the banquet, generally interpreted as a symbolic representation of the joys of the afterlife, but in which it may be possible to discern a realistic presentation of the agapae, the funeral banquets held to commemorate the dead person. " Agape, like Irene, may thus be the name of the person buried where the fresco was painted.
- ^ . . . after we have thus washed him who has been convinced (converted to Christianity) and has assented to our teaching, we bring him to the place where those who are called brethren are assembled, in order that we may offer hearty prayers in common for ourselves and for the baptized person, . . . so that we may be saved with an everlasting salvation. Having ended the prayers, we salute one another with a kiss. There is then brought to the president of the brethren bread and a cup of wine mixed with water; and he taking them, gives praise and glory to the Father of the universe, through the name of the Son and of the Holy Ghost, and offers thanks at considerable length for our being counted worthy to receive these things at His hands. And when he has concluded the prayers and thanksgivings, all the people present express their assent by saying Amen. . . . And when the president has given thanks, and all the people have expressed their assent, those who are called by us deacons give to each of those present to partake of the bread and wine mixed with water over which the thanksgiving was pronounced, and to those who are absent they carry away a portion. . . . And this food is called among us Eucharistia or [the Eucharist], of which no one is allowed to partake but the man who believes that the things which we teach are true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and who is so living as Christ has enjoined. . . . we been taught that the food which is blessed by the prayer of His word, and from which our blood and flesh by transmutation are nourished, is the flesh and blood of that Jesus who was made flesh. For the apostles, in the memoirs composed by them, which are called Gospels, have thus delivered unto us what was enjoined upon them; that Jesus took bread, and when He had given thanks, said, "This do ye in remembrance of Me, this is My body;" and that, after the same manner, having taken the cup and given thanks, He said, "This is My blood;" and gave it to them alone. The First Apology of Justin.
- ^ Bruce Metzger Metzger, Bruce. Bruce Manning Metzger ( 9 February, 1914, Middletown Pennsylvania – 13 February, 2007, Princeton New Jersey) was a professor The canon of the New Testament. 1997
- ^ Canon VI of the First Council of Nicea, which closes the period under consideration in this article, reads: "Let the ancient customs in Egypt, Libya and Pentapolis prevail, that the Bishop of Alexandria have jurisdiction in all these, since the like is customary for the Bishop of Rome also. The First Council of Nicaea, held in Nicaea in Bithynia (present-day İznik in Turkey) convoked by the Roman Emperor Constantine Likewise in Antioch and the other provinces, let the Churches retain their privileges. And this is to be universally understood, that if any one be made bishop without the consent of the Metropolitan, the great Synod has declared that such a man ought not to be a bishop . . . " As can be seen, the title of "Patriarch", later applied to some of these bishops, was not used by the Council: "Nobody can maintain that the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria were called patriarchs then, or that the jurisdiction they had then was co-extensive with what they had afterward, when they were so called" (ffoulkes, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, quoted in Volume XIV of Philip Schaff's The Seven Ecumenical Councils). Originally a patriarch was a man who exercised autocratic authority as a Pater familias over an extended family
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Bible Translations: Aquila: "Two things, however, rendered the Septuagint unwelcome in the long run to the Jews. Its divergence from the accepted text (afterward called the Masoretic) was too evident; and it therefore could not serve as a basis for theological discussion or for homiletic interpretation. The Masoretic Text ( MT) is the Hebrew text of the Jewish Bible ( Tanakh) This distrust was accentuated by the fact that it had been adopted as Sacred Scripture by the new faith. A revision in the sense of the canonical Jewish text was necessary. This revision was made by a proselyte, Aquila, who lived during the reign of Hadrian (117-138). Proselyte, from the Koine Greek προσήλυτος/proselytos, is used in the Septuagint for "stranger" i Aquila of Sinope was a 2nd Century AD native of Pontus in Anatolia known for producing an exceedingly literal translation of the Hebrew Bible into "
- ^ "Worship in the Early Church", Richard C. Leonard, Laudemont Ministries 1997.
- ^ Annals XV, 44.
- ^ The Life of Claudius, chapter 25
- ^ "In 49-50, in consequence of dissensions among them regarding the advent of the Messiah, (the Jews) were forbidden to hold religious services. The leaders in the controversy, and many others of the Jewish citizens, left the city. "
- ^ Early Christian Writings: Information on Suetonius
- ^ H. Dixon Slingerland, Claudian Policymaking and the Early Imperial Repression of Judaism at Rome. South Florida Studies in the History of Judaism (1997) 89-150
- ^ Stambaugh (1986). Pg 164-165.
- ^ Francis (1997). Pg 80.
- ^ Stambaugh (1986). Pg 165.
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Jerusalem (Before A.D. 71): III. HISTORY D. Under the Roman Domination; until A. D. 70
- ^ St. James the Less: "Then we lose sight of James till St. Paul, three years after his conversion (A. D. 37), went up to Jerusalem. . . . On the same occasion, the "pillars" of the Church, James, Peter, and John "gave to me (Paul) and Barnabas the right hands of fellowship; that we should go unto the Gentiles, and they unto the circumcision" (Galatians 2:9). "
- ^ Church History, Book IV, chapter V
- ^ see H. H. Ben-Sasson below
- ^ Schaff's Seven Ecumenical Councils: First Nicaea: Canon VII
- ^ H. H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 0674397312, page 334: "Jerusalem was in fact built up again [after the revolt, 135], but as a pagan Roman city named Aelia Capitolina, after the emperor Aelius Adrianus and the tutelary god of Rome. Jews were forbidden to live in the city and were allowed to visit it only once a year, on the Ninth of Ab, to mourn the ruins of their holy Temple. Tisha B'Av (תשעה באב or he ט׳ באב "the Ninth of Av," is an annual fast day in Judaism, named for the ninth day ( Tisha In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Iudaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature. Kingdom of Judea redirects here For the 10th-6th century BCE kingdom see Kingdom of Judah Iudaea ( Hebrew: יהודה Standard The History of Palestine is the account of events in the greater geographic area in the Southern Levant known as Palestine, which includes not just the West Bank "; Jewish Encyclopedia: Bar Kokba and Bar Kokba War: Cause of the War: "It was probably at this time that Hadrian desired to erect the Roman colony Ælia Capitolina upon the ruins of Jerusalem, and to replace the old Temple by one dedicated to Jupiter Capitolinus. In Roman mythology, Jupiter was the king of the gods and the god of Sky and Thunder. Dio Cassius, at least, mentions this fact as the cause of the war, while Eusebius and other ecclesiastical historians refer to them as a result. It is therefore assumed that the building was already begun before the war, but interrupted by it (Münter, Graetz, Gregorovius). "
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Antioch
- ^ Acts 11:26
- ^ "Their jurisdiction extended over the adjoining territories . . . The earliest bishops exercising such powers. . . were those of Rome (over the whole or part of Italy), Alexandria (over Egypt and Libya), and Antioch (over large parts of Asia Minor). These three were recognized by the Council of Nicaea (325). " Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article patriarch (ecclesiastical)
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Caesarea Palaestinae
- ^ Jewish Encyclopedia: Alexandria, Egypt— Ancient
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Alexandria
- ^ Schaff's Seven Ecumenical Councils: The Seventh: Letter to Pope Hadrian: "Therefore, O most holy Head (Caput)", "And after this, may there be no further schism and separation in the one holy Catholic and Apostolic Church, of which Christ our true God is the Head. "; Pope Hadrian's letter: "the holy Catholic and Apostolic Roman Church your spiritual mother . . . the head of all Churches"; Canon IV: "For Peter the supreme head (ἡ κερυφαία ἀκρότης) of the Apostles"; Letter to the Emperor and Empress: "Christ our God (who is the head of the Church)".
- ^ a b c d Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford dictionary of the Christian church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Rome (early Christian)
- ^ First Council of Nicaea, canon VI
- ^ "Patriarch (ecclesiastical). A title dating from the 6th cent. , for the bishops of the five chief sees of Christendom . . . Their jurisdiction extended over the adjoining territories . . . The earliest bishops exercising such powers, though not so named, were those of Rome (over the whole or part of Italy, Alexandria (over Egypt and Libya), and Antioch (over large parts of Asia Minor)" [Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Patriarch (ecclesiastical)]. "Nobody can maintain that the bishops of Antioch and Alexandria were called patriarchs then, or that the jurisdiction they had then was co-extensive with what they had afterward, when they were so called" (ffoulkes, Dictionary of Christian Antiquities, quoted in Volume XIV of Philip Schaff's The Seven Ecumenical Councils).
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Victor I, St
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Valerian; Schaff's History Vol 2 Chap 2 §22
- ^ Catholic Encyclopedia: Asia Minor: Spread of Christianity in Asia Minor
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Diatessaron
- ^ Cross, F. L. , ed. The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church. New York: Oxford University Press. 2005, article Didascalia Apostolorum
- ^ T. K. Joseph (1955). Six St. Thomases Of South India. University of California, 27.
- ^ He was baptized only shortly before his death (Bryn Mawr Classical Review).
See also
- History of Christianity
- Constantine I and Christianity
- Constantinian shift
- History of Christian Torah-submission
- Council of Jerusalem
- Proselyte
- Ante-Nicene Fathers
External links
- Early Christians
- Early Christian Writings
- Christian Classics Ethereal Library
- Early Church Texts
- Catholic Encyclopedia: The Fathers of the Church
- PBS Frontline: The First Christians
- "The Old Testament of the Early Church" Revisited, Albert C. Sundberg, Jr.
- The Jewish Roman World of Jesus
- From the Jesus-people to Early Christianity - 30 - 110 AD
- First Christians and Rome
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